Suomen ja Liettuan kielen nominaalimuodoista : vertaileva näkökulma

Tämän maisterintutkielman tutkimusalueena on liettuan kielioppi. Liettua on yksi vanhakantaisimmista yhä puhuttavista indoeurooppalaisista kielistä, joiden balttilaiseen ryhmään kuuluu sen ohella enää ainoastaan latvia. Liettuan kieli on Suomessa varsin tuntematon, vaikka valtaosa sen puhujista asuu täältä verrattain lyhyen matkan päässä. Siitä ei tätä kirjoitettaessa ole ilmestynyt suomen kielellä juuri muuta oppimateriaalia kuin yksi suppeahko asiointisanasto ja pieni sanakirja. Mitään varsinaista oppikirjaa tai kielioppia ei ole kirjoitettu. Tämän työn yhtenä tarkoituksena onkin siten paikata kielen melkoista suomeksi painetun oppimateriaalin puutetta. Työn varsinaiseksi tutkimuskohteeksi on otettu osa suomen ja liettuan kielten verbijärjestelmästä – nominaalimuodot ja niiden käyttö. Nominaalimuodoilla tarkoitetaan ei-finiittisiä verbimuotoja, jotka eivät voi yksinään esiintyä lauseen predikaattina ja joita käytetään nimensä mukaisesti nominien tavoin. Työssä luodaan ensinnä verrattain laaja katsaus suomen kielen infinitiiveihin ja partisiippeihin, minkä jälkeen siirrytään perusteellisesti tarkastelemaan liettuan kielen tärkeimpiä nominaalimuotoja: infinitiiviä, partisiippia, puolipartisiippia, adverbiaalipartisiippia ja supiinia. Tarkastelun pääpaino kohdistuu partisiippeihin. Yhtenä työn tavoitteista on esitellä, mitä eri nominaalimuotoja kielissä esiintyy, miten ne muodostetaan ja mihin tarkoituksiin niitä käytetään. Tämän lisäksi työhön sisältyy vertaileva näkökulma: siinä halutaan selvittää, millaisia tärkeimpiä yhtäläisyyksiä ja eroja kielten nominaalimuotojen välillä esiintyy. Käytetty lähestymistapa on siten kontrastiivinen eli kielten synkroniseen vertailuun perustuva. Kielten nominaalimuotojen välisten erojen ja yhteisten piirteiden valaisemiseksi työhön on sisällytetty molemmilla kielillä runsaasti esimerkkejä ja muotojen muodostamissääntöjä kuvaavia taulukoita. Suomen kielen osalta työn tärkeimpinä lähteinä ovat Nykysuomen käsikirja ja Iso suomen kielioppi. Liettuan verbimuotoja kuvaavat taulukot ja lisäksi monet esimerkkilauseista perustuvat puolestaan Liettuan kielen instituutin julkaisemaan teokseen Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatika. Työn loppuosassa on laajahko liettuankielinen tiivistelmä, joka tekee työstä käyttökelpoisen myös liettuaa äidinkielenään puhuvalle, suomen kielestä kiinnostuneelle henkilölle. Tehtyjen vertailujen tärkeimpinä johtopäätöksinä voidaan todeta, että suomen kielen nominaalimuodoista infinitiivien käyttöalue on liettuan infinitiivin sovellusaluetta laajempi. Erityisesti suomen toisen ja kolmannen infinitiivimuodon eri käyttötarkoituksia kohti löytyy liettuan kielestä useita eri nominaalimuotoja. Sen sijaan suomen I ja II partisiippi sekä liettuan partisiippi ovat verrattain usein käyttötavoiltaan toisiaan muistuttavia. Avainsanat: liettuan kieli, verbit, nominaalimuodot, vertaileva kielentutkimus

Intermediate Past BE : A Paradigm Reshaped With Data Drawn From HARES

In this paper, I look into a grammatical phenomenon found among speakers of the Cambridgeshire dialect of English. According to my hypothesis, the phenomenon is a new entry into the past BE verb paradigm in the English language. In my paper, I claim that the structure I have found complements the existing two verb forms, was and were, with a third verb form that I have labelled ‘intermediate past BE’. The paper is divided into two parts. In the first section, I introduce the theoretical ground for the study of variation, which is founded on empiricist principles. In variationist linguistics, the main claim is that heterogeneous language use is structured and ordered. In the last 50 years of history in modern linguistics, this claim is controversial. In the 1960s, the generativist movement spearheaded by Noam Chomsky diverted attention away from grammatical theories that are based on empirical observations. The generativists steered away from language diversity, variation and change in favour of generalisations, abstractions and universalist claims. The theoretical part of my paper goes through the main points of the variationist agenda and concludes that abandoning the concept of language variation in linguistics is harmful for both theory and methodology. In the method part of the paper, I present the Helsinki Archive of Regional English Speech (HARES) corpus. It is an audio archive that contains interviews conducted in England in the 1970s and 1980s. The interviews were done in accordance to methods used generally in traditional dialectology. The informants are mostly elderly male people who have lived in the same region throughout their lives and who have left school at an early age. The interviews are actually conversations: the interviewer allowed the informant to pick the topic of conversation to induce a maximally relaxed and comfortable atmosphere and thus allow the most natural dialect variant to emerge in the informant’s speech. In the paper, the corpus chapter introduces some of the transcription and annotation problems associated with spoken language corpora (especially those containing dialectal speech). Questions surrounding the concept of variation are present in this part of the paper too, as especially transcription work is troubled by the fundamental problem of having to describe the fluctuations of everyday speech in text. In the empirical section of the paper, I use HARES to analyse the speech of four informants, with special focus on the emergence of the intermediate past BE variant. My observations and the subsequent analysis permit me to claim that my hypothesis seems to hold. The intermediate variant occupies almost all contexts where one would expect was or were in the informants’ speech. This means that the new variant is integrated into the speakers’ grammars and exemplifies the kind of variation that is at the heart of this paper.

