Basic Human Values in the Workplace

Työntekijöiden henkilökohtaisia arvoja ja niiden yhteyksiä asenteisiin ei ole juuri tutkittu. Tämän tutkimuksen tavoitteena oli selvittää, onko suomalaisessa metalliteollisuuden yrityksen henkilöstön (N=1314) arvojen rakenne S. H. Schwartzin arvoteorian mukainen. Lisäksi tutkittiin arvojen yhteyksiä organisaatiomuutosta koskeviin asenteisiin ja tiedon jakamiseen työyhteisössä. Arvomittarina käytettiin uutta 40-osioista Portrait Value Questionnairea (PVQ). Mittarin validiteetti osoitettiin ver-taamalla nyt kerätyn aineiston arvorakennetta aikaisemmalla mittarilla kerättyihin arvoteorian mukaisiin yliopisto-opiskelijoiden vastauksiin. Organisaatiomuutosta koskevien asenteiden ja tiedonjakamisen mittarit luotiin laadullisissa esitutkimuksissa. Tilastolliset analyysit osoittivat, että toimihenkilöiden ja työntekijöiden arvojen rakenteet noudattivat pääosin Schwartzin teoriaa, mutta turvallisuusarvot sijaitsivat molemmissa ryhmissä universalismin ja hyväntahtoisuuden joukossa. Universalismi ja hyväntahtoisuus ennustivat myönteistä asennetta organisaatiomuutoksia kohtaan, mutta perinteiden ja mielihyvän arvostaminen liittyivät kielteisiin muutosasenteisiin. Sosiaalisia normeja kunnioittavien eli yhdenmukaisuutta arvostavien henkilöiden muut arvot vaikuttivat muutosasenteisiin vähemmän kuin niillä, joille yhdenmukaisuus ei ollut tärkeää. Lisäksi suoriutumisarvon yhteys muutosasenteisiin oli yhdenmukaisuutta arvostavilla henkilöillä positiivinen, mutta niillä, jotka eivät arvostaneet yhdenmukaisuutta, yhteys oli negatiivinen. Itseohjautuvuutta arvostavat henkilöt pitivät työyhteisönsä tiedon jakamista heikompana, kun taas hyväntahtoisuutta ja yhdenmukaisuutta arvostavat pitivät sitä muihin nähden parempana. Suoriutumisarvo oli yhteydessä tiedonjakamiseen vain silloin, kun yhdenmukaisuus oli tärkeää. Työpaikkojen (N=19) keskiarvoja vertailtaessa havaittiin, että ne työpaikat, joissa arvostettiin paljon universalismia, hyväntahtoisuutta ja yhdenmukaisuutta sekä vähän valtaa ja suoriutumista saivat henkilöstöltään parhaat arvioinnit tiedon jakamisesta. Tutkimukseen osallistuneet henkilöt jaettiin työtehtäviensä perusteella kolmeen ammatilliseen ympäristöön: konven-tionaaliseen (mm. taloushallinto), realistiseen (mm. tuotanto) ja yrittäjämäiseen (mm. myynti). Yrittäjämäisessä ammatillisessa ympäristössä toimivat arvostivat enemmän kuin konventionaalisessa ympäristössä toimivat valtaa, itseohjautuvuutta ja suoriutumista. Realistisessa ympäristössä arvostettiin enemmän perinteitä ja mielihyvää kuin yrittäjämäisessä ympäristössä. Ryhmien väliset erot arvoissa johtuivat koulutuksesta, iästä ja sukupuolijakaumasta.

Vaikuttavuusyhteiskunta : Sosiaalisten olojen arvostelusta vaikutusten todentamiseen

Evaluation practices have pervaded the Finnish society and welfare state. At the same time the term effectiveness has become a powerful organising concept in welfare state activities. The aim of the study is to analyse how the outcome-oriented society came into being through historical processes, to answer the question of how social policy and welfare state practices were brought under the governance of the concept of effectiveness . Discussions about social imagination, Michel Foucault s conceptions of the history of the present and of governmentality, genealogy and archaeology, along with Ian Hacking s notions of dynamic nominalism and styles of reasoning, are used as the conceptual and methodological starting points for the study. In addition, Luc Boltanski s and Laurent Thévenot s ideas of orders of worth , regimes of evaluation in everyday life, are employed. Usually, evaluation is conceptualised as an autonomous epistemic culture and practice (evaluation as epistemic practice), but evaluation is here understood as knowledge-creation processes elementary to different epistemic practices (evaluation in epistemic practices). The emergence of epistemic cultures and styles of reasoning about the effectiveness or impacts of welfare state activities are analysed through Finnish social policy and social work research. The study uses case studies which represent debates and empirical research dealing with the effectiveness and quality of social services and social work. While uncertainty and doubts over the effects and consequences of welfare policies have always been present in discourses about social policy, the theme has not been acknowledged much in social policy research. To resolve these uncertainties, eight styles of reasoning about such effects have emerged over time. These are the statistical, goal-based, needs-based, experimental, interaction-based, performance measurement, auditing and evidence-based styles of reasoning. Social policy research has contributed in various ways to the creation of these epistemic practices. The transformation of the welfare state, starting at the end of 1980s, increased market-orientation and trimmed public welfare responsibilities, and led to the adoption of the New Public Management (NPM) style of leadership. Due to these developments the concept of effectiveness made a breakthrough, and new accountabilities with their knowledge tools for performance measurement and auditing and evidence-based styles of reasoning became more dominant in the ruling of the welfare state. Social sciences and evaluation have developed a heteronomous relation with each other, although there still remain divergent tendencies between them. Key words: evaluation, effectiveness, social policy, welfare state, public services, sociology of knowledge

