How the development of condensation particle counters is reforming our view on atmospheric nucleation

Aerosol particles deteriorate air quality, atmospheric visibility and our health. They affect the Earth s climate by absorbing and scattering sunlight, forming clouds, and also via several feed-back mechanisms. The net effect on the radiative balance is negative, i.e. cooling, which means that particles counteract the effect of greenhouse gases. However, particles are one of the poorly known pieces in the climate puzzle. Some of the airborne particles are natural, some anthropogenic; some enter the atmosphere in particle form, while others form by gas-to-particle conversion. Unless the sources and dynamical processes shaping the particle population are quantified, they cannot be incorporated into climate models. The molecular level understanding of new particle formation is still inadequate, mainly due to the lack of suitable measurement techniques to detect the smallest particles and their precursors. This thesis has contributed to our ability to measure newly formed particles. Three new condensation particle counter applications for measuring the concentration of nano-particles were developed. The suitability of the methods for detecting both charged and electrically neutral particles and molecular clusters as small as 1 nm in diameter was thoroughly tested both in laboratory and field conditions. It was shown that condensation particle counting has reached the size scale of individual molecules, and besides measuring the concentration they can be used for getting size information. In addition to atmospheric research, the particle counters could have various applications in other fields, especially in nanotechnology. Using the new instruments, the first continuous time series of neutral sub-3 nm particle concentrations were measured at two field sites, which represent two different kinds of environments: the boreal forest and the Atlantic coastline, both of which are known to be hot-spots for new particle formation. The contribution of ions to the total concentrations in this size range was estimated, and it could be concluded that the fraction of ions was usually minor, especially in boreal forest conditions. Since the ionization rate is connected to the amount of cosmic rays entering the atmosphere, the relative contribution of neutral to charged nucleation mechanisms extends beyond academic interest, and links the research directly to current climate debate.

Mallimestari globalisoituneen sarjatuotannon situationaalisessa prosessissa : Kokemustutkimus

In this thesis, taking place within the clothing industry of Finland, the impact of the globalisation of the economy on the pattern maker s job was studied and the present day fields of know-how of the job were found out. The thesis answers the questions, what are the characteristics of the patternmaker s job nowadays, and what areas of the know-how in the patternmaker s job form the core know-how, which is repeated in every organisation. Earlier studies of the subject do not exist in Finland. Similar studies have been made in USA (Staples 1993) and in Estonia (2002). Patternmakers who took part in this study were located in the Finnish clothing companies manufacturing or having clothes manufactured in series production, like clothing industry or chain of stores. A methodical triangulation was used in the thesis. In a phenomenological research of experience seven patternmakers were interviewed and in a quantitative research 26 patternmakers filled in a structured questionnaire. The phenomenological analysis has 2 parts. In the first phase using the professional background of the patternmakers, the historical development of the clothing industry for the last 40 years was described. In the second phase of the phenomenological analysis the description of the patternmaker s job was created based on the organisational strategy of the companies nowadays. The analysis of quantitative research material was performed by one-dimensional study of variables, where the variations in the amounts of variables lead to proportional conclusions. As a result of the structured questionnaire, the core know-how of the patternmaker was pointed out. In the thesis, the concept of situationality was used to describe the continuous change in the clothing industry. This explains the continuous requirement of patternmakers commitment to the time and location. The researcher has a background of a patternmaker and she works as a specialist instructor. With the thesis the researcher updates her professional competence. The analysis of the patternmaker s job can be used to update the content of patternmakers education in the vocational schools.

