Calm or storm? : Wind power actors perceptions of Finnish wind power and its future

Wind power has grown fast internationally. It can reduce the environmental impact of energy production and increase energy security. Finland has turbine industry but wind electricity production has been slow, and nationally set capacity targets have not been met. I explored social factors that have affected the slow development of wind power in Finland by studying the perceptions of Finnish national level wind power actors. By that I refer to people who affect the development of wind power sector, such as officials, politicians, and representatives of wind industries and various organisations. The material consisted of interviews, a questionnaire, and written sources. The perceptions of wind power, its future, and methods to promote it were divided. They were studied through discourse analysis, content analysis, and scenario construction. Definition struggles affect views of the significance and potential of wind power in Finland, and also affect investments in wind power and wind power policy choices. Views of the future were demonstrated through scenarios. The views included scenarios of fast growth, but in the most pessimistic views, wind power was not thought to be competitive without support measures even in 2025, and the wind power capacity was correspondingly low. In such a scenario, policy tool choices were expected to remain similar to ones in use at the time of the interviews. So far, the development in Finland has followed closely this pessimistic scenario. Despite the scepticism about wind electricity production, wind turbine industry was seen as a credible industry. For many wind power actors as well as for the Finnish wind power policy, the turbine industry is a significant motive to promote wind power. Domestic electricity production and the export turbine industry are linked in discourse through so-called home market argumentation. Finnish policy tools have included subsidies, research and development funding, and information policies. The criteria used to evaluate policy measures were both process-oriented and value-based. Feed-in tariffs and green certificates that are common elsewhere have not been taken to use in Finland. Some interviewees considered such tools unsuitable for free electricity markets and for the Finnish policy style, dictatorial, and being against western values. Other interviewees supported their use because of their effectiveness. The current Finnish policy tools are not sufficiently effective to increase wind power production significantly. Marginalisation of wind power in discourses, pessimistic views of the future, and the view that the small consumer demand for wind electricity represents the political views of citizens towards promoting wind power, make it more difficult to take stronger policy measures to use. Wind power has not yet significantly contributed to the ecological modernisation of the energy sector in Finland, but the situation may change as the need to reduce emissions from energy production continues.

Kohti leikkaussalin tuloksellista toiminnanohjausta

Background: The aging population is placing increasing demands on surgical services, simultaneously with a decreasing supply of professional labor and a worsening economic situation. Under growing financial constraints, successful operating room management will be one of the key issues in the struggle for technical efficiency. This study focused on several issues affecting operating room efficiency. Materials and methods: The current formal operating room management in Finland and the use of performance metrics and information systems used to support this management were explored using a postal survey. We also studied the feasibility of a wireless patient tracking system as a tool for managing the process. The reliability of the system as well as the accuracy and precision of its automatically recorded time stamps were analyzed. The benefits of a separate anesthesia induction room in a prospective setting were compared with the traditional way of working, where anesthesia is induced in the operating room. Using computer simulation, several models of parallel processing for the operating room were compared with the traditional model with respect to cost-efficiency. Moreover, international differences in operating room times for two common procedures, laparoscopic cholecystectomy and open lung lobectomy, were investigated. Results: The managerial structure of Finnish operating units was not clearly defined. Operating room management information systems were found to be out-of-date, offering little support to online evaluation of the care process. Only about half of the information systems provided information in real time. Operating room performance was most often measured by the number of procedures in a time unit, operating room utilization, and turnover time. The wireless patient tracking system was found to be feasible for hospital use. Automatic documentation of the system facilitated patient flow management by increasing process transparency via more available and accurate data, while lessening work for staff. Any parallel work flow model was more cost-efficient than the traditional way of performing anesthesia induction in the operating room. Mean operating times for two common procedures differed by 50% among eight hospitals in different countries. Conclusions: The structure of daily operative management of an operating room warrants redefinition. Performance measures as well as information systems require updating. Parallel work flows are more cost-efficient than the traditional induction-in-room model.