Arkeen pudonnut sibylla : Modernin naisen identiteetin rakentuminen Marja-Liisa Vartion romaanissa Kaikki naiset näkevät unia

A Sibyl fallen into everyday life. The enfolding of the identity of modern woman in Marja- Liisa Vartio s novel Kaikki naiset näkevät unia ( All Women Have Dreams ). --- Marja-Liisa Vartio played a remarkable part in renewing Finnish literature. My thesis examines her novel Kaikki naiset näkevät unia (1960), which describes the life of a middle-aged housewife, Mrs. Pyy ( Mrs. Hazel Hen ). She has moved from country to city and lives now in a suburb, in the Helsinki of the 1950 s. In Finnish literature, the novel is the first significant description of a modern city woman accomplished by modernistic means. My research examines the identity of a woman in the Finland of the 50 s, an epoch marked by the inevitable transition into modernity. My aim is to look into the ways in which the female identity enfolds in Kaikki naiset näkevät unia, how it takes its form, how it is described and commented. The primary method is contextual close reading; the novel is seen in the social, cultural and historical context of the time it was published. Essential elements in this study are literary motifs and images in the novel, and particularly transtextual relations as defined by Gérald Genette. The focus is on hypertextuality, intertextuality and paratextuality. Kaikki naiset näkevät unia emerges as a modern version of Madame Bovary by Gustave Flaubert. A woman s life spent in illusive dreaming is transferred from a 1900th century bourgeois town in France to a middle class Finnish suburb in the 1950 s. Vartio s novel is a variant of an ancient Finnish ballad I, a bird without a nest , making it into a modern narration of transition. The inner, mental journey from country to city is of great length, and the liminal life in a suburb does not make the passage any easier. Like the lyrical voices in the poetry of Edith Södergran, also Mrs. Pyy finds it hard to discover any values of sisterhood or those of ideal femininity in modern times. In earlier studies of Marja-Liisa Vartio s prose, stress has been laid on the discourse of her narrators and characters, as well as on its modern literary form. In this research, however, urgent allusions to paintings, old and new, are taken into account, since Mrs. Pyy mirrors herself against art, both classical and modern. Principal images in this context are Michelangelo s Sibyls in the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, and a modern painting, which remains unidentified. Mrs. Pyy turns out to be a tragicomic character, who has magnanimous illusions about herself, but is compelled to accept the fact the she is only a mediocre person. She is nothing more than a first generation city dweller; she is not a modern, aloof outsider but a mere dilettante, who desperately tries to live out modern city life. Kaikki naiset näkevät unia is a striking picture of the 1950 s, a picture that is construed in the consciousness of Mrs. Pyy. We are shown everyday life growing more and more modern after the war and woman s role growing more and more subject to increasing pressure for change.

A Touch of Red : Archaeological and Ethnographic Approaches to Interpreting Finnish Rock Paintings