Early Childhood Caries and a Community Trial of its Prevention in Tehran, Iran

Varhaislapsuuden karies ja sen ehkäisy kehittyvän terveydenhuollon maassa Varhaislapsuuden karies on merkittävä kansanterveysongelma varsinkin lapsirikkaissa maissa ja väestöissä. Karieksen hoitaminen vie paljon voimavaroja ja aiheuttaa mittavia taloudellisia seuraamuksia. Karies voi ilmaantua lapselle jo vauvaikäisenä, pian ensimmäisten maitohampaiden puhjettua suuhun. Alle 3-vuotiaiden karieksesta on kuitenkin niukasti tilastotietoja. Maailman terveysjärjestökin suosittaa tietojen keräämistä vasta 3-vuotiaiden ikäryhmästä. Heistä kariesta sairastaa Suomessa 16 %, Yhdysvalloissa 25 %, Englannissa 30 %, Iranissa 46 % ja Saudi-Arabiassa 61 %. Tämä väitöstutkimus selvitti karieksen esiintymistä ja sen vaaratekijöitä 1─3-vuotiailla Teheranissa. Lisäksi tutkimus arvioi perusterveydenhuoltoon sisällytetyn karieksen ehkäisyn tuloksellisuutta. Tutkimuskohteiksi arvottiin Teheranista 18 neuvolaa. Jokaisessa oltiin 4 päivää, jolloin kaikkia rokotuksiin tulleita 1─3-vuotiaita äiteineen pyydettiin osallistumaan tutkimukseen. Kahta lukuun ottamatta kaikki äidit suostuivat, ja aineistoon tuli kaikkiaan 504 lasta äiteineen. Kaikki 1-vuotiaat, 242 lasta äiteineen, valittiin karieksen ehkäisykokeiluun. Sitä varten neuvolat jaettiin kolmeen ryhmään, joista kaksi (A ja B) oli koeryhmiä ja yksi (C) oli vertailuryhmä. Tutkimus alkoi äidin haastattelulla. Siinä selvitettiin perheen koulutus- ja tulotaso sekä lapsen ruokinnasta imetyksen kesto, yösyötöt ja päiväaikaan nautitut makeat. Vielä kysyttiin lapsen ja äidin suuhygieniatavoista ja äidin kokemuksista lapsen suun puhdistamisessa. Sitten hammaslääkäri tutki lapsen suun ja kirjasi karieksen ja hammasplakin esiintymät. Suun tutkimuksen jälkeen äiti ja lapsi siirtyivät rokotushuoneeseen. Koeryhmissä (A ja B) äidit saivat terveydenhoitajalta suunterveyttä koskevan esitteen ja kehotuksen lukea se huolellisesti. Lisäksi ryhmässä A terveydenhoitaja kertoi suun ja hampaiden terveydenhoidosta saman esitteen avulla, ja neuvolan henkilökunta muistutti suunhoidon tärkeydestä puhelimitse kahdesti seuraavan puolen vuoden kuluessa. Vertailuryhmässä äideille ei annettu suunhoidon ohjeita. Kaikissa ryhmissä äitejä muistutettiin seuraavan rokotuskerran ajankohdasta, muttei mainittu tulevaa toista hammastarkastusta. Varhaislapsuuden kariesta sairasti ikäryhmästä riippuen 3─26 % tutkituista 1─3-vuotiaista, ja 65─76 %:lla oli hammasplakkia. Äideistä 68 % harjasi hampaansa päivittäin ja 39 % puhdisti lapsensa suun päivittäin. Mitä useammin äiti harjasi omat hampaansa, sitä paremmin hän huolehti lapsen suun puhtaudesta. Rintaruokinta oli yleistä eikä lisännyt kariesvaaraa. Yöllä pullomaitoa saavilla karies oli 5 kertaa yleisempää kuin muilla. Neuvolassa saatu ohjeistus ehkäisi selvästi karieksen syntyä puolen vuoden kokeessa.

