Tekstit viraston työssä : Tutkimus etuuspäätösten kielestä ja konteksteista

Texts in the work of a city department: A study of the language and context of benefit decisions This dissertation examines documents granting or denying the access to municipal services. The data consist of decisions on transport services made by the Social Services Department of the City of Helsinki. The circumstances surrounding official texts and their language and production are studied through textual analysis and interviews. The dissertation describes the textual features of the above decisions, and seeks to explain such features. Also explored are the topics and methods of genre studies, especially the relationship between text and context. Although the approach is linguistic, the dissertation also touches on research in social work and administrative decision making, and contributes to more general discussion on the language and duties of public administration. My key premise is that a text is more than a mere psycholinguistic phenomenon. Rather, a text is also a physical object and the result of certain production processes. This dissertation thus not only describes genre-specific features, but also sheds light on the work that generates the texts examined. Textual analysis and analyses of discursive practices are linked through an analysis of intertextuality: written decisions are compared with other application documents, such as expert statements and the applications themselves. The study shows that decisions are texts governed by strict rules and written with modest resources. Textwork is organised as hierarchical mass production. The officials who write decisions rely on standard phrases extracted from a computer system. This allows them to produce texts of uniform quality which have been approved by the department s legal experts. Using a computer system in text production does not, however, serve all the needs of the writers. This leads to many problems in the texts themselves. Intertextual analysis indicates that medical argumentation weighs most heavily in an application process, although a social appraisal should be carried out when deciding on applications for transport services. The texts reflect a hierarchy in which a physician ranks above the applicant, and the department s own expert physician ranks above the applicant s physician. My analysis also highlights good, but less obvious practices. The social workers and secretaries who write decisions must balance conflicting demands. They use delicate linguistic means to adjust the standard phrases to suit individual cases, and employ subtle strategies of politeness. The dissertation suggests that the customer contact staff who write official texts should be allowed to make better use of their professional competence. A more general concern is that legislation and new management strategies require more and more documentation. Yet, textwork is only rarely taken into account in the allocation of resources. Keywords: (Critical) text analysis, genre analysis, administration, social work, administrative language, texts, genres, context, intertextuality, discursive practices

Oireista puhuminen lääkärin vastaanotolla : Keskustelunanalyyttinen tutkimus lääkärin kysymyksistä

Talking about symptoms during medical consultation. A conversation analytical study of doctors questions This linguistically oriented conversation analytic study investigates doctors questions and patients answers during medical consultation. The focus is on 1) the syntactic constructions of the doctors questions concerning the patients symptoms, 2) the function of different types of syntactic constructions, and 3) the sequential placement of the questions. The data used in the study consist of 57 videotaped doctor patient encounters in Finnish primary health care. The study shows that the traditional division between open and closed questions is vague and needs to be examined further. Open wh-questions and closed yes/no questions form heterogeneous classes: some of the closed questions can be treated as open and vice versa. Wh-questions which occur during the physical examination are often constructed to elicit short answers. These questions can consist of one word (e.g. milloin when ) which does not move to a new topic but supports the unfinished activity of palpation. During the verbal examination, wh-questions are formulated to elicit long descriptions as answers. For example, by asking mites + X ( what about + X), the doctor can open up a new topic and simultaneously give the patient the opportunity to discuss the topic from his/her perspective. Almost half of the yes/no questions project longer than just a minimal answer (e.g. a short confirmation or rejection). In these questions, the doctors use verbal elements which show that more than just a minimal answer is required. They can, for example, add an indefinite element (joku some or mitään any ) to a yes/no question, add a conjunctive vai ( or ) to the end of the question and thus open a space for various types of answers, or add a suggested answer to the question. In addition, the results show that declarative questions not only check understanding, but display the doctor s diagnosing process, check whether the doctor can move on to the next topic or action, and display implicitly the doctor s idea of what is connected and what is relevant. One aim of the study is to describe how different syntactic structures work together. A typical question chain consists of two or three questions. The first question is an open wh-question that elicits a new topic and creates different types of presuppositions. Contingent questions are constructed as yes/no questions that seek an affirmative answer or as declarative sentences that seek confirmation. Contingent questions can function as repair initiators and thus support achieving mutual understanding. Therefore, they are tools for the doctor to construct a description of the medical problem collaboratively with the patient. The results add to the results of previous studies on questions in medical consultation, but also suggest some corrections. They provide additional evidence for the idea that different types of syntactic constructions are useful in different types of settings. However, they also show that the variety of questions that doctors use is more manifold and diverse than the variety introduced in earlier studies and textbooks.