Approximately 125 prehistoric rock paintings have been found in the modern territory of Finland. The paintings were done with red ochre and are almost without exception located on steep lakeshore cliffs associated with ancient water routes. Most of the sites are found in the central and eastern parts of the country, especially on the shores of Lakes Päijänne and Saimaa. Using shore displacement chronology, the art has been dated to ca. 5000 – 1500 BC. It was thus created mainly during the Stone Age and can be associated with the so-called ‘Comb Ware’ cultures of the Subneolithic period. The range of motifs is rather limited, consisting mainly of schematic depictions of stick-figure humans, elks, boats, handprints and geometric signs. Few paintings include any evidence of narrative scenes, making their interpretation a rather difficult task. In Finnish archaeological literature, the paintings have traditionally been associated with ’sympathetic’ hunting magic, or the belief that the ritual shooting of the painted animals would increase hunting luck. Some writers have also suggested totemistic and shamanistic readings of the art. This dissertation is a critical review of the interpretations offered of Finnish rock art and an exploration of the potentials of archaeological and ethnographic research in increasing our knowledge of its meaning. Methods used include ’formal’ approaches such as archaeological excavation, landscape analysis and the application of neuropsychological research to the study of rock art, as well as ethnographically ’informed’ approaches that make use of Saami and Baltic Finnish ethnohistorical sources in interpretation. In conclusion, it is argued that although North European hunter-gatherer rock art is often thought to lie beyond the reach of ‘informed’ knowledge, the exceptional continuity of prehistoric settlement in Finland validates the informed approach in the interpretation of Finnish rock paintings. The art can be confidently associated with shamanism of the kind still practiced by the Saami of Northern Fennoscandia in the historical period. Evidence of similar shamanistic practices, concepts and cosmology are also found in traditional Finnish-Karelian epic poetry. Previous readings of the art based on ‘hunting magic’ and totemism are rejected. Most of the paintings appear to depict experiences of falling into a trance, of shamanic metamorphosis and trance journeys, and of ‘spirit helper’ beings comparable to those employed by the Saami shaman (noaidi). As demonstrated by the results of an excavation at the rock painting of Valkeisaari, the painted cliffs themselves find a close parallel in the Saami cult of the 'sieidi', or sacred cliffs and boulders worshipped as expressing a supernatural power. Like the Saami, the prehistoric inhabitants of the Finnish Lake Region seem to have believed that certain cliffs were ’alive’ and inhabited by the spirit helpers of the shaman. The rock paintings can thus be associated with shamanic vision quests, and the making of ‘art’ with an effort to socialize the other members of the community, especially the ritual specialists, with trance visions. However, the paintings were not merely to be looked at. The red ochre handprints pressed on images of elks, as well as the fact that many paintings appear ’smeared’, indicate that they were also to be touched – perhaps in order to tap into the supernatural potency inherent in the cliff and in the paintings of spirit animals.

Suomen rautakautiset kulkuset, kellot ja kelloriipukset : äänimaiseman arkeologiaa

The thesis addresses the problem of Finnish Iron Age bells, pellet bells and bell pendants, previously unexplored musical artefacts from 400–1300 AD. The study, which contributes to the field of music archaeology, aims to provide a gateway to ancient soundworlds and ideas of music making. The research questions include: Where did these metal artefacts come from? How did they sound? How were they used? What did their sound mean to the people of the Iron Age? The data collected at the National Museum of Finland and at several provincial museums covers a total of 486 bells, pellet bells and bell pendants. By means of a cluster analysis, each category was divided into several subgroups. The subgroups, which all seem to have a different dating and geographical distribution, represent a spread of both local and international manufacturing traditions. According to an elemental analysis, the material varies from iron to copper-tin, copper-lead and copper-tin-lead alloys. Clappers, pellets and pebbles prove that the bells and pellet bells were indisputably instruments intended for sound production. Clusters of small bell pendants, however, probably produced sound by jingling against each other. Spectrogram plots reveal that the partials of the still audible sounds range from 1 000 to 19 850 Hz. On the basis of 129 inhumation graves, hoards, barrows and stray finds, it seems evident that the bells, pellet bells and bell pendants were fastened to dresses and horse harnesses or carried in pouches and boxes. The resulting acoustic spaces could have been employed in constructing social hierarchies, since the instruments usually appear in richly furnished graves. Furthermore, the instruments repeatedly occur with crosses, edge tools and zoomorphic pendants that in the later Finnish-Karelian culture were regarded as prophylactic amulets. In the Iron Age as well as in later folk culture, the bell sounds seem to have expressed territorial, social and cosmological boundaries.

Meillä ei ole ikuisia ystäviä eikä ikuisia vihollisia. Ikuisia ovat meidän omat etumme. : Suomen suhteet Kiinan kansantasavaltaan 1949 - 1989

"We have neither Eternal Friends nor Eternal Enemies. We have only Eternal Interests .Finland's Relations with China 1949-1989 The study focuses on the relations between Finland and the People s Republic of China from 1949-1989 and examines how a small country became embroiled in international politics, and how, at the same time, international politics affected Finnish-Chinese relations and Finland s China policy formulation. The study can be divided into three sections: relations during the early years, 1949-1960, before the Chinese and Soviet rift became public; the relations during the passive period during the 1960s and 1970s; and the impact of China s Open Door policy on Finland s China policy from 1978-1989. The diplomatically challenging events around Tiananmen Square and the reactions which followed in Finland bring the study to a close. Finland was among the first Western countries to recognise the People s Republic and to establish diplomatic relations with her, thereby giving Finland an excellent position from which to further develop good relations. Finland was also the first Western country to sign a trade agreement with China. These two factors meant that Finland was able to enjoy a special status with China during the 1950s. The special status was further strengthened by the systematic support of the government of Finland for China's UN membership. The solid reputation earned in the 1950s had to carry Finland all the way through to the 1980s. For the two decades in between, during the passive policy period of the 1960s and 1970s, relations between Finland and the Soviet Union also determined the state of foreign relations with China. Interestingly, however, it appeared that President Urho Kekkonen was encouraged by Ambassador Joel Toivola to envisage a more proactive policy towards China, but the Cultural Revolution cut short any such plan for nearly twenty years. Because of the Soviet Union, Finland held on to her passive China policy, even though no such message was ever received from the Soviet Union. In fact, closer relationships between Finland and China were encouraged through diplomatic channels. It was not until the presidency of Mauno Koivisto that the first high-level ministerial visit was made to China when, in 1984, Foreign Minister Paavo Väyrynen visited the People s Republic. Finnish-Chinese relations were lifted to a new level. Foreign Minister Väyrynen, however, was forced to remove the prejudices of the Chinese. In 1985, when the Speaker of the Finnish Parliament, Erkki Pystynen visited China he also discovered that Finland s passive China policy had caused misunderstandings amongst the Chinese politicians. The number of exchanges escalated in the wake of the ground-breaking visit by Foreign Minister Väyrynen: Prime Minister Kalevi Sorsa visited China in 1986 and President Koivisto did so in 1988. President Koivisto stuck to practical, China-friendly policies: his correspondence with Li Peng, the attitude taken by the Finnish government after the Tiananmen Square events and the subsequent choices made by his administration all pointed to a new era in relations with China.