Familial aggregation of type 1 diabetes and diabetic nephropathy in Finland

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is a common, multifactorial disease with strong familial clustering. In Finland, the incidence of T1D among children aged 14 years or under is the highest in the world. The increase in incidence has been approximately 2.4% per year. Although most new T1D cases are sporadic the first-degree relatives are at an increased risk of developing the same disease. This study was designed to examine the familial aggregation of T1D and one of its serious complications, diabetic nephropathy (DN). More specifically the study aimed (1) to determine the concordance rates of T1D in monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twins and to estimate the relative contributions of genetic and environmental factors to the variability in liability to T1D as well as to study the age at onset of diabetes in twins; (2) to obtain long-term empirical estimates of the risk of T1D among siblings of T1D patients and the factors related to this risk, especially the effect of age at onset of diabetes in the proband and the birth cohort effect; (3) to establish if DN is aggregating in a Finnish population-based cohort of families with multiple cases of T1D, and to assess its magnitude and particularly to find out whether the risk of DN in siblings is varying according to the severity of DN in the proband and/or the age at onset of T1D: (4) to assess the recurrence risk of T1D in the offspring of a Finnish population-based cohort of patients with childhood onset T1D, and to investigate potential sex-related effects in the transmission of T1D from the diabetic parents to their offspring as well as to study whether there is a temporal trend in the incidence. The study population comprised of the Finnish Young Twin Cohort (22,650 twin pairs), a population-based cohort of patients with T1D diagnosed at the age of 17 years or earlier between 1965 and 1979 (n=5,144) and all their siblings (n=10,168) and offspring (n=5,291). A polygenic, multifactorial liability model was fitted to the twin data. Kaplan-Meier analyses were used to provide the cumulative incidence for the development of T1D and DN. Cox s proportional hazards models were fitted to the data. Poisson regression analysis was used to evaluate temporal trends in incidence. Standardized incidence ratios (SIRs) between the first-degree relatives of T1D patients and background population were determined. The twin study showed that the vast majority of affected MZ twin pairs remained discordant. Pairwise concordance for T1D was 27.3% in MZ and 3.8% in DZ twins. The probandwise concordance estimates were 42.9% and 7.4%, respectively. The model with additive genetic and individual environmental effects was the best-fitting liability model to T1D, with 88% of the phenotypic variance due to genetic factors. The second paper showed that the 50-year cumulative incidence of T1D in the siblings of diabetic probands was 6.9%. A young age at diagnosis in the probands considerably increased the risk. If the proband was diagnosed at the age of 0-4, 5-9, 10-14, 15 or more, the corresponding 40-year cumulative risks were 13.2%, 7.8%, 4.7% and 3.4%. The cumulative incidence increased with increasing birth year. However, SIR among children aged 14 years or under was approximately 12 throughout the follow-up. The third paper showed that diabetic siblings of the probands with nephropathy had a 2.3 times higher risk of DN compared with siblings of probands free of nephropathy. The presence of end stage renal disease (ESRD) in the proband increases the risk three-fold for diabetic siblings. Being diagnosed with diabetes during puberty (10-14) or a few years before (5-9) increased the susceptibility for DN in the siblings. The fourth paper revealed that of the offspring of male probands, 7.8% were affected by the age of 20 compared with 5.3% of the offspring of female probands. Offspring of fathers with T1D have 1.7 times greater risk to be affected with T1D than the offspring of mothers with T1D. The excess risk in the offspring of male fathers manifested itself through the higher risk the younger the father was when diagnosed with T1D. Young age at onset of diabetes in fathers increased the risk of T1D greatly in the offspring, but no such pattern was seen in the offspring of diabetic mothers. The SIR among offspring aged 14 years or under remained fairly constant throughout the follow-up, approximately 10. The present study has provided new knowledge on T1D recurrence risk in the first-degree relatives and the risk factors modifying the risk. Twin data demonstrated high genetic liability for T1D and increased heritability. The vast majority of affected MZ twin pairs, however, remain discordant for T1D. This study confirmed the drastic impact of the young age at onset of diabetes in the probands on the increased risk of T1D in the first-degree relatives. The only exception was the absence of this pattern in the offspring of T1D mothers. Both the sibling and the offspring recurrence risk studies revealed dynamic changes in the cumulative incidence of T1D in the first-degree relatives. SIRs among the first-degree relatives of T1D patients seems to remain fairly constant. The study demonstrates that the penetrance of the susceptibility genes for T1D may be low, although strongly influenced by the environmental factors. Presence of familial aggregation of DN was confirmed for the first time in a population-based study. Although the majority of the sibling pairs with T1D were discordant for DN, its presence in one sibling doubles and presence of ESRD triples the risk of DN in the other diabetic sibling. An encouraging observation was that although the proportion of children to be diagnosed with T1D at the age of 4 or under is increasing, they seem to have a decreased risk of DN or at least delayed onset.

Dyslipidaemia, glucose intolerance and cardiovascular disease mortality and morbidity in Europeans and Asians