Neighborhood Shopkeepers in Contemporary South Korea: Household, Work, and Locality

This is an ethnographic study of the lived worlds of the keepers of small shops in a residential neighborhood in Seoul, South Korea. It outlines, discusses, and analyses the categories and conceptualizations of South Korean capitalism at the level of households, neighborhoods, and Korean society. These cultural categories were investigated through the neighborhood shopkeepers practices of work and reciprocal interaction as well as through the shopkeepers articulations of their lived experience. In South Korea, the keepers of small businesses have continued to be a large occupational category despite of societal and economic changes, occupying approximately one fourth of the population in active work force. In spite of that, these people, their livelihoods and their cultural and social worlds have rarely been in the focus of social science inquiry. The ethnographic field research for this study was conducted during a 14-month period between November 1998 and December 1999 and in three subsequent short visits to Korea and to the research neighborhood. The fieldwork was conducted during the aftermath of the Asian currency crisis, colloquially termed at the time as the IMF crisis, which highlighted the social and cultural circumstances of small businesskeeper in a specific way. The livelihoods of small-scale entrepreneurs became even more precarious than before; self-employment became an involuntary choice for many middle-class salaried employees who were laid off; and the cultural categories and concepts of society and economy South Korean capitalism were articulated more sharply than before. This study begins with an overview of the contemporary setting, the Korean society under the socially and economically painful outcomes of the economic crisis, and continues with an overview of relevant literature. After introducing the research area and the informants, I discuss the Korean notion of neighborhood, which incorporates both the notions of culturally valued Koreanness and deficiency in the sense of modernity and development. This study further analyses the ways in which the businesskeepers appropriate and reproduce the Korean ideas of men s and women s gender roles and spheres of work. As the appropriation of children s labor is conditional to intergenerational family trajectories which aim not to reproduce parents occupational status but to gain entry to salaried occupations via educational credentials, the work of a married couple is the most common organization of work in small businesses, to which the Korean ideas of family and kin continuity are not applied. While the lack of generational businesskeeping succession suggests that the proprietors mainly subscribe to the notions of familial status that emanate from the practices of the white-collar middle class, the cases of certain women shopkeepers show that their proprietorship and the ensuing economic standing in the family prompts and invites inversed interpretations and uses of common cultural notions of gender. After discussing and analyzing the concept of money and the cultural categorization of leisure and work, topics that emerged as very significant in the lived world of the shopkeepers, this study charts and analyses the categories of identification which the shopkeepers employ for their cultural and social locations and identities. Particular attention is paid to the idea of ordinary people (seomin), which shopkeepers are commonly considered to be most representative of, and which also sums up the ambivalence of neighborhood shopkeepers as a social category: they are not committed to familial reproduction and continuity of the business but aspire non-entrepreneurial careers for their children, while they occupy a significant position in the elaborations of culturally valued notions and ideologies defining Koreanness such as warmheartedness and sociability.

Trust and Safe Choices: Coping with health-related risks in food consumption in St. Petersburg

This dissertation considers the problem of trust in the context of food consumption. The research perspectives refer to institutional conditions for consumer trust, personal practices of food consumption, and strategies consumers employ for controlling the safety of their food. The main concern of the study is to investigate consumer trust as an adequate response to food risks, i.e. a strategy helping the consumer to make safe choices in an uncertain food situation. "Risky" perspective serves as a frame of reference for understanding and explaining trust relations. The original aim of the study was to reveal the meanings applied to the concepts of trust, safety and risks in the perspective of market choices, the assessments of food risks and the ways of handling them. Supplementary research tasks presumed descriptions of institutional conditions for consumer trust, including descriptions of the food market, and the presentation of food consumption patterns in St. Petersburg. The main empirical material is based on qualitative interviews with consumers and interviews and group discussions with professional experts (market actors, representatives of inspection bodies and consumer organizations). Secondary material is used for describing institutional conditions for consumer trust and the market situation. The results suggest that the idea of consumer trust is associated with the reputation of suppliers, stable quality and taste of their products, and reliable food information. Being a subjectively constructed state connected to the act of acceptance, consumer trust results in positive buying decisions and stable preferences in the food market. The consumers' strategies that aim at safe food choices refer to repetitive interactions with reliable market actors that free them from constant consideration in the marketplace. Trust in food is highly mediated by trust in institutions involved in the food system. The analysis reveals a clear pattern of disbelief in the efficiency of institutional food control. The study analyses this as a reflection of "total distrust" that appears to be a dominant mood in many contexts of modern Russia. However, the interviewees emphasize the state's decisive role in suppressing risks in the food market. Also, the findings are discussed with reference to the consumers' possibilities of personal control over food risks. Three main responses to a risky food situation are identified: the reflexive approach, the traditional approach, and the fatalistic approach.