"Kokonainen elämä on ihmisen pyhin oikeus" : Rolf Lagerborgin seksuaaliradikalismi ja ylempien yhteiskuntaryhmien keskinäiset esiaviolliset suhteet 1900-luvun alun Suomessa.

Tutkielman aiheena on Rolf Lagerborgin seksuaaliradikalismi ja ylempien yhteiskuntaryhmien keskinäiset esiaviolliset suhteet 1900-luvun alun Suomessa. Filosofian tohtori, sittemmin professori Rolf Lagerborg (1874-1959) oli aikakauden näkyvin seksuaaliradikaalien aatteiden yläluokkainen kannattaja. Hänen 'vapaata rakkautta' ja naisen vapautta puolustaneista kirjoituksistaan sekä tuomioistuinavioliitostaan sukeutui kiivassanainen väittely, joka laajuudessaan oli Suomessa ennennäkemätön. Keskustelu levisi kaikkiin sivistyneistön tärkeimpiin äänitorviin ja siihen osallistui suuri joukko aikansa huomattavimpia mielipidevaikuttajia. Tutkielmassa selvitetään, mitä Rolf Lagerborg vuosisadan alussa esitti sukupuolikysymyksestä, mihin muihin toimiin hän sanaradikalismin lisäksi ryhtyi sekä miksi hän tämän kaiken teki. Siinä perehdytään myös Lagerborgin muuhun kirjalliseen tuotantoon ja jäljitetään sitä laajempaa kontekstia, josta seksuaaliradikaalit käsitykset muodostivat yhden osan. Tutkielmassa tarkastellaan lisäksi Lagerborgin provosoimaa julkista keskustelua. Huomio kiinnitetään erityisesti niihin perustaviin näkemyseroihin, joita kiistaan osallistuneiden sivistyneistön edustajien keskuudessa ilmeni. Lähtökohtana on oletus, että sukupuolikysymyksen aktualisoituminen vuosisadan vaihteessa oli osa länsimaisessa maailmankuvassa tapahtunutta fundamentaalista muutosta. Lopuksi hahmotetaan kirkonkirjoista kerätyn empiirisen tilastoaineiston kautta sitä sukupuolielämän ruohonjuuritasoa, jonka päällä erilaiset hyvinkin korkealentoiset diskurssit risteilivät. Pyrkimyksenä on tutkia yksilön, yhteisön sekä tilastollisen aineiston vuorovaikutusta. Lagerborgin seksuaaliradikalismin keskeisimmäksi piirteeksi nousi yksilön itsemääräämisoikeutta ja valinnanvapautta korostanut individualismi. Taustalla vaikuttivat myös reformistinen sosialismi sekä nietzscheläis-westermarckilainen relativismi. Tärkein motiivi oli taistelu uskonnonvapauden puolesta, mikä Lagerborgille merkitsi samalla henkilökohtaista vapaustaistelua uskonnosta. 'Vapaan rakkauden' kannattajat ja vastustajat on maailmankatsomuksensa perusteella tutkielmassa jaettu viiteen ryhmään. Lagerborgin edustaman eettisen pluralismin lisäksi erotetaan vanhaluterilainen arvomaailma, moderni kristillisyys, suomalais-kansallinen idealismi sekä luonnon korottaminen absoluutiksi. Osaltaan sukupuolinen pidättyvyys osoitetaan valtastrategiaksi, johon eräät yläluokkaiset naiset ja nouseva sivistyneistö tukeutuivat. Lagerborgin toiminnan välittömin tulos oli siviiliavioliittohankkeen nopeutuminen Suomessa. Näkyvin seuraus taas oli ankara absoluuttisen sukupuolimoraalin puolustus. Julkinen keskustelu ei kuitenkaan ollut suorassa suhteessa sukupuolielämän käytäntöihin. Tutkimusajanjakso 1904-1914 ei ollut tutkielman tilastollisen aineiston valossa murroskausi sen paremmin absoluuttisen kuin relativistisenkaan sukupuolimoraalin suuntaan. Tutkimuksessa Lagerborg osoittautuu marginaaliseksi hahmoksi. Syynä tähän marginalisoitumiseen oli konservatiivinen ympäristö, johon nähden monet Lagerborgin ajatukset olivat ns. aikaansa edellä. Lisäksi ongelmia aiheutti Lagerborgin konfliktinhaluinen ja epädiplomaattinen esiintyminen. Marginaalisuus ei kuitenkaan ole merkityksetöntä. Lagerborg-kiista paljastaa kiinnostavalla tavalla yhteyden, joka vallitsee individualisoitumisen ja modernin seksuaalisuuden muotoutumisen välillä.