Toiminta ja tarkoite : Tutkimus suomen pronominista

The study describes the use and meaning of the Finnish demonstrative pronouns, focus being on the pronoun "tämä" (roughly 'this'). The Finnish demonstrative system is a three way one, the other two demonstratives are "tuo" ('that') and "se" ('it'). The data consisted of 12 half hours of video- and tape-recorded face-to-face and telephone conversations. The method for the study was ethnomethodological conversation analysis (CA); in addition to CA, the theoretical framework consisted of functional linguistics and linguistic anthropology. First, the study dealt with the syntactic distribution of the three demonstratives. The pronouns were analysed according to whether they are before or after the verb, and whether they compose an NP on their own or are determinants of a lexical NP. The study suggested that the form and the placement of the NP presents the referent as continuous/discontinuous or given/new. Givenness of a referent was defined as "identified adequately for the purposes of the on-going action". The so-called dislocated utterances were considered separately. It was found that left-dislocations are used for inserting referents in a particular relation to the on-going activity. Right-dislocations offer a solution for the sometimes competing motivations of newness and continuity: they are used for securing the identifiability of a referent that is implied to be continuous. Second, the study focussed on analysing the meaning of the pronouns according to three dimensions of reference: referential, indexical and relational. It was found that the demonstratives can organize interactional or spatial context. When organizing interactional context, the demonstrative pronouns express the role of identifying the referent in relation to the on-going activity. The pronoun "tämä" expresses that the referent is referentially open and the characterization of the referent is given in the on-going turn. Furthermore, it expresses asymmetry of the indexical ground: it expresses that the participants of a conversation do not share a mutual understanding of the activity at that particular time. In addition, the referent of the pronoun "tämä" is central for understanding the on-going action. Centrality could be understood as the relational feature of the pronoun. However, it is a consequence of the referential and indexical features of "tämä". The pronoun "tuo" also expresses referential openness, but it implies indexical symmetry. The pronoun "se" implies that the referent is known enough, and implies indexical symmetry. When used spatially, the pronouns may refer to a physical space or to a situation. They express or imply that the speaker is inside or outside the referent. The pronoun "tämä" implies inclusion, and the pronoun "tuo" expresses exclusion.

"Ei vittu, mennään röökille" : tutkimus sitaattien tehtävistä ja tekemisestä kaunokirjallis-journalistisissa lehtijutuissa

This research deals with direct speech quotations in magazine articles through two questions: As my major research question, I study the functions of speech quotations based on a data consisting of six literary-journalistic magazine articles. My minor research question builds on the fact that there is no absolute relation between the sound waves of the spoken language and the graphemes of the written one. Hence, I study the general thoughts on how utterances should be arranged in the written form based on a large review of literature and textbooks on journalistic writing as well as interviews I have made with magazine writers and editors, and the Council of Mass Media in Finland. To support my main research questions, I also examine the reference system of the Finnish language, define the aspects of the literary-journalistic article and study vernacular cues in written speech quotations. FUNCTIONS OF QUOTATIONS. I demonstrate the results of my analysis with a six-pointed apparatus. It is a continuum which extends from the structural level of text, all the way through the explicit functions, to the implicit functions of the quotation. The explicit functions deal with the question of what is the content, whereas the implicit ones base mainly on the question how the content is presented. 1. The speech quotation is an distinctive element in the structure of the magazine article. Thereby it creates a rhythm for the text, such as episodes, paragraphs and clauses. 2. All stories are told through a plot, and in magazine articles, the speech quotations are one of the narrative elements that propel the plot forward. 3. The speech quotations create and intensify the location written in the story. This location can be a physical one but also a social one, in which case it describes the atmosphere and mood in the physical environment and of the story characters. 4. The quotations enhance the plausibility of the facts and assumptions presented in the article, and moreover, when a text is placed between quotation marks, the reader can be assured that the text has been reproduced in the authentic verbatim way. 5. Speech quotations tell about the speaker's unique way of using language and the first-hand experiences of the person quoted. 6. The sixth function of speech quotations is probably the most essential one: the quotations characterize the quoted speaker. In other words, in addition to the propositional content of the utterance, the way in which it has been said transmits a lot of the speaker's character (e.g. nature, generation, behaviour, education, attitudes etc.). It is important to notice, that these six functions of my speech quotation apparatus do not exlude one another. It means that every speech quotation basically includes all of the functions discussed above. However, in practice one or more of them have a principal role, while the others play a subsidiary role. HOW TO MAKE QUOTATIONS? It is not suprising that the field of journalism (textbooks, literature and interviews) holds heterogeneous and unestablished thoughts on how the spoken language should be arranged in written quotations, which is my minor research question. However, the most frequent and distinctive aspects can be depicted in a couple of words: serve the reader and respect the target person. Very common advice on how to arrange the quotations is − firstly, to delete such vernacular cues (e.g. repetitions and ”expletives”) that are common in spoken communication, but purposeless in the written language. − secondly, to complete the phonetic word forms of the spoken language into a more reader-friendly form (esim. punanen → punainen, 'red'), and − thirdly, to enhance the independence of clauses from the (authentic) context and to toughen reciprocal links between them. According to the knowledge of the journalistic field, utterances recorded in different points in time of an interview or a data-collecting session can be transferred as consecutive quotations or even merged together. However, if there is any temporal-spatial location written in the story, the dialogue of the story characters should also be situated in an authentic context – chronologically in the right place in the continuum of the events. To summarize, the way in which the utterances should be arranged into written speech quotations is always situationally-specific − and it is strongly based on the author's discretion.