Elämän tiede : Tutkimus lääketieteellisestä teknologiasta, vanhemmuudesta ja perimän hallinnasta

Doctoral dissertation work in sociology examines how human heredity became a scientific, political and a personal issue in the 20th century Finland. The study focuses on the institutionalisation of rationales and technologies concerning heredity, in the context of Finnish medicine and health care. The analysis concentrates specifically on the introduction and development of prenatal screening within maternity care. The data comprises of medical articles, policy documents and committee reports, as well as popular guidebooks and health magazines. The study commences with an analysis on the early 20th century discussions on racial hygiene. It ends with an analysis on the choices given to pregnant mothers and families at present. Freedom to choose, considered by geneticists and many others as a guarantee of the ethicality of medical applications, is presented in this study as a historically, politically and scientifically constructed issue. New medical testing methods have generated new possibilities of governing life itself. However, they have also created new ethical problems. Leaning on recent historical data, the study illustrates how medical risk rationales on heredity have been asserted by the medical profession into Finnish health care. It also depicts medical professions ambivalence between maintaining the patients autonomy and utilizing for example prenatal testing according to health policy interests. Personalized risk is discussed as a result of the empirical analysis. It is indicated that increasing risk awareness amongst the public, as well as offering choices, have had unintended consequences. According to doctors, present day parents often want to control risks more than what is considered justified or acceptable. People s hopes to anticipate the health and normality of their future children have exceeded the limits offered by medicine. Individualization of the government of heredity is closely linked to a process that is termed as depolitization. The concept refers to disembedding of medical genetics from its social contexts. Prenatal screening is regarded to be based on individual choice facilitated by neutral medical knowledge. However, prenatal screening within maternity care also has its basis in health policy aims and economical calculations. Methodological basis of the study lies in Michel Foucault s writings on the history of thought, as well as in science and technology studies.

Methodological perspectives for register-based health system performance assessment : Developing a hip fracture monitoring system in Finland

The resources of health systems are limited. There is a need for information concerning the performance of the health system for the purposes of decision-making. This study is about utilization of administrative registers in the context of health system performance evaluation. In order to address this issue, a multidisciplinary methodological framework for register-based data analysis is defined. Because the fixed structure of register-based data indirectly determines constraints on the theoretical constructs, it is essential to elaborate the whole analytic process with respect to the data. The fundamental methodological concepts and theories are synthesized into a data sensitive approach which helps to understand and overcome the problems that are likely to be encountered during a register-based data analyzing process. A pragmatically useful health system performance monitoring should produce valid information about the volume of the problems, about the use of services and about the effectiveness of provided services. A conceptual model for hip fracture performance assessment is constructed and the validity of Finnish registers as a data source for the purposes of performance assessment of hip fracture treatment is confirmed. Solutions to several pragmatic problems related to the development of a register-based hip fracture incidence surveillance system are proposed. The monitoring of effectiveness of treatment is shown to be possible in terms of care episodes. Finally, an example on the justification of a more detailed performance indicator to be used in the profiling of providers is given. In conclusion, it is possible to produce useful and valid information on health system performance by using Finnish register-based data. However, that seems to be far more complicated than is typically assumed. The perspectives given in this study introduce a necessary basis for further work and help in the routine implementation of a hip fracture monitoring system in Finland.

Consent Practices and Biomedical Knowledge Production in Tissue Economies

The use of human tissue sample collections has become an important tool in biomedical research. The collection, use and distribution of human tissue samples, which include blood and diagnostic tissue samples, from which DNA can be extracted and analyzed has also become a major bio-political preoccupation, not only in national contexts, but also at the transnational level. The foundation of medical research rests on the relationship between the doctor and the research subject. This relationship is a social one, in that it is based on informed consent, privacy and autonomy, where research subjects are made aware of what they are getting involved in and are then able to make an informed decision as to whether or not to participate. Within the post-genomic era, however, our understanding of what constitutes informed consent, privacy and autonomy is changing in relation to the needs of researchers, but also as a reflection of policy aspirations. This reflects a change in the power relations between the rights of the individual in relation to the interests of science and society. Using the notions of tissue economies and biovalue (Waldby, 2002) this research explores the changing relationship between sources and users of samples in biomedical research by examining the contexts under which human tissue samples and the information that is extracted from them are acquired, circulated and exchanged in Finland. The research examines how individual rights, particularly informed consent, are being configured in relation to the production of scientific knowledge in tissue economies in Finland from the 1990s to the present. The research examines the production of biovalue through the organization of scientific knowledge production by examining the policy context of knowledge production as well as three case studies (Tampere Research Tissue Bank, Hereditary Non-polyposis Colorectal Cancer and the Finnish Genome Information Center) in which tissues are acquired, circulated and exchanged in Finland. The research shows how interpretations of informed consent have become divergent and the elements and processes that have contributed to these differences. This inquiry shows how the relationship between the interests of individuals is re-configured in relation to the interests of science and society. It indicates how the boundary between interpretations of informed consent, on the one hand, and social and scientific interests, on the other, are being re-drawn and that this process is underscored, in part, by the economic, commercial and preventive potential that research using tissue samples are believed to produce. This can be said to fundamentally challenge the western notion that the rights of the individual are absolute and inalienable within biomedical legislation.