A Historical Approach to Children s Physics Education : Modelling of DC-circuit Phenomena in a Small Group

This three-phase design research describes the modelling processes for DC-circuit phenomena. The first phase presents an analysis of the development of the DC-circuit historical models in the context of constructing Volta s pile at the turn of the 18th century. The second phase involves the designing of a teaching experiment for comprehensive school third graders. Among other considerations, the design work utilises the results of the first phase and research literature of pupils mental models for DC-circuit phenomena. The third phase of the research was concerned with the realisation of the planned teaching experiment. The aim of this phase was to study the development of the external representations of DC-circuit phenomena in a small group of third graders. The aim of the study has been to search for new ways to guide pupils to learn DC-circuit phenomena while emphasing understanding at the qualitative level. Thus, electricity, which has been perceived as a difficult and abstract subject, could be learnt more comprehensively. Especially, the research of younger pupils learning of electricity concepts has not been of great interest at the international level, although DC-circuit phenomena are also taught in the lower classes of comprehensive schools. The results of this study are important, because there has tended to be more teaching of natural sciences in the lower classes of comprehensive schools, and attempts are being made to develop this trend in Finland. In the theoretical part of the research an Experimental-centred representation approach, which emphasises the role of experimentalism in the development of pupil s representations, is created. According to this approach learning at the qualitative level consists of empirical operations like experimenting, observations, perception, and prequantification of nature phenomena, and modelling operations like explaining and reasoning. Besides planning teaching, the new approach can be used as an analysis tool in describing both historical modelling and the development of pupils representations. In the first phase of the study, the research question was: How did the historical models of DC-circuit phenomena develop in Volta s time? The analysis uncovered three qualitative historical models associated with the historical concept formation process. The models include conceptions of the electric circuit as a scene in the DC-circuit phenomena, the comparative electric-current phenomenon as a cause of different observable effect phenomena, and the strength of the battery as a cause of the electric-current phenomenon. These models describe the concept formation process and its phases in Volta s time. The models are portrayed in the analysis using fragments of the models, where observation-based fragments and theoretical fragements are distinguished from each other. The results emphasise the significance of the qualitative concept formation and the meaning of language in the historical modelling of DC-circuit phenomena. For this reason these viewpoints are stressed in planning the teaching experiment in the second phase of the research. In addition, the design process utilised the experimentation behind the historical models of DC-circuit phenomena In the third phase of the study the research question is as follows: How will the small group s external representations of DC-circuit phenomena develop during the teaching experiment? The main question is divided into the following two sub questions: What kind of talk exists in the small group s learning? What kinds of external representations for DC-circuit phenomena exist in the small group discourse during the teaching experiment? The analysis revealed that the teaching experiment of the small group succeeded in its aim to activate talk in the small group. The designed connection cards proved especially successful in activating talk. The connection cards are cards that represent the components of the electric circuit. In the teaching experiment the pupils constructed different connections with the connection cards and discussed, what kinds of DC-circuit phenomena would take place in the corresponding real connections. The talk of the small group was analysed by comparing two situations, firstly, when the small group discussed using connections made with the connection cards and secondly with the same connections using real components. According to the results the talk of the small group included more higher-order thinking when using the connection cards than with similar real components. In order to answer the second sub question concerning the small group s external representations that appeared in the talk during the teaching experiment; student talk was visualised by the fragment maps which incorporate the electric circuit, the electric current and the source voltage. The fragment maps represent the gradual development of the external representations of DC-circuit phenomena in the small group during the teaching experiment. The results of the study challenge the results of previous research into the abstractness and difficulty of electricity concepts. According to this research, the external representations of DC-circuit phenomena clearly developed in the small group of third graders. Furthermore, the fragment maps uncover that although the theoretical explanations of DC-circuit phenomena, which have been obtained as results of typical mental model studies, remain undeveloped, learning at the qualitative level of understanding does take place.