Paavo Ravila ja Leonard Bloomfield kielitieteen oppihistoriassa : Vertaileva tutkimus tutkijankuvasta ja tieteenfilosofiasta

Tämä tutkielma käsittelee Paavo Ravilan (1902–1974) ja Leonard Bloomfieldin (1887–1949) tieteenfilosofisia näkemyksiä ja heistä muodostunutta tutkijankuvaa. Työn näkökulma on oppihistoriallinen, ja sen tavoitteena on selvittää Ravilan ja Bloomfieldin teoreettisten näkemysten yhtäläisyyksiä. Työn pääasiallinen lähdekirjallisuus sisältää sekä kotimaista että kansainvälistä kielitieteen historiankirjoitusta. Aineistona on Ravilan ja Bloomfieldin teoreettisen tason kirjoitukset kielitieteestä ja tieteenfilosofiasta; näin ollen heidän kielitieteelliset tutkimuksensa jäävät työn ulkopuolelle. Työtä varten on käytetty myös arkistolähteitä sekä ulkomailta että Suomesta. Ravilan kansainvälisyyttä käsiteltäessä arvokasta aineistoa ovat varsinkin yhdysvaltalaisten yliopistojen arkistoista löytynyt kirjeenvaihto ja muu arkistomateriaali. Luvussa 2 esitellään yleistä kielitieteen historiaa 1800-luvulta 1960-luvulle. Luvussa 3 käsitellään Ravilan ja Bloomfieldin elämää ja uraa ja analysoidaan heistä muodostunutta tutkijankuvaa. Luvussa 4 käsitellään niitä tieteenfilosofisia kysymyksiä, joissa Ravilan ja Bloomfieldin ajatusten samankaltaisuus parhaiten tulee esille: empirismiä, positivismia, merkitystä, formalismia sekä synkronian ja diakronian suhdetta. Ravila ja Bloomfield painottivat empiristisen asennoitumisen tärkeyttä kielitieteessä erityisesti suhteessa aineistoon ja siitä tehtäviin päätelmiin. Lisäksi molemmat olivat positivisteja ja vastustivat siksi sellaisia selityksiä, joita ei voi perustella aineistosta käsin suorien havaintojen avulla. Myös molemmilla toistuva tieteellisyyden vaatimus on johdettavissa positivistisesta asennoitumisesta. Kielitieteen oppihistoriassa Ravilan ja Bloomfieldin tutkijankuva on erilainen varsinkin suhteessa merkityksentutkimukseen, mutta heidän kannanottojensa yksityiskohtaisempi tarkastelu osoittaa, että heidän näkemyksistään voidaan löytää yllättäviä samankaltaisuuksia. Myös synkronian ja diakronian suhdetta tutkittaessa voidaan havaita yhtymäkohtia: synkronistina pidetty Bloomfield ja diakronistina pidetty Ravila pitivät molemmat parhaana lähestymistapana kieleen synkronian ja diakronian yhdistävää tutkimusotetta. Vertailemalla Ravilan ja Bloomfieldin tieteenfilosofisia näkemyksiä voidaan havaita, että heidän käsityksensä kielitieteestä on monilta osin yhteneväinen. Lisäksi vertailu avaa mielenkiintoisia näkökulmia Ravilan suhteeseen suomalaiseen kielitieteeseen. Esimerkiksi positivismin mukainen metafysiikkavastaisuus erottaa hänet ajan eurooppalaisesta kielitieteestä ja toisaalta yhdistää häntä yhdysvaltalaiseen kielitieteeseen.

Kehittävän kuntoutuksen mahdollisuudet. : Tutkimus Aslak -kuntoutuksen työkytkennän ja asiakkuuden rakentumisesta.

The possibilities of developmental rehabilitation. A study on the construction of work relatedness and the customer in Aslak rehabilitation The challenge of work-related rehabilitation is to anticipate the factors threatening work ability and to affect them. The purpose of this study was to analyze how work-related rehabilitation is constructed in practice and what are the challenges and, at the same time, the possibilities of an innovative transformation of rehabilitation when trying to achive this goal. The theoretical basis is cultural-historical activity theory and developmental work research. Based on a historical analysis, I studied rehabilitation activity empirically using the data gathered from one Aslak programme (Aslak = occupationally oriented medical rehabilitation) over two years. I described and analysed the construction of Aslak using ethnographic data and interviews. The data includes audio- and video-recordings of the Aslak course, fieldnotes, documents and other materials used in the course. The study aimed to reveal rehabilitation practices from different perspectives carried out by different stakeholders and participants in the Aslak course. It focused on the Aslak trajectory produced by a multiorganizational subject. I analyzed the rehabilitation activity using the method of ethnographic analysis of infrastructure. The method of analyzing the construction of the object of rehabilititation the customer was a membership categorization analysis (MCD) based on the ethnomethodological research tradition. I analyzed the meanings denoting customers given by different parties during one Aslak process and the relations between the meanings. Based on this analysis, I studied the disturbances, ruptures, and innovations in the rehabilitation activity. The results of the study show that the infrastructure of Aslak has different basic ideas. Aslak is constructed most explicitly on the infrastructure of medical rehabilitation. The second layer has been provided with some tools of identifying and preventing well-defined occupation-specific load factors. However, it has failed to perform a new structure, as Aslak has encountered, at the same time, rapid changes in working life. The study identified some promising markers representing new kinds of work-related rehabilitation ideas, but they proved to be incomplete and fragile. As a consequence of the multilayered infrastructure, the contents of the Aslak course were split into fragmented phases and disconnected themes, which were blocked in by the master idea of medical orientation. Its relationship to work remained weak and obscure. The categorizations of customers in Aslak were manifold and contradictory. According to the results, the possibilities for transforming work-related rehabilitation lie both in changing the orientation to the customer to be more relevant to changing working life and forging the infrastructural innovations related to this change. The results showed that a new work-relatedeness would be difficult but possible to construct. What is needed is the construction of an infrastructure that will support a coherent master idea of work-related rehabilitation over the entire trajectory of a process. A shared idea of a rehabilitation object must be constructed in close collaboration between different stakeholders, such as Kela (the Social Insurance Institution of Finland), occupational health services, work organizations, and rehabilitation institutes. Key words: Aslak rehabilitation, work-related rehabilitation, development of rehabilitation, customer of rehabilitation, developmental work research, analysis of infrastructure, membership category analysis