Kulutus, tieto, hallinta : Kulutuksen tilastoinnin muutokset 1900-luvun Suomessa

The aim of the study was to find out how the consumption of the population in Finland became a target of social interest and production of statistical data in the early 20th century, and what efforts have been made to influence consumption with social policy measures at different times. Questions concerning consumption are examined through the practices employed in the compilation of statistics on it. The interpretation framework in the study is Michael Foucault s perspective of modern liberal government. This mode of government is typified by pursuit of efficiency and search of equilibrium between economic government and a government of the processes of life. It shows aspirations towards both integration and individualisation. The government is based on freedom practices. It also implies knowledge-based ways of conceptualising reality. Statistical data are of specific significance in this context. The connection between the government of consumption and the compilation of statistics on it is studied through the theoretical, socio-political and statistical conceptualisation of consumption. The research material consisted of Finnish and international documentation on the compilation of statistics on consumption, publications of social programmes, and reports of studies on consumption. The analysis of the material focused especially on the problematisations related to consumption found in these documents and on changes in them over history. There have been both clearly observable changes and as well as historical stratification and diversity in the rationalities and practices of consumption government during the 20th century. Consumption has been influenced by pluralistic government, based at different times and in varying ways on the logics of solidarity and markets. The difference between these is that in the former risks are prepared for collectively while in the latter risks are individualised. Despite the differences, the characteristic that is common to these logics is certain kind of contractuality. They are both permeated by the household logic which differs from them in that it is based on the normative and ethical demands imposed on an individual. There has been a clear interactive connection between statistical data and consumption government. Statistical practices have followed changes in the way consumption has been conceptualised in society. This has been reflected in the statistical phenomena of interest, concepts, classifications and indicators. New ways of compiling statistics have in their turn shaped perceptions of reality. Statistical data have also facilitated a variety of rational calculations with which the consequences of the population s consumption habits have been evaluated at the levels of economy at large and individuals.

Yliopisto-opetuksen yhteistoiminnallinen kehittäminen

The main aim of this work is to study the possibility of applying the cooperative learning approach to develop academic learning and teaching culture. In this work cooperative learning refers to a pedagogical approach that applies social psychological knowledge of group dynamics and small group teaching. Furthermore, theories of collaborative learning and organization development have been applied. Based on these theories a model of developing learning and teaching culture was developed. The model was tested in the development project that was carried out in the Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry of Helsinki University. The research questions were: How were the theories of cooperative and collaborative learning and organization development applied in the project? What kind of effects did the development project have on the learning and teaching culture? Through which kind of mechanisms did the project influence this culture? How should the development model be revised after the empirical test? The project lasted five years and the major part of the project consisted of a one-year pedagogical training course. Altogether 145 people (teachers, researchers, library staff, and students) participated in the training, two to three departments at a time. In the pedagogical training cooperative learning methods were widely used. A questionnaire was used to study effects of the development project. The questionnaire was sent to 87 people and 65.5 % answered it. Both the answers to the questionnaire and a sample of learning diaries (n=61) were used to study the mechanism of the project. A sample of the learning diaries consisted of two pedagogical training group members diaries. The frequency distributions were calculated as extrapolations from the answers to the structured questions. Furthermore the answers were classified by the main background variables. The analysis of the open answers to the questionnaire and the learning diaries were data-based. According to the answers to the questionnaire, the effects of the pedagogical training were as follows: The participants consider learning more as an active process of constructing knowledge. Furthermore they considered the individual learning styles and strategies, cooperation and motivation as more important part of the learning process than before the pedagogical training. The role of the teacher was viewed more challenging than before. Additionally the cooperation between teachers, other staff members and students had projected to increase. After the project had ended the teaching methods in the whole faculty were viewed to become varied and the teaching was considered to be more valued than before. According to the answers to the questionnaire, the project influenced through the following ways: the project stimulated the change process, provided new methods for learning and teaching, had an effect on conceptions of learning and teaching and facilitated meaningful communication with others (staff and students). The analysis of the learning diaries supported these findings. In addition, the analysis of the learning diaries deepened the understanding of how the cooperative learning methods supported positive learning atmosphere and reduced the negative effect of the status differences between the members of the group. The critical comments in the learning diaries could be interpreted as collision between cooperative and traditional teaching culture. Cooperative learning gives theory-based methods to develop academic learning and teaching culture. The approach helps the developer to create positive collaborative learning environment and gives ways to support learning in small groups, which can promote cultural change. On the other hand, to understand the whole process of organization development and promote change the theories of organizations and more sosioconstructivist theory of learning are needed. Cooperative learning, collaborative learning, higher education, group dynamics, social constructionism, organisational culture, organisation development

Knowledge through Discussion : An Interpretation of Epistemology in Plato's Meno

According to Meno s paradox we cannot inquire into what we do not know because we do not know what we are inquiring into. There are many ways to interpret the paradox but the central issue about our ability to reach truth is a profound one. In the dialogue Meno, Plato presents the paradox and an outline of a solution which enables us to reach knowledge (epistēmē) through philosophical discussion. During the last century Meno has often been considered transitional between Socratic thinking and Plato s own philosophy, and thus the dialogue has not been adequately interpreted as an integrated whole. Therefore the distinctive epistemology of the dialogue has not gained due notice. In this thesis the dialogue is analysed as an integrated whole and the philosophical interpretation also takes into account its dramatic features. The thesis emphasises the role of language and definitions in acquiring knowledge. Among the results concerning these subjects is a new interpretation of Socrates s defintion of shape (schēma). The theory of anamnēsis all learning is recollection in the Meno is argued to answer the paradox philosophically although Plato s presentation also contains playful and ironic elements. The background of the way Plato presents his case is that he appreciated the fact that no argument can plausibly demonstrate that argumentation is able to reach truth. In the Meno, Plato makes the earliest explicit distinction between knowledge and true belief in the history of Western philosophy. He also gives a definition of knowledge which is the basis of the so called classical definition of knowledge as justified true belief. In the Meno, true beliefs become knowledge when someone ties them down by reasoning about the explanation. The analysis of the epistemology of the dialogue from this perspective gives an interpretation which integrates the central concepts of the epistemology in the dialogue elenchos, anamnēsis and hypothetical inquiry into a unified whole which contains a plausible argument according to which the ignorant can reach knowledge through discussion. The conception that emerges by such an analysis is interesting both from the point of view of current interests and that of the history of philosophy. The method of knowledge acquisition in the Meno can, for example, be seen as a predecessor of modern scientific methods. The Meno is the earliest Greek mathematical text that has survived in its original form. The analysis presented in the thesis of the geometric passages in the dialogue provides new results both concerning Socrates s geometry lesson with the slave and the example presenting the hypothetical method. Concerning the latter, a new interpretation is presented. Keywords: anamnēsis, epistēmē, knowledge, Meno s paradox, Plato