Dyslipidaemia, a major risk factor of cardiovascular disease (CVD), is prevalent not only in diabetic patients but also in individuals with impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) or impaired fasting glucose (IFG). The aims of this study were: 1) to investigate lipid levels in relation to glucose in European (Study I) and Asian (Study II) populations without a prior history of diabetes; 2) to study the ethnic difference in lipid profiles controlling for glucose levels (Study III); 3) to estimate the relative risk for cardiovascular mortality (Study IV) and morbidity (Study V) associated with dyslipidaemia in individuals with different glucose tolerance status. Data of 15 European cohorts with 19 476 subjects (I and III) and 13 Asian cohorts with 19 763 individuals (II and III) from 21 countries aged 25-89 years, without a prior history of diabetes at enrollment, representing Asian Indian, Chinese, European, Japanese and Mauritian Indian, were compared. The lipid-CVD relationship was studied in 14 European cohorts of 17 763 men and women which provided with follow-up data on vital status, with 871 CVD deaths occurred during the average 10-year follow-up (IV). The impact of dyslipidaemia on incidence of coronary heart disease (CHD) in persons with different glucose categories (V) was further evaluated in 6 European studies, with 9087 individuals free of CHD at baseline and 457 developed CHD during follow-up. Z-scores of each lipid component were used in the data analysis (I, II, IV and V) to reduce the differences in methodology between studies. Analyses of cardiovascular mortality and morbidity were performed using Cox proportional hazards regression analysis adjusting for potential confounding factors. Within each glucose category, fasting plasma glucose (FPG) levels were correlated with increasing levels of triglycerides (TG), total cholesterol (TC), TC to high-density lipoprotein (HDL) ratio and non-HDL cholesterol (non-HDL-C) (p<0.05 in most of the ethnic groups) and inversely associated with HDL-C (p<0.05 in some, but not all, of the populations). The association of lipids with 2-h plasma glucose (2hPG) followed a similar pattern as that for the FPG, except the stronger association of HDL-C with 2hPG. Compared with Central & Northern (C & N) Europeans, multivariable adjusted odd ratios (95% CIs) for having low HDL-C were 4.74 (4.19-5.37), 5.05 (3.88-6.56), 3.07 (2.15-4.40) and 2.37 (1.67-3.35) in Asian Indian men but 0.12 (0.09-0.16), 0.07 (0.04-0.13), 0.11 (0.07-0.20) and 0.16 (0.08-0.32) in Chinese men who had normoglycaemia, prediabetes, undiagnosed and diagnosed diabetes, respectively. Similar results were obtained for women. The prevalence of low HDL-C remained higher in Asian Indians than in others even in individuals with LDL-C < 3 mmol/l. Dyslipidaemia was associated with increased CVD mortality or CHD incidence in individuals with isolated fasting hyperglycaemia or IFG, but not in those with isolated post-load hyperglycaemia or IGT. In conclusion, hyperglycaemia is associated with adverse lipid profiles in Europeans and Asians without a prior history of diabetes. There are distinct patterns of lipid profiles associated with ethnicity regardless of the glucose levels, suggesting that ethnic-specific strategies and guidelines on risk assessment and prevention of CVD are required. Dyslipidaemia predicts CVD in either diabetic or non-diabetic individuals defined based on the fasting glucose criteria, but not on the 2-hour criteria. The findings may imply considering different management strategies in people with fasting or post-load hyperglycaemia.

Epidemiological data of seasonal variation in mood and behaviour

The aim of this study was to measure seasonal variation in mood and behaviour. The dual vulnerability and latitude effect hypothesis, the risk of increased appetite, weight and other seasonal symptoms to develop metabolic syndrome, and perception of low illumination in quality of life and mental well-being were assessed. These variations are prevalent in persons who live in high latitudes and need balancing of metabolic processes to adapt to environmental changes due to seasons. A randomized sample of 8028 adults aged 30 and over (55% women) participated in an epidemiological health examination study, The Health 2000, applying the probability proportional to population size method for a range of socio-demographic characteristics. They were present in a face-to-face interview at home and health status examination. The questionnaires included the modified versions of the Seasonal Pattern Assessment Questionnaire (SPAQ) and Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), the Health Related Quality of Life (HRQoL) instrument 15D, and the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ). The structured and computerized Munich Composite International Diagnostic Interview (M-CIDI) as part of the interview was used to assess diagnoses of mental disorders, and, the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III (NCEP-ATPIII) criteria were assessed using all the available information to detect metabolic syndrome. A key finding was that 85% of this nationwide representative sample had seasonal variation in mood and behaviour. Approximately 9% of the study population presented combined seasonal and depressive symptoms with a significant association between their scores, and 2.6% had symptoms that corresponded to Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) in severity. Seasonal variations in weight and appetite are two important components that increase the risk of metabolic syndrome. Other factors such as waist circumference and major depressive disorder contributed to the metabolic syndrome as well. Persons reported of having seasonal symptoms were associated with a poorer quality of life and compromised mental well-being, especially if indoors illumination at home and/or at work was experienced as being low. Seasonal and circadian misalignments are suggested to associate with metabolic disorders, and could be remarked if individuals perceive low illumination levels at home and/or at work that affect the health-related quality of life and mental well-being. Keywords: depression, health-related quality of life, illumination, latitude, mental well-being, metabolic syndrome, seasonal variation, winter.