Infinitiivi ja sen infiniittisyys : Tutkimus suomen kielen itsenäisistä A-infinitiivikonstruktioista

"Infinitive and its infinity" advocates an approach to infinitives that differs from most previous descriptions in several ways. Infinitives are generally considered to be an illustrative example of an inherently subordinated verb category. This is due to the fact that they are morphologically reduced and are allegedly not able to function as the only predicate of an independent clause. While former descriptions have thus treated infinitives as a linguistic category heavily dependent on the finite verb, my claim is that Finnish A-infinitives (e.g. juosta to run , olla to be ) can be used as independent grammatical units: they need not be either dependent or subordinated, but can have an equal status with finite constructions. In other words, they can be conceptually and interactionally non-dependent. Theoretically, the main objective of the thesis is to discover the nature of non-finite conceptualization and the ways in which it is utilized in everyday interactions. This is accomplished by contrasting finite and non-finite conceptualization with respect to the morphosyntactic marking of person, tense and modality. I argue that the morphologically reduced nature of infinitives can be used as an interactional resource. Independent A-infinitive constructions designate verbal processes that profile no participants, lack any connection with time, and present states of affairs as intensional, structural spaces. Consequently, they provide the interactants with a conceptual alternative in contrast to finite predications that are in Finnish always grammatically anchored to time, modality and person. The deictically unanchored character of A-infinitive constructions makes them highly affective and reflexive in nature. I discuss my findings primarily in the light of Cognitive Grammar. I have drawn insight from various other fields, too: among the theories that are touched upon are interactional linguistics, functional-typological linguistics, and studies on the poetic and metapragmatic use of language. The study is based on empirical data interpreted in qualitative terms. Analyses are based on 980 examples coming mainly from written language. Some 20 examples of spoken data are analyzed as well. In sum, the thesis presents a critical statement towards the finite-verb centred outlook on language and shows that analyzing non-finite elements as such reveals new aspects of grammar and interaction. This is to acknowledge the fact that infinitives, albeit prototypically participating in the coding of dependent events, can also be used outside of the context of the finite verb. Such a view poses several new research questions, as a linguistic category generally seen to code dependent, less prominent states of affairs , now is viewed on as possessing a full cognitive and pragmatic potential.

Betydelser i barnfamiljsbroschyrer : Systemisk-funktionell analys av den tänkta läsaren och institutionen

This thesis concerns Swedish and Finland-Swedish brochures to families with children, presenting family allowances from the social insurance institutions in the two countries. The aim of the study is to analyse what meanings are conveyed with reference to the conceivable reader and the institution in the brochures. The material consists of information brochures in Swedish from Kela, the social insurance institution of Finland, and Försäkringskassan, the Swedish social insurance agency, issued during 2003–2006. The general theoretical framework is systemic-functional linguistics (SFL) as presented by Halliday & Matthiessen (2004) and Holmberg & Karlsson (2006). The study consists of a quantitative study of the lexical choices of the social insurance brochures. Furthermore, a qualitative process and participant analysis is annotated with the UAM Corpus tool and the results are quantified. Speech functions and modal auxiliaries are analysed qualitatively. The analysis shows that material and relational processes are most common. The relational and verbal processes are used more in the Sweden-Swedish brochures, while the material processes are more common in the Finland-Swedish brochures. The participants in the brochures are the institution, mentioned by its name, and the conceivable reader, directly addressed with “you” (du). In addition, the referent “child” is often mentioned. The participants assigned for the reader are Actor, Receiver, Carrier and Speaker. In the Finland-Swedish texts, the reader is often an Actor, while the reader in the Sweden-Swedish texts is a Carrier. Thus, the conceivable reader is an active participant who takes care of his or her own matters using the internet, communicates actively to the institution and has legal rights and obligations. The institution is visible in the texts but does not have an active role as the name of the institution is mostly used in circumstances. The institution is not often a participant, but when it is, it is Actor, Receiver, Listener and Carrier, expecting the clients to address it. Speech functions are performed in different ways. For instance, questions structure the reading process and commands are realised by modal auxiliaries, not by imperatives. The most common modal auxiliary is kan (can, may), and another common auxiliary is ska (shall, must). Statements are surrounded by subordinate clauses and adverbs that describe situations and criteria. The results of the study suggest that the brochures in the two countries are similar, in particular when produced in similar ways, that is, when the Finland-Swedish texts are not translated. Existing differences reflect the differences in the institutions, the social insurance systems and the cultural contexts. KEYWORDS: Finland-Swedish, Swedish, comparative analysis, SFL, discourse analysis, administrative language, institutional discourse, institutional communication