Species-specific and Indication-based Use of Antimicrobials in Dogs, Cats, Cattle and Horses in Finland : Data collected using three different methods

Increasing antimicrobial resistance in bacteria has led to the need for better understanding of antimicrobial usage patterns. In 1999, the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) recommended that an international ad hoc group should be established to address human and animal health risks related to antimicrobial resistance and the contribution of antimicrobial usage in veterinary medicine. In European countries the need for continuous recording of the usage of veterinary antimicrobials as well as for animal species-specific and indication-based data on usage has been acknowledged. Finland has been among the first countries to develop prudent use guidelines in veterinary medicine, as the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry issued the first animal species-specific indication-based recommendations for antimicrobial use in animals in 1996. These guidelines have been revised in 2003 and 2009. However, surveillance on the species-specific use of antimicrobials in animals has not been performed in Finland. This thesis provides animal species-specific information on indication-based antimicrobial usage. Different methods for data collection have been utilized. Information on antimicrobial usage in animals has been gathered in four studies (studies A-D). Material from studies A, B and C have been used in an overlapping manner in the original publications I-IV. Study A (original publications I & IV) presents a retrospective cross-sectional survey on prescriptions for small animals at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of the University of Helsinki. Prescriptions for antimicrobial agents (n = 2281) were collected and usage patterns, such as the indication and length of treatment, were reviewed. Most of the prescriptions were for dogs (78%), and primarily for the treatment of skin and ear infections most of which were treated with cephalexin for a median period of 14 days. Prescriptions for cats (18%) were most often for the treatment of urinary tract infections with amoxicillin for a median length of 10 days. Study B (original publication II) was a retrospective cross-sectional survey where prescriptions for animals were collected from 17 University Pharmacies nationwide. Antimicrobial prescriptions (n = 1038) for mainly dogs (65%) and cats (19%) were investigated. In this study, cephalexin and amoxicillin were also the most frequently used drugs for dogs and cats, respectively. In study C (original publications III & IV), the indication-based usage of antimicrobials of practicing veterinarians was analyzed by using a prospective questionnaire. Randomly selected practicing veterinarians in Finland (n = 262) recorded all their antimicrobial usage during a 7-day study period. Cattle (46%) with mastitis were the most common patients receiving antimicrobial treatment, generally intramuscular penicillin G or intramammary treatment with ampicillin and cloxacillin. The median length of treatment was four days, regardless of the route of administration. Antimicrobial use in horses was evaluated in study D, the results of which are previously unpublished. Firstly, data collected with the prospective questionnaire from the practicing veterinarians showed that horses (n = 89) were frequently treated for skin or wound infections by using penicillin G or trimethoprim-sulfadiazine. The mean duration of treatment was five to seven days. Secondly, according to retrospective data collected from patient records, horses (n = 74) that underwent colic surgery at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of the University of Helsinki were generally treated according to national and hospital recommendations; penicillin G and gentamicin was administered preoperatively and treatment was continued for a median of three days postoperatively. In conclusion, Finnish veterinarians followed well the national prudent use guidelines. Narrow-spectrum antimicrobials were preferred and, for instance, fluoroquinolones were used sparingly. Prescription studies seemed to give good information on antimicrobials usage, especially when combined with complementary information from patient records. A prospective questionnaire study provided a fair amount of valuable data on several animal species. Electronic surveys are worthwhile exploiting in the future.

Ihmeellisistä salaisuuksista opastit minua : Johdatus Hymnien kirjan (1QH) yhteisöllisiin hymneihin ja hymnien käännös