Käsityksistä ajatuksen poluille : Ammattikorkeakoulun tutkimus- ja kehitystoiminnan kehittäminen

This study deals with the formation of the idea of research and development (r&d) activity at one particular university of applied sciences in Finland. In this study I proceed from examining the conceptions of management regarding r&d-activities to exploring the development of the complex concept that guides these r&d-activities. The aim of this study is, first, to describe conceptions of r&d-activities, and then, second, to describe the formation of a new concept for r&d-activities in one field of study at the university of applied sciences. I used phenomenographic analysis to elucidate the conceptions and collected the data in interviews of personnel (22) who belong to the management of the university of applied sciences. The data for analysing the obstacles faced and the ways of overcoming them during the formation process of the new concept consist of the video-recorded material from ten change laboratory sessions held for the specific field of study at the university of applied sciences. In researching the formation of the concept of the activity, such research and analysis methods are used in which the concept is understood as a material construction, and with the help of which one can work out the formation of the concept during the development process. When the systematic development of the r&d-work was underway, the management of the university of applied sciences held differing views regarding the content, target, factors and organisation of the r&d-activities, as well as regarding the position of dissertations as a part of r&d-activity. Obstacles for developing rd concerned the unclear object and outcomes of the new activity, not having the tools (such as adequate know-how) for the new activity and not having found the necessary solutions for the distribution of work. In addition the rules that quide the activities of the university of applied sciences did not support working according to the new way. To improve r&d-activity, the school’s management defined three development strategies to encourage adequate rd-activity to support working life, regional development and learning. The strategies were based on the expansion of existing methods, such as service activities, dissertation work and the research activities of the teachers. Of the three possible routes, the concept of dissertation in this study was expanded to integrate the services of organisation development and the occupational growth of the students. A group of teachers in the field of social and health studies participated in the development work. The change laboratory method was used as a tool for this work. Analysis of the cognitive trails indicated that, in addition to the cycle of expansive learning activities, microcycles with different purposes can exist. According to Cussins (1992), something already in existence in each microcycle is destabilised, and something else is stabilised to replace it. In this study three microcycles were identified, during which the teachers first destabilised the existing concepts of dissertation work that guided their thinking, and then began to use new concepts to structure their thinking. Secondly, they undermined the existing concepts with material structure that defined their practical work, and developed new practical models to replace them. Thirdly, the problems accumulating in researching and testing the new activities caused the developers to destabilise the r&d-strategies of the university of applied sciences and to define a new conceptual model for r&d-work in the field. During this third cycle, the teachers developed a research arena model, which was a significant expansive innovation. In the cognitive trails developing the new concept for the r&d-activity, the teachers indeed faced the obstacles the management had described as their conceptions. These obstacles manifested themselves as contradictions. During the development process, the nature of the obstacles (i.e. contradictions) changed as the development proceeded. Solving the first and second degree contradictions highlighted the third and fourth degree contradictions. To overcome the obstacles, the teachers had to to articulate the value and motive of the development work throughout the development process. Developing the new concept for r&d-activity required many reconfigurations of practical solutions to overcome the obstacles. Developing the new concept for r&d-activity, both at the level of representations and of new practices, requires universities of applied sciences to adopt new methods in which the actors are partake in construction of new concepts of activity through adequate discussion, analysis and debate. R&d -activity can progress, if instead of implementing partial solutions, the totality of the activities (i.e. the group of partial solutions acting together) will be constructed. The development of the activity system requires many simultaneous changes as well as wide-ranging know-how and discussion related to these changes. What is perhaps most important, however, is that the group of developers mature into a determined collective actor which can engage in many agentive actions. The development of the agency is fundamental to progress.

Vuorovaikutus ääniterapiassa : Keskustelunanalyyttinen tutkimus harjoittelun rakenteesta, terapeutin antamasta palautteesta ja oppimisesta

This conversation analytical study analyses the interactional practices adopted by speech therapists and their clients during their training in voice therapy. This study also describes how learning takes place during the therapy process. In contrast to traditional voice therapy studies, change is examined here by using qualitative research methodology, namely conversation analysis. This study describes the structures of interaction in voice therapy, shows how the shortcomings in the client s performance are evaluated and corrected and finally, how the voice training sequence and the participation changes during therapy. The database consists of 51 videotaped voice therapy sessions from six clients with voice disorders. The analytic focus is on the practices in one voice training exercise of the trilled /r/. All the sequences of this exercise (in total 36) and all adjacency pairs within (N = 627) were transcribed and analysed in detail. This study shows that voice training consists of successive model imitation adjacency pairs. This adjacency pair works as a resource in voice training. Furthermore, the use of this particular adjacency pair is an institutional practice in all therapies in this study. The structure of interaction in voice training sequences resembles the practices found in aphasia therapy and in speech therapy of children, as well as the practices of educational and counselling interaction and physiotherapy. More than half of the adjacency pairs were expanded to three (or more) part structures as client s responses were typically followed by therapist s feedback. With their feedback turns, therapists: 1) maintain training practice, 2) evaluate the problem of client s performance, 3) deliver information, 4) activate the client to observe the performance and 5) assist her in correcting the performance. This study describes the four different ways that therapists help their clients to improve the performance after encountering a problem. The longitudinal data shows that learning in therapy is manifested in the changing participation. As clients learn to identify their voice features, they can participate in evaluating or correcting their performances by themselves. This study describes the recurrent professional practices of voice therapists and shows how the institutional commitments of voice therapy are managed in and through talk and interaction. The study also provides detailed description of the management of help in voice training. By describing the interaction in training sequences, this study expands the conception of voice rehabilitation and how it can be researched. The results demonstrate that the learning process and therapy outcomes can be assessed by analysing interaction in therapy. Moreover, this analysis lays the foundation for a novel understanding of the practices in speech therapy and for the development of speech therapy theory. By revealing the activities of interaction, it also makes it possible to discuss them explicitly with speech therapy students. Key words: voice therapy, conversation analysis, institutional interaction, learning, change in participation, feedback, evaluation, error correction, self-repair