Stretching single DNA-molecules with temperature-stabilized optical tweezers

This thesis consists of two parts; in the first part we performed a single-molecule force extension measurement with 10kb long DNA-molecules from phage-λ to validate the calibration and single-molecule capability of our optical tweezers instrument. Fitting the worm-like chain interpolation formula to the data revealed that ca. 71% of the DNA tethers featured a contour length within ±15% of the expected value (3.38 µm). Only 25% of the found DNA had a persistence length between 30 and 60 nm. The correct value should be within 40 to 60 nm. In the second part we designed and built a precise temperature controller to remove thermal fluctuations that cause drifting of the optical trap. The controller uses feed-forward and PID (proportional-integral-derivative) feedback to achieve 1.58 mK precision and 0.3 K absolute accuracy. During a 5 min test run it reduced drifting of the trap from 1.4 nm/min in open-loop to 0.6 nm/min in closed-loop.

A computational study of Compton profiles of water - methanol solutions

The molecular level structure of mixtures of water and alcohols is very complicated and has been under intense research in the recent past. Both experimental and computational methods have been used in the studies. One method for studying the intra- and intermolecular bindings in the mixtures is the use of the so called difference Compton profiles, which are a way to obtain information about changes in the electron wave functions. In the process of Compton scattering a photon scatters inelastically from an electron. The Compton profile that is obtained from the electron wave functions is directly proportional to the probability of photon scattering at a given energy to a given solid angle. In this work we develop a method to compute Compton profiles numerically for mixtures of liquids. In order to obtain the electronic wave functions necessary to calculate the Compton profiles we need some statistical information about atomic coordinates. Acquiring this using ab-initio molecular dynamics is beyond our computational capabilities and therefore we use classical molecular dynamics to model the movement of atoms in the mixture. We discuss the validity of the chosen method in view of the results obtained from the simulations. There are some difficulties in using classical molecular dynamics for the quantum mechanical calculations, but these can possibly be overcome by parameter tuning. According to the calculations clear differences can be seen in the Compton profiles of different mixtures. This prediction needs to be tested in experiments in order to find out whether the approximations made are valid.

Molecular Interactions Chlorin Assemblies and NMR Separations

Photosynthesis is a chemical process in which the energy of the light quanta is transformed into chemical energy. Chlorophyll (Chl) molecules play a key role in photosynthesis; they function in the antennae systems and in the photosynthetic reaction center where the primary charge separation (CS) takes place. Bio-inspired mimicry of the CS is an essential unit in dye-sensitized solar cells. Aim of this study was to design and develop electron donor-acceptor (EDA) pairs from Chls and fullerenes (C60) or carbon nanotubes (CNT). The supramolecular approach was chosen, as long synthetic sequences required by the covalent approach lead to long reaction schemes and low yields. Here, a π-interaction between soluble CNTs and Chl was used in EDA construction. Also, a beta-face selective two-point bound Chl-C60 EDA was introduced. In addition, the photophysical properties of the supramolecular EDA dyads were analyzed. In organic chemistry, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is the most vital analytical technique in use. Multi-dimensional NMR experiments have enabled a structural analysis of complex natural products and proteins. However, in mixture analysis NMR is still facing difficulties. In many cases overlapping signals can t be resolved even with the help of multi-dimensional experiments. In this work, an NMR tool based on simple host-guest chemistry between analytes and macromolecules was developed. Diffusion ordered NMR spectroscopy (DOSY) measures the mobilities of compounds in an NMR sample. In a liquid state NMR sample, each of the analytes has a characteristic diffusion coefficient, which is proportional to the size of the analyte. With normal DOSY experiment, provided that the diffusion coefficients of the analytes differ enough, individual spectra of analytes can be extracted. When similar sized analytes differ chemically, an additive can be introduced into the sample. Since macromolecules in a liquid state NMR sample can be considered practically stationary, even faint supramolecular interaction can change the diffusion coefficient of the analyte sufficiently for a successful resolution in DOSY. In this thesis, polyvinylpyrrolidone and polyethyleneglycol enhanced DOSY NMR techniques, which enable mixture analysis of similar in size but chemically differing natural products, are introduced.