Tämä pro gradu -tutkielma tarjoaa sujuvan suomenkielinen käännöksen Hymnien kirjan (1QH) yhteisöllisistä hymneistä. Käännökseni perustuu uuteen 1QH:n tieteelliseen editioon (DJD 2009). Editiossa on hyödynnetty käsikirjoituksen materiaalisen rekonstruktion tuloksia, uusia lukutapoja ja tekstiä on täydennetty muiden Hymnien kirjan käsikirjoitusten avulla. Vertailen omaa käännöstäni García Martínezin ET Tigchelaarin (1997), Abeggin et al. (2005), sekä Newsomin (2009) käännöksiin. Käännän yhteensä 14 hymniä, jotka olen otsikoinut itsenäisesti. 1950-1960-luvuilla kehitetyt teoriat Hymnien kirjan hymnien luokittelusta, käytöstä ja kirjoittajasta ovat dominoineet Hymnien kirjan tutkimusta 2010-luvulle asti. Hyödynnän tässä tutkielmassa Hymnien kirjan tutkimuksessa vakiintunutta hymnien jaottelua opettajan hymneihin ja yhteisöllisiin hymneihin. Hymnien jaottelu on kyseenalaistettu viimeaikaisessa tutkimuksessa, mutta vallitsevan tutkimustilanteen valossa näyttää siltä, että jaottelu on edelleen käyttökelpoinen. Kuitenkin molempien ryhmien määritelmiä ja ryhmien suhdetta toisiinsa on tutkimuksessa tarkennettu. Hymnien luokittelua koskevan uuden teorian, samoin kuin eri Hymnien kirjan käsikirjoitusten suhdetta koskevan teorian puuttuminen, ovat tämän hetkisiä haasteita Hymnien kirjan tutkimuksessa. Luvussa neljä tarkastelen, voisiko Hymnien kirja olla osa laajempaa genreä, jonka nimesin Hodajot-kirjallisuudeksi. Tämän laajemman genren olemassaolo saattaisi selittää yhteisöllisten hymnien moninaisuuden sekä Hymnien kirjan käsikirjoitusten väliset erot hymnien määrässä ja järjestyksessä. Hodajot-kirjallisuuteen voidaan laskea kuuluvaksi Hymnien kirjan käsikirjoitukset (1QH, 1QHb, 4QHa f), Hymnien kirjan kaltaiset tekstit (4Q433,4Q433a, 4Q440, 4Q440a) ja 17 Hymnien kirjaa muistuttavaa käsikirjoitusta. Tähän genreen kuuluvista hymneistä aina osa valikoitui erilaisiin Hymnien kirjankin käsikirjoituksiin. Erityisesti käsikirjoitus 4QHa todistaa, että yhteisöllisistä hymneistä oli olemassa myös erilaisia kokoelmia kuin käsikirjoituksen 1QH kokoelma. Esitän luvussa 4.2. kritiikkiä aiempaa tutkimusta kohtaan, jossa käsikirjoituksen 4QHa hymnijärjestystä käytetään todisteena käsikirjoituksen 1QHa yhteisöllisten hymnien editoinnista. Lisäksi ehdotan, että yksittäisten yhteisöllisten hymnien redaktion tutkiminen saattaisi tuoda lisää valoa Hodajot-kirjallisuus -teoriaan. Luvussa kuusi tarkastelen erilaisia yhteisöllisiä hymnejä profetian näkökulmasta. Tutkimukseni perustuu uuteen kuvaan Toisen temppelin ajan profetiasta. Profetian ytimenä nähdään jumalallisen tiedon vastaanottaminen ilmestyksen avulla. Hymnien kirjassa profetia on nk. ilmoitettua viisautta. Koska kattavaa tutkimusta profetiasta Hymnien kirjassa ei ole, ei aikaisemmassa tutkimuksessa ole kiinnitetty huomiota moniin klassisiin profetiaan liittyviin termeihin, joita yhteisöllisissä hymneissä esiintyy. Klassisten profetiaan liittyvien termien ja ilmoitetun viisauden esiintyminen samassa tekstissä puhuu sen puolesta, että yhteisöllisissä hymneissä ilmoitettu viisaus todella nähtiin profetiana. Aikaisemmassa tutkimuksessa on keskusteltu Hymnien kirjan didaktisesta funktiosta. Tutkimukseni perusteella yksi yhteisöllisten hymnien didaktinen funktio on se, että ne opettavat yhteisön jäsenelle hänen identiteetistään suhteessa profetiaan.

Augustine and the functions of concupiscence

This study analyses Augustine s concept of concupiscentia, or evil desire (together with two cognate terms, libido and cupiditas) in the context of his entire oeuvre. By the aid of systematic analysis, the concept and its development is explored in four distinct ways. It is claimed that Augustine used the concept of concupiscentia for several theological purposes, and the task of the study is to represent these distinct functions, and their connections to Augustine s general theological and philosophical convictions. The study opens with a survey on terminology. A general overview of the occurrences of the negatively connoted words for desire in Latin literature precedes a corresponding examination of Augustine s own works. In this introductory chapter it is shown that, despite certain preferences in the uses of the words, a sufficient degree of synonymy reigns so as to allow an analysis of the concept without tightly discriminating between the terms. The theological functions of concupiscentia with its distinct contexts are analysed in separate chapters. The function of concupiscentia as a divine punishment is explored first (Ch 3). It is seen how Augustine links together concupiscentia and ideas about divine justice, and finally suggests that in the inordinate, psychologically experienced sexual desire, the original theological disobedience of Adam and Eve can be perceived. Augustine was criticized for this solution already in his own times, and the analysis of the function of concupiscentia as a divine punishment ends in a discussion on the critical response of punitive concupiscentia by Julian of Aeclanum. Augustine also attached to concupiscentia another central theological function by viewing evil desire as an inward originating cause for all external evil actions. In the study, this function is analysed by surveying two formally distinct images of evil desire, i.e. as the root (radix) of all evil, and as a threefold (triplex) matrix of evil actions (Ch 4). Both of these images were based on a single verse of the Bible (1 Jn 2, 16 and 1 Tim 6, 10). This function of concupiscentia was formed both parallel to, and in answer to, Manichaean insights into concupiscentia. Being familiar with the traditional philosophical discussions on the nature and therapy of emotions, Augustine situated concupiscentia also into this context. It is acknowledged that these philosophical traditions had an obvious impact into his way of explaining psychological processes in connection with concupiscentia. Not only did Augustine implicitly receive and exploit these traditions, but he also explicitly moulded and criticized them in connection with concupiscentia. Eventually, Augustine conceives the philosophical traditions of emotions as partly useful but also partly inadequate to deal with concupiscentia (Ch 5). The role of concupiscentia in connection to divine grace and Christian renewal is analysed in the final chapter of the study. Augustine s gradual development in internalizing the effects of concupiscentia also into the life of a baptized Christian are elucidated, as are the strong limitations and mitigations Augustine makes to the concept when attaching it into the life under grace (sub gratia). A crucial part in the development of this function is played by Augustine s changing interpretation of Rom 7, and the way concupiscentia appears in Augustine s readings of this text is therefore also analysed. As a result of the analysis of these four distinct functions and contexts of concupiscentia, it is concluded that Augustine s concept of concupiscentia is fairly tightly and coherently connected to his views of central theological importance. Especially the functions of concupiscentia as a punishment and the function of concupiscentia in Christian renewal were both tightly interwoven into Augustine s view of God s being and God s grace. The study shows the importance of reading Augustine s discussions on evil desire with a constant awareness of their role in their larger context, that is, of their function in each situation. The study warns against too simplistic and unifying readings of Augustine s concupiscentia, emphasizing the need to acknowledge both the necessitating, sinful aspects of concupiscentia, and the domesticated features of concupiscentia during Christian renewal.