Asiakkaan ja asiantuntijan pedagoginen suhde : Fenomenologinen tutkimus fysioterapiatilanteista asiakkaiden ja fysioterapeuttien kokemana

Väitöskirja on fenomenologinen tutkimus koetusta asiakas-asiantuntijasuhteesta. Tutkimuksen tarkoituksena on selvittää ihmisten välisiä asiakas-asiantuntijatilanteiden suhteita ja siten mahdollistaa asiakkaan hyvinvointia. Tutkimuskohteena on fysioterapiasuhde, jota aiemmin on selvitetty fysioterapeutin parantamisena, asiakkaan terveyden edistämisenä tai vuorovaikutussuhteena. Tässä tutkimuksessa mielenkiinto kohdistuu fysioterapiatilanteissa koettuihin asiakkaiden ja asiantuntijoiden välisiin suhteisiin. Tutkimukseen osallistuivat 16 fysioterapiatilanteen kokenutta asiakasta ja 16 saman tilanteen kokenutta fysioterapeuttia, jotka toimivat tutkimusajankohtana erikoissairaanhoidossa, kunnan terveyskeskuksessa tai yksityisessä fysioterapialaitoksessa. Avoimen yksilöhaastattelun tehtävänä oli kuvata mitä osanottaja koki juuri päättyneessä tilanteessa. Tutkimusaineiston analyysi etenee ensimmäisessä vaiheessa fenomenologisen tutkimuksen mukaan, yksilöllisten ihmisten välisten suhteiden koettujen merkitysten ja merkityskokonaisuuksien analyysiin ja merkitysperspektiivin synteesiin. Tutkimuksen ensimmäisen vaiheen yksilöllisten merkitysperspektiivien perusteella fysioterapiasuhde osoittautui muutossuhteeksi, mikä ei ollut erilainen eri organisaatioissa, vaan siinä ilmeni pedagogisen suhteen oppimisen ja ohjauksen piirteitä. Tutkimuksen toisessa vaiheessa vietiin pedagogisen suhteen mukaisesti yhteen ja vertailtiin yksilöllisten merkitysperspektiivien merkityksiä ja merkityskokonaisuuksia asiakkaiden ja fysioterapian asiantuntijoiden näkökulmina sekä saman tilanteen yhteisenä koettuna näkökulmana. Asiakkaiden näkökulmasta suhteen voimavarana oli hänen kokema kehollinen vieraus, mikä ohjasi asiakas-asiantuntijasuhdetta neljänlaiseen asiakkaan muutossuhteeseen. Fysioterapian asiantuntijoiden näkökulmasta asiaosaamisena oli asiakkaan parantaminen liikkeen tai toiminnan avulla, mikä ohjasi asiakas-asiantuntijasuhdetta asiantuntijan näkökulmasta erilaisiin ohjaussuhteisiin. Samassa tilanteessa asiakkaiden ja asiantuntijan yhteisenä kokemat aukeamat etenivät spontaaneista turvallisuuden ja luottavaisuuden aukeamista aktiivisiin yhteisymmärryksen ja yhteissanoituksen aukeamiin. Pedagoginen suhde avautui merkityskokonaisuuksina joko vain asiakkaalle tai asiantuntijalle tai yhteisenä koettuina pedagogisina aukeamina. Edellä mainituista kolmesta (asiakkaan, asiantuntijan, yhteisenä koettu) näkökulmasta asiakas-asiantuntijasuhde osoittautui tässä tutkimuksessa neljäksi erilaiseksi asiakkaan, asiantuntijan ja yhteytenä koetun näkökulmia yhdistäväksi pedagogiseksi prosessiksi. Tutkimuksen tulosten synteesi osoitti, että pedagogisen prosessin suuntaa muuttavat yhteytenä koettujen aukeamien väliset dialogit, joissa spontaani, yhdessä näkyvä ja yhdessä koettua sanoittava dialogihetket osoittautuivat pedagogista prosessia kääntäviksi mahdollisuuksiksi. Tämän tutkimuksen mukaan vasta aktiivinen yhteistä kieltä tuottava pedagoginen suhde mahdollistaa asiakkaan kokeman kehollisen vierauden ymmärtämisen ja yhteissanoittamisen. Sanoittamalla kokemaansa asiakas voi jakaa kokemaansa toimimattomuutta tutulla kielellä myös muiden kun tilanteessa olleiden kanssa ja siten oppia itsenäisesti ohjaamaan omaa hyvinvointiaan. Tämän tutkimusten tulosten mukaan vain yhdessä (Pentin ja Sarin) tilanteessa pedagoginen prosessi eteni yhteiseksi kieleksi. Tutkimustulokset haastavat kehittämään asiakas-asiantuntijasuhdetta siten, että pedagoginen prosessi voisi toteutua kokonaisuudessaan. Avainsanat: asiakas-asiantuntijasuhde, pedagoginen suhde, fenomenologia, kokemus, merkitysanalyysi, dialogi, fysioterapia