Methods to improve gene signal: Application to cDNA microarrays

Microarrays are high throughput biological assays that allow the screening of thousands of genes for their expression. The main idea behind microarrays is to compute for each gene a unique signal that is directly proportional to the quantity of mRNA that was hybridized on the chip. A large number of steps and errors associated with each step make the generated expression signal noisy. As a result, microarray data need to be carefully pre-processed before their analysis can be assumed to lead to reliable and biologically relevant conclusions. This thesis focuses on developing methods for improving gene signal and further utilizing this improved signal for higher level analysis. To achieve this, first, approaches for designing microarray experiments using various optimality criteria, considering both biological and technical replicates, are described. A carefully designed experiment leads to signal with low noise, as the effect of unwanted variations is minimized and the precision of the estimates of the parameters of interest are maximized. Second, a system for improving the gene signal by using three scans at varying scanner sensitivities is developed. A novel Bayesian latent intensity model is then applied on these three sets of expression values, corresponding to the three scans, to estimate the suitably calibrated true signal of genes. Third, a novel image segmentation approach that segregates the fluorescent signal from the undesired noise is developed using an additional dye, SYBR green RNA II. This technique helped in identifying signal only with respect to the hybridized DNA, and signal corresponding to dust, scratch, spilling of dye, and other noises, are avoided. Fourth, an integrated statistical model is developed, where signal correction, systematic array effects, dye effects, and differential expression, are modelled jointly as opposed to a sequential application of several methods of analysis. The methods described in here have been tested only for cDNA microarrays, but can also, with some modifications, be applied to other high-throughput technologies. Keywords: High-throughput technology, microarray, cDNA, multiple scans, Bayesian hierarchical models, image analysis, experimental design, MCMC, WinBUGS.

"Politiikka on kirkossa" : Keskustapuolueen kirkkopoliittisten tavoitteiden muotoutuminen vuosina 1966–1978

This study in church history deals with the formation of aims in the church politics of the Centre Party during a period of extensive politicisation in Finnish society – 1966 to 1978. The focus is on the processes of creating political input within the party organisation. The most important source material consists of the records of the highest party organs as well as material from the party office and the party’s committee for church politics. In the late 1960s, at a time of leftist radicalism in Finnish society, issues concerning the Church were seldom dealt with in the highest party organs, even though informal discussion took place within the party. This phase was followed by a conservative reaction in society during the 1970s. The rightist trend as well as the ongoing politicisation process substantially strengthened the role of church politics in the party. An aim of great importance was to prevent those supporters who belonged to the Lutheran revival movements from moving into the Finnish Christian League. Therefore it became increasingly important to prove that the Centre Party was defending the Church as well as so-called Christian values in state politics, e.g., by advocating religious instruction in schools. The Centre Party also defended the independence and legal status of the Church, at the same time positioning itself against Finland’s Social Democratic Party. Many party members were of the opinion that the church politics should have been about defending the Church and Christian values in state politics instead of defending the proportional share of the party’s seats in the ecclesiastical decision-making system. Nevertheless, the struggle for hegemony between the Centre Party and the Social Democrats was reflected in the Evangelical Lutheran Church particularly since 1973. Thus the aims of church politics were increasingly directed towards ecclesiastical elections and appointments in the 1970s. To justify its activities in church elections, the party stressed that it was not politicising the Church. To the contrary, it was asserted that the church leaders themselves had politicised the Church by favouring the Social Democrats. These alleged efforts to affiliate the Church with one political party were strictly condemned in the Centre Party. But when it came to the political parties’ activity in church elections, opinions diverged. Generally, the issues of church politics resembled those of the party’s trade union politics in the 1970s.