Anpassning i språkkontakt : Morfologisk och ortografisk anpassning av engelska lånord i svenskan

The study investigates the formal integration of English loanwords into the Swedish language system. The aim has been to analyse and describe the morphological/morphosyntactic and the orthographical integration of the loanwords. I have studied how the foreign language elements get accommodated to Swedish and which factors are relevant in the integration. The material for the study consists of Swedish newspapers published in Sweden and Finland in paper format (with a focus on the years 1975 and 2000) and newspapers in digital format on the net. The theoretical frame for the study is contact linguistics. The study is based on a sociolinguistic, structural and language political perspective on what language is, and what language contact is. The method used is usage-based linguistic analysis. In the morphological study of the loanwords, I have made both a quantitative and a qualitative study. I have analysed the extent to which loanwords show some indication of integration in Swedish, and to what extent they show no signs of integration at all. I have also analysed integration in relation to word classes i.e., how nouns, adjectives and verbs integrate and which factors are relevant for the result of the integration. The result shows that most loanwords (36 %) do not show any signs of being formally integrated in Swedish. They undergo neither inflectional, nor derivational changes. One fifth of the loanwords are inflected according to the rules of Swedish grammar. Nouns are generally more often than verbs placed in positions in the sentence where no formal adaption is needed. Almost all of the verbs in the material are inflected according to Swedish rules of grammar. Only 3 % of the loanwords are inflected according to English rules or are placed in an ungrammatical position in the sentence. The orthographical study shows that English loanwords very seldom get adapted to Swedish orthography. Some English vowel and consonant graphemes are replaced with Swedish ones, for example a, ay and ai are replaced with aj or ej (mail → mejl). The study also indicates that morphological integration is related to orthographical integration: loanwords that are inflected according to Swedish grammar are more likely to be orthographical integrated than loanwords that are inflected according to English grammar. The results also shows that the integration of loanwords are affected by mostly language structural factors and language political factors.

Sekä että : Ironia koherenssina ja inkoherenssina

The interpretation of irony in this study is seen as being crucially dependent on the notion of coherence. Coherence depends on a complex interplay of contextual features, which is why all interpretations must be seen as socio-cultural processes. An utterance is perceived as coherent if it makes sense and if it hangs together. Incoherent utterances can result in an ironic interpretation; however, the incoherence must also be perceived as being intentional, and intentionality in turn is a sign of the ironist's rejecting stance. The study does not encompass the notion of irony of fate nor situational irony that is unintentional. Irony is defined in this study as a combination of five components. It is seen as (1) a negative attitude that reflects (2) the intention of the ironist, and (3) has a target and most often (4) a victim too. Essential to irony is its fifth component, the fact that one or more of these four components must be inferred from co- or context. The componential definition of irony is crucial in deciding whether an interpretation is ironic or not, and the definition makes it possible to discern the differences as well as the similarities between different kinds of irony. The method of the study is experimental: 12 Finnish newspaper texts that could be considered to be ironic were interpreted by 107 informants. The interpretation of one of the texts was based on unelicited feedback given by readers of a weekly magazine. The responses were analyzed to determine (a) whether the texts were perceived as being coherent or incoherent and (b) whether the informants appealed to any of the five components of irony. The results of the analyses of the informants' responses indicate that differences between the ironic and non-ironic interpretations of the texts can be explained in terms of whether or not the informant regarded the text as being coherent. The thesis also discusses the shortcomings of other accounts of irony: the Gricean theory of conversational implicature, speech act theory, irony as rhetoric, irony as pretense, irony as echoic mention, and irony as framing. In contrast to these other accounts, the study focuses on irony as a textual phenomenon and underlines the importance of socio-cultural context in the interpretation of irony. Key words: irony, coherence, incoherence, the componential definition of irony, interpretation of linguistic utterances.