Learning challenges of NGOs in development : Co-operation of Finnish NGOs in Morogoro, Tanzania

Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) have gained an important role in development co-operation during the last two decades. The development funding channelled through NGOs has increased and the number of NGOs engaged in development activities, both North and South, has been growing. Supporting NGOs has been seen as one way to strengthen civil society in the South and to provide potential for enhancing more effective development than the state, and to exercise participatory development and partnership in their North-South relationships. This study focuses on learning in the co-operation practices of small Finnish NGOs in Morogoro, Tanzania. Drawing on the cultural-historical activity theory and the theory of expansive learning, in this study I understand learning as a qualitative change in the actual co-operation practices. The qualitative change, for its part, emerges out of attempts to deal with the contradictions in the present activity. I use the concept of developmental contradiction in exploring the co-operation of the small Finnish NGOs with their Tanzanian counterparts. Developmental contradiction connects learning to actual practice and its historical development. By history, in this study I refer to multiple developmental trajectories, such as trajectories of individual participants, organisations, co-operation practices and the institutional system in which the NGO-development co-operation is embedded. In the empirical chapters I explore the co-operation both in the development co-operation projects and in micro-level interaction between partners taking place within the projects. I analyse the perceptions of the Finnish participants about the different developmental trajectories, the tensions, inclusions and exclusions in the evolving object of co-operation in one project, the construction of power relations in project meetings in three projects, and the collision of explicated partnership with the emerging practice of trusteeship in one project. On the basis of the empirical analyses I elaborate four developmental contradictions and learning challenges for the co-operation. The developmental contradictions include: 1) implementing a ready-made Finnish project idea vs. taking the current activities of Tanzanian NGO as a starting point; 2) gaining experiences and cultural interaction vs. access to outside funding; 3) promoting the official tools of development co-operation in training vs. use of tools and procedures taken from the prior activities of both partners in actual practice; and 4) asymmetric relations between the partners vs. rhetoric of equal partnership. Consequently, on the basis of developmental contradictions four learning challenges are suggested: a shift from legitimation of Finnish ideas to negotiation, transcending the separate objects and finding a partly joint object, developing locally shared tools for the co-operation, and identification and reflection of the power relations in the practice of co-operation. Keywords: activity theory; expansive learning; NGO development co-operation; partnership; power

Psykoanalyysi oppimisprosessina

Tämän tutkimuksen tarkoituksena on kuvata, millaista psykoanalyysissa tapahtuva oppiminen voisi olla. Oppiminen ei esiinny S. Freudin psykodynaamisten käsitteiden joukossa, mutta käyttäytymisterapeuttisen teorian käsitteisiin se on kuulunut. Tutkimuksen viitekehys perustuu psykoanalyyttisen teorian lisäksi J. Mezirowin teoriaan pohtivasta (reflektiivisestä) ja muuntavasta (transformatiivisesta) oppimisesta, näkemyksiin ilman tietoista tarkoitusta tapahtuvasta (implisiittisestä) oppimisesta sekä emotionaalisista tekijöistä oppimisessa. Empiirisenä aineistona oli viiden psykoanalyysissa olleen henkilön seitsemän vuoden seurantaan perustuvat videohaastattelut, yhteensä 60 tuntia, Helsingin Psykoterapiaprojektin aineistosta. Haastateltavat kertoivat itsekäsityksestään, kokemuksistaan ja suhteistaan läheisiinsä, työhönsä sekä analyytikkoon. Tuloksissa esitetään haastateltavien pohdintoja, reflektiota, heidän muutos- ja oppimiskokemuksistaan sekä tunnetiloistaan. Oppimiseen liittyviä ajatus- ja tunneyhteyksiä esitetään rinnakkain. Kunkin henkilön muutoksia kuvataan myös kaavioin. Oppiminen ilmeni kerrontana uusista ”perspektiiveistä”, kokemuksille annetuista uusista merkityksistä ja tulkinnoista. Tunnetilojen hallinta, ihmissuhteet ja kyky tehdä työtä paranivat. Oppimisessa olivat olennaista itsekäsityksen muutos ja tunnetilojen pohdinta. Sekä reflektiivinen että implisiittinen oppiminen olivat tärkeitä ja tukivat toisiaan. Ne näyttävät edistävän psyykkistä hyvinvointia. Oppimisen käsite toimii käsitteellisenä siltana naapuritieteisiin. Psykoanalyysista voidaan puhua oppimisen kielellä ilman psykoanalyyttisia termejä. Aikaisemmin psykoanalyysia on pidetty psyykkisen toiminnan teoriana ja häiriöiden hoito- ja tutkimusmenetelmänä. Nyt sitä voidaan pitää myös oppimisprosessina. Avainsanat: Psykoanalyysi, reflektiivinen oppiminen, implisiittinen oppiminen, transformatiivnen oppiminen, laadullinen analyysi