Interculturality in Theory and Practice in the Master's Programme of Intercultural Bilingual Education in Bolivia

Tämän tutkielman aiheena on kulttuurienvälisyys kulttuurienvälisessä kaksikielisessä opetuksessa (Educación Intercultural Bilingüe, EIB) Boliviassa ja erityisesti kulttuurienvälisen kaksikielisen koulutuksen maisteriohjelmassa (Maestría en Educación Intercultural Bilingüe), jota koordinoi PROEIB Andes -järjestö yhteistyössä Cochabamban Universidad Mayor de San Simónin kanssa. Tutkielman tarkoituksena on selvittää, miten kulttuurienvälisyys määritellään ja mitä se käytännössä merkitsee opetuksen eri osa-alueilla: sisällöissä, opetusmetodeissa ja -materiaaleissa sekä arvioinnissa. Koska kulttuurienvälisen kaksikielisen opetuksen toteutus ja tutkiminen eri Latinalaisen Amerikan maissa on tähän asti painottunut lähes yksinomaan perusopetukseen, pyrin työssäni keskittymään kulttuurienvälisyyden ilmentymiin nimenomaan bolivialaisessa korkeakoulukontekstissa. Tutkielman aineistona on käytetty kahdeksaa EIB -asiantuntijoiden teemahaastattelua, jotka FM Eila Isotalus on tehnyt Boliviassa vuonna 2004. Haastatteluaineisto analysoitiin teoriasidonnaista eli abduktiivista sisällönanalyysiä käyttäen. Tutkielman teoriatausta koostuu yhtäältä kulttuurienvälisyyteen ja monikulttuurisuuteen liittyvien käsitteiden määrittelystä, ja toisaalta kulttuurienväliseen opetukseen liittyvien mallien esittelystä. Aineiston analyysissä avuksi on ollut etenkin James A. Banksin teoria monikulttuurisen opetuksen viidestä ulottuvuudesta, joiden kautta on voitu pohtia kulttuurienvälisyyden toteutumista opetuksen eri osa-alueilla ja nostaa esille bolivialaisen kulttuurienvälisen opetuksen erityispiirteitä. Aineiston analyysissä ilmenee, että kulttuurienvälisyyden käsitteen määrittely on vahvasti kontekstisidonnainen ja jatkuva prosessi, johon vaikuttavat eri toimijoiden näkemykset ja vaatimukset. EIB -asiantuntijoiden esittämät määrittelyt voidaan jakaa makro- ja mikrososiaaliseen kategoriaan sen mukaan, nähdäänkö kulttuurienvälisyys ensisijaisesti yhteiskunnallisena vai yksilötason käsitteenä. Aineistossa korostuu ajatus latinalaisamerikkalaisesta kulttuurienvälisyydestä poliittisena käsitteenä, jonka keskiössä on vaatimus yhteiskunnallisten valtasuhteiden muutoksesta. Yksi suurimmista haasteista kulttuurienvälisyyden toteuttamisessa bolivialaisessa korkeakouluopetuksessa ovat akateemiseen kulttuuriin liittyvät perinteet, jotka vaikeuttavat uusien toimintatapojen omaksumista. Kulttuurienvälisyys opetuksessa on toistaiseksi tarkoittanut etupäässä sisältöjen monipuolistamista lisäämällä opetusohjelmiin elementtejä paikallisista kulttuureista. Tärkeänä askeleena EIB:n kehityksessä voidaan pitää painopisteen siirtymistä sisältökysymyksistä kulttuurienvälisten opetusmetodien luomiseen. Näiden opetusmenetelmien tulisi pohjautua ymmärrykseen oppimisesta kokonaisvaltaisena, yhteisöllisenä prosessina ja siten kuroa umpeen kuilua koulun ja yhteisöjen arkielämän välillä. Opetusmenetelmien ja -materiaalien suhteen keskeinen kulttuurienvälisyyteen liittyvä kysymys on intiaanikansojen suullisen kulttuurin ja tiedon jakamisen perinteiden hyödyntäminen opetuksessa. Maisteriohjelman opiskelijoiden arvioinnissa pyritään huomioimaan yksilön kokonaisvaltainen kehitys pelkkien opintosuoritusten sijasta, mutta arvosanoihin pohjautuvasta arvostelukäytännöstä ei ole toistaiseksi voitu luopua yliopiston vaatimusten vuoksi. Kaiken kaikkiaan kulttuurienvälisyyden toteuttaminen EIB:ssä ja maisteriohjelmassa on pitkän tähtäimen prosessi, joka vaatii perinteisten opetuskäytäntöjen kyseenalaistamista ja korkeakouluopetuksessa myös akateemisen kulttuurin haastamista. On oleellisen tärkeää, että prosessiin osallistuvat asiantuntijoiden ohella myös esimerkiksi opiskelijat, intiaaniyhteisöt ja -järjestöaktiivit.