Groteski suomalaisessa kirjallisuudessa : Neljä tapaustutkimusta

The grotesque in Finnish literature. Four case studies The topic of the dissertation is the grotesque in Finnish literature. The dissertation is twofold. Firstly, it focuses on the genre tradition of the grotesque, especially its other main branch, which has been named, following in Bakhtin s footsteps, subjective ( chamber ) grotesque, to be distinguished from carnivalistic ( public square ) grotesque. Secondly, the dissertation analyses and interprets four fictional literary works within the context of the grotesque genre, constructed on the basis of previous research and literature. These works are the novel Rakastunut rampa (1922) by Joel Lehtonen, the novel Prins Efflam (1953, transl. into Finnish as Kalastajakylän prinssi) by Sally Salminen, the short story Orjien kasvattaja (1965) by Juhani Peltonen, and the novel Veljeni Sebastian (1985) by Annika Idström. What connects these stirring novels, representing early or full modernism, is the supposition that they belong to the tradition of the subjective grotesque, not only due to occasional details, but also in a more comprehensive manner. The premises are that genre is a significant part of the work and that reading a novel in the context of the genre tradition adds something essential to the interpretation of individual texts and reveals meanings that might otherwise go unnoticed. The main characteristic of the grotesque is breaking the norm. This is accomplished through different means: degradation, distortion, inversion, combination, exaggeration and multiplication. The most significant strategy for breaking the norm is incongruence: the grotesque combines conflicting or mutually exclusive categories and elements on different levels. Simultaneously, the grotesque unravels categorisations and questions our way of perceiving the world. The grotesque not only poses a threat to one s identity, but can also pose a threat to the cognitive process. An analysis of the fictional works is presented as case studies of each chosen work as a whole. The analysis is based on the method of close reading, which draws on both classical and postclassical narratology, and the analysis and interpretation are expanded within the genre tradition of the grotesque. The grotesque is also analysed in terms of its relationship to the neighbouring categories and genre traditions, such as the tragic, the sublime, the horror story and the coming-of-age story. This dissertation shows how the grotesque is constructed repeatedly on deviations from the norm as well as on incongruence, also in the works analysed, and how it stratifies in these novels on and between different levels, such as the story, text, narration, composition and the world of the novels. In all the works analysed, the grotesque reduces and subverts. Again and again it reveals different sides of humanity stripped of idealisation and glorification. The dissertation reveals that Finnish literature is not a solitary island, even regarding the grotesque, for it continues and offers variations of the common tradition of grotesque literature, and likewise draws on grotesque visual arts. This dissertation is the first monograph in Finnish literature research focusing on the subjective grotesque.

Päivä päivältä enemmän ja enemmän : Suomen toistokonstruktioita

Day by day more and more. Repetitive constructions in Finnish The study describes syntactic repetition in Finnish. Under investigation are short repetitive constructions in which the construction is connected by a morpheme, for example, päivä päivältä day by day , uudelleen ja uudelleen again and again . The study is a qualitative corpus-based study. It has three study questions. First, the study analyses the grammatical structure of repetitive constructions. Secondly, repetition is an iconic phenomenon, and the study investigates the motivation for repetition. Why and where is repetition used? Thirdly, the study will tentatively explain the syntactic productivity of the constructions. Syntactic repetition has semantic and pragmatic functions of which three are the most interesting. Firstly, it changes the aspectual interpretation of utterances. Durative situations become continuative, and semelfactive iterative. Secondly, repetition is also used to intensify expressions. Thirdly, repetition can be used to express superlative meanings. Repetition has many pragmatic functions. For example, it carries affective meanings in conversation. Repetition can also be used as an expressive tool in narrative contexts.

Genus i östra Nyland : från dialektutjämning till dialektmarkör

Gender in eastern Nyland – from dialect levelling to identity marking The study of dialect leveling in eastern Nyland focuses on variation and change in the Swedish dialects of Nyland (Fi. Uusimaa) on the south coast of Finland. During the last century the grammatical gender system of the dialects in the area has been reduced from a three-gender system to a two-gender system (cf. Corbett 1991). The present study is based on five linguistic variables in the gender system: the anaphoric pronouns (han, hon, den) when used for inanimates; the neuter pronouns he(t) and de(t) – when used anaphorically or as expletives; and three different types of morphological postposed definite articles. For all these variables, both dialect variants and standard variants are used in the dialects. Within the study of processes of variation and change, the work focuses on the mechanisms of leveling, simplification and reallocation; cf. Trudgill (1986) and Hinskens, Auer Kerswill (2005). With regard to the reductions of the gender system, the possibility that some of these variables might have turned into becoming dialect markers (Labov 1972) in the modern varieties of eastern Nyland is given special attention. The primary data consist of tape recordings with 25 informants done in the 1960s and 1970s. The informants were born in 1881–1913. In addition, recent changes were investigated in detail in tape recordings from 2005–2008 with 15 informants, who were born in the period 1927–1947 or 1976–1988. The study combines quantitative and qualitative methods in the systematic analysis of the data. Theoretically and methodologically the study relies on methods and results from variation studies and socio-dialectology, as well as on methods and results from traditional dialectology; cf. Ahlbäck (1946) and the dictionary of Swedish dialects, Ordbok över Finlands svenska folkmål, (1976–). The results show that there are different strategies among the informants in their use of the features studied. In the modern varieties of the dialects, most of the informants use only two genders, uter and neuter. Of the variables, the masculine pronoun for inanimates, the traditional neuter pronoun he(t) and some variants of the traditional definite articles have received a new function as dialect markers in my data. These changes first affect the gender distinctions, and the function of marking gender is lost; gradually the features then get new functions as dialect markers through processes of dialect leveling and reallocation. These processes are connected to changes taking place in the communities in eastern Nyland because of urbanization. When the dialect speakers experience that the traditional values of both the dialects and the culture are threatened, they begin to mark their dialectal identity by using dialect markers in their speech.