ADHD-aikuisten psykologinen kuntoutus : Neljän uuden lyhytintervention tutkimus

ADHD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) is developmental neurobiological disability. In adults, the prevalence of ADHD has been estimated to be about 4 %. In addition to the difficulties of attention, the problems in executive functioning are typical. The psychiatric comorbidities are common. The most extensively studied treatments are pharmacological. There is also evidence about the usefulness of the cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) in the treatment of adults with ADHD. There are some preliminary results about the effectiveness of cognitive training and hypnosis in children, but there is no scientific proof in adults. This dissertation is based on two intervention studies. In the first study, the usefulness of the new group CBT (n = 29) and the maintenance of the symptom reduction in the follow-up of six months were studied. In the second study, the usefulness of short hypnotherapy (n = 9), short individual CBT (n = 10) and computerized cognitive training (n = 9) were examined by comparing groups with each other and to the control group (n = 10). The participation in the group CBT and the participants' satisfaction were good. There were no changes in self-reports during waiting period of three months. After the rehabilitation, the symptoms decreased. Participants having symptom reduction during rehabilitation maintained their benefit through 6-month follow-up period. In a combined ADHD symptom score based on self-reports, seven participants in the hypnotherapy, six in the CBT, two in the cognitive training and two controls improved. Using independent evaluations, improvement was found in six of the hypnotherapy, seven of the CBT, two of the cognitive training and three of the control participants. There was no treatment-related improvement in cognitive performance. Thus, in the hypnotherapy and CBT groups, some encouraging improvement was seen. In the cognitive training group, there was improvement in the trained tasks but no generalization of the improvement. The results support the earlier results from the usefulness of CBT in the treatment of adults with ADHD. Also the hypnotherapy seems a useful rehabilitation. More research is needed to evaluate the usefulness of cognitive training. These promising results warrant further studies with more participants and with longer treatment duration. Also different measures of cognitive functioning and quality of life are needed. It is important in addition to the medication to arrange psychosocial interventions for the ADHD adults.

Onko varhaisen tuen päiväkoti mahdollinen? : Tutkimus varhaiskasvatuksen yhteisöllisestä kehittämisestä

Is the early childhood day care facility possible? The research considering communal development of the early education. In Finland mothers and fathers look after 400 000 pre-school children. Half of these attend day care facilities, in which 50 000 staff are employed. The aim of this research is to develop co-operation practices within the day care centre. This research refines and expands my own interest in and knowledge of day care management and content development. The basis of the research draws upon ethnographic material covering the period 1999–2005. The day care centre chosen as a central informant was the first suburban centre founded in 1963, and it provided a rich local and welfare state research perspective. It became clear that the day care facility’s co-operation practices formed the basis of bringing up children and at the same time produced a new multi-operational and multi-layered community for child participation. Adult day care centre workers bringing up the children as a professional work and solutions defining the conditions for the work are expressed in a child’s upbringing. This obviously has an impact in where as the development of communities. From the human and community scientific point of view, the group of youngest children will take up a future position as key players in communities as essential actors and reformers. The research was carried out as multiphase and multiscientific practical research and iterative data formation. The results verified that the co-operation between parents and day care staff produces important benefits for all the stakeholders. However, the day care staff has difficulties in implementing the benefits. During the research process, it became clear that conceptually day care staff saw the practices as ”very important, but not easily realised in practice”. As a result this demanded further research to address this issue and to extend this to the carefacility’s co-operation practises and their communal and social conditions. The research looks at the carefacility’s co-operation with key stakeholders. At the same time it undertakes an analytical and historical examination of carefacilitys’s with an experimental focus as two day care centres chosen as experimental objects. The results of the research showed that the benefits gained by children were determined by the day care centre’s socio-political structure and the parent’s resources. The research framework categorised early childhood education as generational and gender based structures. As part of the research, the strains endemic to these formations have been examined. The system for bringing up children was created as part of a so called welfare state project by implemented by the Day Care Act in year 1973. The law secured the subjective right for every pre-school child to have access to day care facilities. The law also introduced a labour and sosiopolitical phase and the refinement of the day care facility’s education-care concept. The latest phase that started during the early 1990´s was called the market-based social services strategy. As a result of this phase, state support was limited and the screening function of the law was relaxed. This new strategy resulted in a divisive and bureaucratic social welfare system, that individualised and segregated children and their parents, leaving some families outside the communal and welfare state benefit net. The modern day care centre is a hybrid of different aims. Children spend longer and more irregular time in day care. The families are multicultural and that requires more training for the staff. The work in day care has been enhanced, for example he level of education for the staff has been lowered and productivity has been improved. However, administrative work and different kinds of support and net work functions together with the continuous change have taken over from the work done face to face with children. Staff experiences more pressure as the management and the work load has increased. Consequently the long-term planning and daily implementation of the nuclear task of the day care facility is difficult to control. This will have an effect on both motivation and manageability of the work. Overall quality of the early childhood upbringing has been weakened. The possibilities for the near future were tested in the two day care centres chosen as an experi-ment objects. The analysis of these experiments showed that generative interaction work will benefit everyone: children, parents and employees. The main results of the research are new concepts of an early support day care centre, which can be empirically and theoretically possi-ble for development the near future. Key words: Day care facility’s co-operation practises, early childhood education as generational structure, child’s multi-operational and multi-layered community, multi-subjective operator, generative interaction work, communal composition.