Julkisen tilan kontrollin ulottuvuuksia : tapaustutkimus Stop Töhryille -projektista.

Tämä tutkielma keskittyy julkisen kaupunkitilan kontrollin eri muotoihin. Ihmiset käyttävät kaupunkitilaa eri tavoin ja eri tarkoituksiin. Tilan sallitut ja kielletyt käyttömuodot ovat aina erilaisten toiveiden yhteensovittamista: yhteisen neuvottelun tulos. Tilaa myös kontrolloidaan vastaamaan erilaisia toiveita ja odotuksia. Tutkielmassa julkisen tilan kontrollin muodot on jaettu kolmeen: tilan fyysinen muokkaaminen, tilan valvonta ja asenteisiin vaikuttaminen esimerkiksi politiikkaohjelmilla. Tärkeimpänä kiinnostuksen kohteena on tilanne, jossa jokin toiminta kielletään kokonaisuudessaan. Tutkielmassa käytetään konkreettisena esimerkkinä yrityksestä kontrolloida tilaa Helsingin kaupungin Stop Töhryille -projektia: kyseessä on tapaustutkimus em. projektista. Projekti toteutettiin vuosina 1998–2008 Helsingin kaupungin rakennusviraston sekä yleisten töiden lautakunnan alaisuudessa. Projektin tavoitteena oli vähentää ja poistaa kaupunkitilassa näkyviä graffiteja. Keinoina tähän oli tekninen siivous, valvonta ja viestintä. Graffitit voidaan nähdä yhtenä keinona vallata tilaa itselle. Tutkimuksen ongelmanasettelun taustalla on pohdinta siitä, kohdistuuko julkisen tilan kontrolli jonkin tietyn toiminnon ei-toivottavuuteen vai kohdistuuko kontrolli tiettyjen toimijoiden ei-toivottavuuteen. Tavoitteena on selvittää, minkälainen tilan kontrolliin tähtäävä ohjelma Stop Töhryille -projekti oli. Tutkimuskysymykset liittyvät siihen, miksi projekti toteutettiin, mihin projektin toimenpiteet kohdistuivat ja miten nollatoleranssi määriteltiin projektissa. Tutkielman teoreettinen viitekehys pohjautuu Jock Youngin määritelmälle nollatoleranssista, nollatoleranssin kritiikille sekä Henri Lefebvren, Don Mitchellin, Andrea Sharkeyn ja Rob Shieldsin kirjoituksiin oikeudesta tilaan. Aineistona käytetään yleisten töiden lautakunnan kokousten esityslista- ja pöytäkirjamateriaalia sekä haastatteluja projektissa mukana olleille tai projektiin vaikuttaneille tahoille (N=4). Analyysin menetelmänä sovelletaan diskurssianalyysiä. Aineiston perusteella voidaan todeta, että projektissa hyödynnettiin laajasti erilaisia kontrollin keinoja. Projektin toimenpiteet keskittyivät alussa enemmän toimintoon (graffitien puhdistamiseen ja ehkäisyyn), mutta viimeisinä vuosina painopiste siirtyi enemmän toimijaan (graffitintekijään). Aineiston analyysissä yhtenä olennaisena toimijaryhmänä esille nousivat nuoret ja nuoriso, jotka mainittiin useaan otteeseen graffitintekijöinä. Tutkielmassa tätä ilmiötä pohditaan Mike Presdeen nuoruuden kriminalisointi -käsitteen sekä Zygmunt Baumanin ulossulkemisen paradigman kautta. Nollatoleranssiretoriikka on löydettävissä projektista kolmella tasolla: ideologisella, toiminnallisella sekä viestinnällisellä. Nollatoleranssia perusteltiin ideologisella tasolla rikottujen ikkunoiden teesillä: pieniä sosiaalisia häiriöitä poistamalla voidaan ehkäistä suuria rikoksia. Tämä perustelu vietiin toiminnalliselle tasolle, jossa häiriökäyttäytyjiä valvottiin ja heille vaadittiin kovia rangaistuksia. Viestinnällä pyrittiin madaltamaan kansalaisten sietokykyä graffiti-ilmiöön ja edesautettiin mahdollisimman laajan kansalais- ja asukasyhteistyön syntymistä. Lisäksi projektissa luotiin aktiivisesti tiedon ja kielen politiikkaa, joissa tuotetaan käsitystä siitä että graffitit lisäävät turvattomuutta ja konstruoidaan sellainen kieli, jossa graffitit nähdään ongelmana.