Microeconometric Studies on Unemployment and Business Cycles

Väitöskirja koostuu neljästä esseestä, joissa tutkitaan empiirisen työntaloustieteen kysymyksiä. Ensimmäinen essee tarkastelee työttömyysturvan tason vaikutusta työllistymiseen Suomessa. Vuonna 2003 ansiosidonnaista työttömyysturvaa korotettiin työntekijöille, joilla on pitkä työhistoria. Korotus oli keskimäärin 15 % ja se koski ensimmäistä 150 työttömyyspäivää. Tutkimuksessa arvioidaan korotuksen vaikutus vertailemalla työllistymisen todennäköisyyksiä korotuksen saaneen ryhmän ja vertailuryhmän välillä ennen uudistusta ja sen jälkeen. Tuloksien perusteella työttömyysturvan korotus laski työllistymisen todennäköisyyttä merkittävästi, keskimäärin noin 16 %. Korotuksen vaikutus on suurin työttömyyden alussa ja se katoaa kun oikeus korotettuun ansiosidonnaiseen päättyy. Toinen essee tutkii työttömyyden pitkän aikavälin kustannuksia Suomessa keskittyen vuosien 1991 – 1993 syvään lamaan. Laman aikana toimipaikkojen sulkeminen lisääntyi paljon ja työttömyysaste nousi yli 13 prosenttiyksikköä. Tutkimuksessa verrataan laman aikana toimipaikan sulkemisen vuoksi työttömäksi jääneitä parhaassa työiässä olevia miehiä työllisinä pysyneisiin. Työttömyyden vaikutusta tarkastellaan kuuden vuoden seurantajaksolla. Vuonna 1999 työttömyyttä laman aikana kokeneen ryhmän vuosiansiot olivat keskimäärin 25 % alemmat kuin vertailuryhmässä. Tulojen menetys johtui sekä alhaisemmasta työllisyydestä että palkkatasosta. Kolmannessa esseessä tarkastellaan Suomen 1990-luvun alun laman aiheuttamaa työttömyysongelmaa tutkimalla työttömyyden kestoon vaikuttavia tekijöitä yksilötasolla. Kiinnostuksen kohteena on työttömyyden rakenteen ja työn kysynnän muutoksien vaikutus keskimääräiseen kestoon. Usein oletetaan, että laman seurauksena työttömäksi jää keskimääräistä huonommin työllistyviä henkilöitä, jolloin se itsessään pidentäisi keskimääräistä työttömyyden kestoa. Tuloksien perusteella makrotason kysyntävaikutus oli keskeinen työttömyyden keston kannalta ja rakenteen muutoksilla oli vain pieni kestoa lisäävä vaikutus laman aikana. Viimeisessä esseessä tutkitaan suhdannevaihtelun vaikutusta työpaikkaonnettomuuksien esiintymiseen. Tutkimuksessa käytetään ruotsalaista yksilötason sairaalahoitoaineistoa, joka on yhdistetty populaatiotietokantaan. Aineiston avulla voidaan tutkia vaihtoehtoisia selityksiä onnettomuuksien lisääntymiselle noususuhdanteessa, minkä on esitetty johtuvan esim. stressin tai kiireen vaikutuksesta. Tuloksien perusteella työpaikkaonnettomuudet ovat syklisiä, mutta vain tiettyjen ryhmien kohdalla. Työvoiman rakenteen vaihtelu saattaa selittää osan naisten onnettomuuksien syklisyydestä. Miesten kohdalla vain vähemmän vakavat onnettomuudet ovat syklisiä, mikä saattaa johtua strategisesta käyttäytymisestä.

Essays on Labor Market Frictions, Technological Change and Macroeconomic Fluctuations

The dissertation consists of an introductory chapter and three essays that apply search-matching theory to study the interaction of labor market frictions, technological change and macroeconomic fluctuations. The first essay studies the impact of capital-embodied growth on equilibrium unemployment by extending a vintage capital/search model to incorporate vintage human capital. In addition to the capital obsolescence (or creative destruction) effect that tends to raise unemployment, vintage human capital introduces a skill obsolescence effect of faster growth that has the opposite sign. Faster skill obsolescence reduces the value of unemployment, hence wages and leads to more job creation and less job destruction, unambiguously reducing unemployment. The second essay studies the effect of skill biased technological change on skill mismatch and the allocation of workers and firms in the labor market. By allowing workers to invest in education, we extend a matching model with two-sided heterogeneity to incorporate an endogenous distribution of high and low skill workers. We consider various possibilities for the cost of acquiring skills and show that while unemployment increases in most scenarios, the effect on the distribution of vacancy and worker types varies according to the structure of skill costs. When the model is extended to incorporate endogenous labor market participation, we show that the unemployment rate becomes less informative of the state of the labor market as the participation margin absorbs employment effects. The third essay studies the effects of labor taxes on equilibrium labor market outcomes and macroeconomic dynamics in a New Keynesian model with matching frictions. Three policy instruments are considered: a marginal tax and a tax subsidy to produce tax progression schemes, and a replacement ratio to account for variability in outside options. In equilibrium, the marginal tax rate and replacement ratio dampen economic activity whereas tax subsidies boost the economy. The marginal tax rate and replacement ratio amplify shock responses whereas employment subsidies weaken them. The tax instruments affect the degree to which the wage absorbs shocks. We show that increasing tax progression when taxation is initially progressive is harmful for steady state employment and output, and amplifies the sensitivity of macroeconomic variables to shocks. When taxation is initially proportional, increasing progression is beneficial for output and employment and dampens shock responses.