Toimijaroolit ja roolien välinen dynamiikka Vihreän liiton periaateohjelmassa 2006

Pro gradu -tutkielmassani tarkastelen toimijarooleja poliittisen puolueen periaateohjelmassa. Aineistonani on Vihreän liiton vuonna 2006 voimaan tullut periaateohjelma. Periaateohjelma on puolueen yhteisen keskustelun tuloksena syntyvä, kantaaottava ja voimakkaan ideologinen teksti, johon valikoidaan mukaan puolueen tärkeäksi katsomat asiat. Ohjelma on tekstinä preskriptiivinen ja sisältää runsaasti toimintavaatimuksia ja -ohjeita, mikä korostaa toimijuuden keskeisyyttä tutkimuskohteena juuri tässä tekstilajissa. Tekstilajikysymykset ja periaateohjelman kirjoituksen konventiot vaikuttavat myös aineistossani leimalliseen aktiivisesti toimivan subjektin häivyttämisen. Pyrin erittelemään ja analysoimaan Vihreän liiton ohjelmaa tapausesimerkkinä siitä, miten toimijaroolien kautta rakennetaan ohjelmatekstin maailmaa ja toimijoiden suhteita siinä. Välineenä analyysissani käytän A.J. Greimasin kehittelemää aktanttimallia (katso Greimas 1979). Semanttinen malli jäsentää tekstin maailman toimijoita rooleihin niiden suorittamien funktioiden perusteella. Keskeisimmät tarkasteltavat roolit ovat aktiivisen toimijan kategoria, statiivisen vaikuttajan kategoria ja toiminnan kohteiden kategoriat. Aineistonani olevan tekstin tunnusomaisen polarisaation tähden jaan kunkin näistä kategorioista edelleen puolueen kannan mukaiseen eli hyväksi esitettyyn ja kannan vastaiseen eli pahaksi esitettyyn. Analyysin tuloksena muodostuu käsitys periaateohjelman prototyyppisille toimijarooleille annetuista ominaisuuksista. Tärkeimpiä erottelevia ominaisuuksia ovat statiivisuus/dynaamisuus, agentiivisuus/sen puute sekä abstraktisuus/konkreettisuus. Statiivisuuden ja abstraktiuden totean koko tekstille leimallisiksi piirteiksi, erityisesti periaateohjelman pahalle. Tyypillinen paha on epäinhimillinen voima kuten ilmastonmuutos tai globalisaatio. Puolueen kannan puolella olevissa rooleissa ominaisuuksien hajonta on suurempaa. Puolueviitteiset toimijat sekä puoluetulkintainen me-pronomini ovat lähinnä kielen prototyyppistä agentiivista toimijaa. Ne ovat subjektiasemissa kommunikaatiotoiminnalle ja evidentiaalisuuden lähteenä asenteita ilmaistessa. Kommunikaatio itsessään hahmottuu keskeisenä toimintana ohjelmassa. Ihmisviitteisyys on lähinnä uhrin tai hyötyjän roolien piirre. Erityisen mielenkiintoinen seikka on kansalainen-sanaan ja sen lähimerkityksisiin vastineisiin kohdistuva ristiriita ohjelman metatekstin kansan aktiivista toimintaa ihannoivassa kielenkäytössä ja samanaikaisessa kansalaisten kielentämisessä tekstissä toiminnan kohteiksi. Ihmiset ovat periaateohjelmassa uhreja tai hyötyjiä, kun taas toimintavelvoitteet kohdennetaan tyypillisesti valtioille ja yhteiskunnan rakenteille. Poimin myös tarkasteltavaksi sellaisia kielen keinoja ja ilmiöitä kuin modaalisuus, kausaatiot, vaihtoehtoisten maailmojen käyttö ja nominalisaatio, sikäli kuin ne valottavat tarkasteltavana olevia toimijarooleja. Modaalisuus ja kausaatiot ovat tekstin merkityssuhteiden ilmiöitä. Kausaatio on ohjelmassa merkittävän vähäkäyttöinen, kun taas runsaslukuiset nesessiivirakenteet edustuvat ilman niille odotuksenmukaisia argumentteja. Modaalisuuden lähde ja kohde jätetään usein kielentämättä. Molemmat edellä mainitut seikat korostavat nykyhetkeä ja tulevaa toimintaa tekstin keskiössä. Toiminnan suorittajaa häivytetään tekstistä eri keinoin. Näin on erityisesti, kun puhutaan sävyltään negatiivisesta toiminnasta tai dynaamisesta toiminnasta. Dynaamista toimintaa kuvaavat verbit sijoittuvat tyypillisesti infinitiivisiin lausekkeihin, jotka on upotettu argumenttirakenteeseen tai sijoitettu ehtolauseella tai tulevaisuudesta puhuttaessa mahdollisiin maailmoihin. Näin toiminta ei reaalistu rakenteessa tässä ja nyt, vaan potentiaalisena toimintana tulevaisuudessa. Samalla syntyy myös potentiaalisen sankarin rooli, joka tässä ja nyt olevasta sankarista poiketen on ohjelmassa yleinen. Tätä roolia tarjotaan niin puolueen potentiaalisille tukijoille kuin pahoille voimillekin, kunhan ne määritellään uudelleen puolueen aatteille alisteisena sijoittamalla niiden yhteyteen puolueen diskurssin kiinteästi liittyviä attribuutteja kuten vihreä tai ekologinen.