Heila-tietojärjestelmäprojekti ja sen ongelmat : Tutkimus Helsingin yliopiston henkilöstöhallinnon tietojärjestelmän kehitys- ja käyttöönottotyöstä asiakkaan näkökulmasta

Tutkimuksen tehtävänä oli selvittää Helsingin yliopiston Heila-tietojärjestelmän kehitysprojektin kulkua vuosina 1994-1999. Toisena tutkimustehtävänä oli selvittää minkälaisia ongelmia projektissa oli esiintynyt. Tutkimuksen aineisto oli projektin dokumentaatio, jossa pääaineistona olivat projektin johto- ja projektiryhmien kokouspöytäkirjat, tilanneraportit ja muut määrämuotoiset projektidokumentit. Lisäksi käytettävissä oli muuta aineistoa, kuten Heila-projektia käsitteleviä sähköpostiviestejä ja yleisönosaston kirjoituksia. Tutkimuksessa aineistoa kuvattiin kertomuksellisesti, projektin tapahtumat kirjattiin kertomukseksi kronologisessa järjestyksessä. Aineistoa analysoitiin toisen tutkimustehtävän mukaisesti sisällön analyysillä, ja tästä tuloksena oli projektin ongelmien luokittelu. Lopuksi tarkasteltiin projektin etenemiskertomuksen ja ongelmien luokittelun suhdetta. Kohteena ollut projekti viivästyi aikataulustaan kaikissa vaiheissa: toteutus- ja käyttöönotot viivästyivät useita kuukausia. Projektissa ilmeni resurssipulaa, välillä toimittajan ja välillä asiakkaan eli Helsingin yliopiston puolella. Lisäksi ohjelman sisältöalue oli niin monimutkainen, että se aiheutti vaikeuksia toteutuksessa ja käytössä. Järjestelmän suorituskyky ei vastannut sovittua, käyttöönottojen jälkeen jopa yksinkertainen tallennustoiminto saattoi kestää useita minuutteja, eikä normaaleja työtoimintoja saatu hoidettua. Helsingin yliopisto teki useita kirjallisia huomautuksia ja korvausvaatimuksia toimittajalle. Ongelmat jakautuivat toimintatapoihin liittyviin ongelmiin ja teknisiin ongelmiin. Toimintatapoihin liittyvät ongelmat sisälsivät käyttäjien huomiointiin ja projektin läpivientiin liittyviä ongelmia. Tekniset ongelmat jakautuivat kolmeen alakategoriaan: suorituskyvyn ongelmat, ohjelman ominaisuuksiin liittyvät ongelmat sekä yhteyksiin liittyvät ongelmat. Kukin alakategoria jakautui luokkiin. Projektin etenemistä arvioitiin suhteessa sen toteuttamista ohjanneeseen Helsingin yliopiston yhteistyöprojektien laatuohjeeseen, sekä Niemen (1993) malliin tietojärjestelmäprojektien läpiviennistä. Ongelmien luokittelua verrattiin Niemen (1993) arvioon projektien ongelmista. Projektin onnistumista arvioitiin Saarisen ja Sääksjärven (1992) projektin onnistumisen teorian avulla. Tulosten perusteella on mahdollista tarkastella muita projekteja, ja ongelmaluokitusten perusteella havaita potentiaaliset ongelmat. Siten voidaan parantaa työskentelyolosuhteita ja onnistumisen edellytyksiä tietojärjestelmäprojekteissa. Avainsanat: Tietojärjestelmät, projektityö, ongelmat Keywords: Information systems, project work, problems

Mediapolulla - Kasvatustieteellistä ja teknisen alan osaamista yhdistämässä : Opiskelijoiden yhteistyö ja oppiminen tieto- ja viestintätekniikkaprojektissa

The study concentrated on interdisciplinary teamwork of students in Helsinki University Department of Education and Helsinki University of Technology. Students worked in small interdisciplinary groups (n 12) to plan and teach in an information- and communication technology (ICT) club in elementary schools. The focus of the study was co-operation in the student groups and students learning experiences. Theoretical background of the study consists of theories of collaboration and socially shared cognition. Study was an qualitative case study and the data was collected with individual focus interviews and learning diaries. The data was categorised and the connections between categories were analysed with a table. Shared cognition appeared as a form of distribution of tasks and in the actual processes of shared expertise. The tasks were shared according to students expertise. Processes of shared expertise were joint knowledge building, integration of interests, awareness and exploitation of others expertise and allowing freedom for others to use their expertise. Additionally expression of ones own views and setting an example to others were one sided sharing of expertise. Students of technology were responsible of technical issues and the responsibility sphere of educational science students was more fragmented. For instance they concentrated in taking children s abilities into consideration. The sphere of shared cognition included also the need for tutoring and learning from others. Usually students did not directly learn from representative of other discipline, instead the learning for instance of social skills happened indirectly. Learning was fostered if learning was set as a goal and prevented if the differences in expertise were too minor. Sharing of cognition was prevented if co-operation was too problematic. Co-operation was usually successful. Good planning, good person chemistry and appreciation of expertise of others promoted success. Problems caused by different backgrounds were usually slight. Successful interaction was complementary and equal. Groups were usually able to circumvent problems in communication and use of justification in discussion promoted co-operation. When comparing the groups in the scope of the study, two were found to be notably opposed and the other groups located between these extreme cases, but the elements of success prevailed. Learning experiences concentrated on social skills, project management, school world and ICT. Essential was achieved field experience and observation of ones own capabilities. In organisation of student interdisciplinary co-operation is important to ensure sufficient differences in expertise and guide students to gain complementary interaction and appropriate setting of goals. Interdisciplinary field project prepared students to face the demands of