Responses of Scots pine to nickel and copper exposure and herbivory

The goal of this thesis was to examine the ecophysiological responses of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.), with an emphasis on the oxidative enzyme peroxidase and plant phenolics to environmental stresses like elevated levels of nickel (Ni) and copper (Cu), and herbivory. The effects of Ni and Cu were studied in a gradient survey at a sulphur dioxide contaminated site in the Kola Peninsula, and with experiments in which seedlings were exposed to Ni mist or to Ni and Cu amended into the soil. In addition, experimental Ni exposure was combined with disturbance of the natural lichen cover of the forest ground layer. Pine sawfly attack was simulated in the early season defoliation experiment, in which mature Scots pine were defoliated (100 %) during two successive years in a dry, nutrient-poor Scots pine stand. In addition, the effect of previous defoliation on the growth of sawfly (Diprion pini L.) larvae was studied. Apoplastic peroxidase activity was elevated in the needles of pine in a Ni- , Cu- and SO2- polluted environment, which indicated an increased oxidative stress. Increased foliar peroxidase activity due to Ni contamination was shown in the experiment, in which Ni was added as mist. No such response was found in peroxidase acitivity of the roots exposed to elevated Ni and/or Cu in the soil. Elevated Ni in the soil increased the concentration of foliar condensed tannins, which are able to bind heavy metals in the cells. Addition of low levels of Ni in the soil appeared to benefit pine seedlings, which was seen as promoted shoot growth and better condition of the roots. Wet Ni deposition of 2000 mg m-2 reduced growth and survival of pine seedlings, whereas deposition levels 200 mg m-2 or 20 mg m-2 caused no effects in a 2-y lasting experiment. The lichen mat on the forest floor did not act as an effective buffer against the adverse impacts of heavy metals on pine seedlings. However, some evidence was found indicating that soil microbes profited from the lichen mat. Artificial defoliation increased peroxidase activity in the Scots pine needles. In addition, defoliation decreased nitrogen, diamine putrescine and glucose concentrations in the needles and increased the concentrations of several phenolic compounds, starch and sucrose. Previous artificial defoliation led to poor growth of sawfly larvae reared on the pines, suggesting delayed induced resistance in Scots pine. However, there was no consistent relationship between inducibility (proportional increase in a compound following defoliation) and adverse effects on the growth of pine sawfly larvae. The observed inducible responses in needle phenolics due to previous defoliation thus appear to represent non-specific responses against sawflies.

Hormone therapy in elderly women; a comparative study with alendronate of the effects on bone, cardiovascular risk factors, periodontal conditions and quality of life

Thirty percent of 70-year-old women have osteoporosis; after age of 80 its prevalence is up to 70%. Postmenopausal women with osteoporosis seem to be at an increased risk for cardiovascular events, and deterioration of oral health, as shown by attachment loss of teeth, which is proportional to the severity of osteoporosis. Osteoporosis can be treated with many different medication, e.g. estrogen and alendronate. We randomized 90 elderly osteoporotic women (65-80 years of age) to receive hormone therapy (HT)(2mg E2+NETA), 10mg alendronate, and their combination for two years and compared their effects on bone mineral density (BMD) and turnover, two surrogate markers of the risk of cardiovascular diseases, C-reactive protein (CRP) and E-selectin, as well as oral health. The effect of HT on health-related quality of life (HRQoL) was studied in the population-based cohort of 1663 postmenopausal women (mean age 68 yr) (585 estrogen users and 1078 non-users). BMD was measured with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) at 0, 12 and 24 months. Urinary N-telopeptide (NTX) of type I collagen, a marker of bone resorption, and serum aminoterminal propeptide of human type I procollagen (PINP), a marker of bone formation, were measured every six months of treatment. Serum CRP and E-selectin, were measured at 0, 6, and 12 months. Dental, and periodontal conditions, and gingival crevicular fluid (GCF) matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-8 levels were studied to evaluate the oral health status and for the mouth symptoms a structured questionnaire was used. The HRQoL was measured with 15D questionnaire. Lumbar spine BMD increased similarly in all treatment groups (6.8-8.4% and 9.1-11.2%). Only HT increased femoral neck BMD at both 12 (4.9%) and 24 months (5.8%), at the latter time point the HT group differed significantly from the other groups. HT reduced bone marker levels of NTX and PINP significantly less than other two groups.Oral HT significantly increased serum CRP level by 76.5% at 6 and by 47.1% (NS) at 12 months, and decreased serum E-selectin level by 24.3% and 30.0%. Alendronate had no effect on these surrogate markers. Alendronate caused a decrease in the resting salivary flow rate and tended to increase GCF MMP-8 levels. Otherwise, there was no effect on the parameters of oral health. HT improved the HRQoL of elderly women significantly on the dimensions of usual activities, vitality and sexual activity, but the overall improvement in HRQoL was neither statistically significant nor clinically important. In conclusion, bisphosphonates might be the first option to start the treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis in the old age.