Pelon ja toivon välissä : Pätkätyöläisen urakerronta

This study analyzes the forming of the occupational identity of the well-educated fixed-term employees. Fixed-term employment contracts amongst the well-educated labour force are exceptionally common in Finland as compared to other European countries. Two groups of modern fixed-term employees are distinguished. The first comprises well-educated women employed in the public sector whose fixed-term employment often consists of successive periods as temporary substitutes. The other group comprises well-educated, upper white-collar men aged over 40, whose fixed-term employment careers often consist of jobs of project nature or posts that are filled for a fixed period only. Method of the study For the empirical data I interviewed 35 persons (26 women and 9 men) in 33 interviews, one of which was conducted by e-mail and one was a group interview. All the interviews were electronically recorded and coded. All the interviewees have two things in common: fixed-term employment and formal high education. Thirteen (13) of them are researchers, four nurses, four midwives, four journalists, and ten project experts. I used the snowball method to get in touch the interviewees. The first interviewees were those who were recommended by the trade unions and by my personal acquaintances. These interviewees, in turn, recommended other potential interviewees. In addition, announcements on the internet pages of the trade unions were used to reach other interviewees. In analysing process I read the research material several times to find the turning points in the narrative the interviewees told. I also searched for the most meaningful stories told and the meaning the interviewees gave to these stories and to the whole narrative. In addition to that I paid attention to co-production of the narrative with the interviewees and analyzed the narrative as performance to be able to search for the preferred identities the interviewees perform. (Riesman 2001, 698-701). I do not pay much attention to the question of truth of a narrative in the sense of its correspondence with facts; rather I think a working life narrative has two tasks: On the one hand one has to tell the facts and on the other hand, he/she has to describe the meaning of these facts to herself/himself. To emphasize the double nature of the narrative about one’s working life I analyzed the empirical data both by categorizing it according to the cultural models of storytelling (heroic story, comedy, irony and tragedy) and by studying the themes most of the interviewees talked about. Ethics of the study I chose to use narrative within qualitative interviews on the grounds that in my opinion is more ethical and more empowering than the more traditional structured interview methods. During the research process I carefully followed the ethical rules of a qualitative research. The purpose of the interviews and the research was told to the interviewees by giving them a written description of the study. Oral permission to use the interview in this research was obtained from the interviewees. The names and places, which are mentioned in the study, are changed to conceal the actual identity of the interviewees. I shared the analysis with the interviewees by sending each of them the first analysis of their personal interview. This way I asked them to make sure that the identity was hidden well enough and hoped to give interviewees a chance to look at their narratives, to instigate new actions and sustain the present one (Smith 2001, 721). Also I hoped to enjoy a new possibility of joint authorship. Main results As a result of the study I introduce six models of telling a story. The four typical western cultural models that guide the telling are: heroic story, comedy, tragedy and satirical story (Hänninen 1999). In addition to these models I found two ways of telling a career filled with fixed-term employments that differ significantly from traditional career story telling. However, the story models in which the interviewees pour their experience locates the fixed term employers work career in an imagined life trajectory and reveals the meaning they give to it. I analyze the many sided heroic story that Liisa tells as an example of the strength of the fear of failing or losing the job the fixed term employee feels. By this structure it is also possible to show that success is felt to be entirely a matter of chance. Tragedy, the failure in one’s trial to get something, is a model I introduce with the help of Vilppu’s story. This narrative gets its meaning both from the sorrow of the failure in the past and the rise of something new the teller has found. Aino tells her story as a comedy. By introducing her narrative, I suggest that the purpose of the comedy, a stronger social consensus, gets deeper and darker shade by fixed-term employment: one who works as a fixed term employee has to take his/her place in his/her work community by him/herself without the support the community gives to those in permanent position. By studying the satiric model Rauno uses, I argue that using irony both turns the power structures to a carnival and builds free space to the teller of the story and to the listener. Irony also helps in building a consensus, mutual understanding, between the teller and the listener and it shows the distance the teller tells to exist between him and others. Irony, however, demands some kind of success in one’s occupational career but also at least a minor disappointment in the progress of it. Helmi tells her story merely as a detective story. By introducing Helmi’s narrative, I argue that this story model strengthens the trust in fairness of the society the teller and the listener share. The analysis also emphasizes the central position of identity work, which is caused by fixed-term employment. Most of the interviewees talked about getting along in working life. I introduced Sari’s narrative as an example of this. In both of these latter narratives one’s personal character and habits are lifted as permanent parts of the actual professional expertise, which in turn varies according to different situations. By introducing these models, I reveal that the fixed-term employees have different strategies to cope with their job situations and these strategies vary according to their personal motives and situations and the actual purpose of the interview. However, I argue that they feel the space between their hopes and fears narrow and unsecure. In the research report I also introduce pieces of the stories – themes – that the interviewees use to build these survival strategies. They use their personal curriculum vitae or portfolio, their position in work community and their work morals to build their professional identity. Professional identity is flexible and varies in time and place, but even then it offers a tool to fix one’s identity work into something. It offers a viewpoint to society and a tool to measure one’s position in surrounding social nets. As one result of the study I analyze the position the fixed-term employees share on the edge of their job communities. I summarize the hopes and fears the interviewees have concerning employers, trade unions, educational institutions and the whole society. In their opinion, the solidarity between people has been weakened by the short-sighted power of the economy. The impact the fixed-term employment has on one’s professional identity and social capital is a many-sided and versatile process. Fixed-term employment both strengthens and weakens the professional identity, social capital and the building of trust. Fixed-term employment also affects one’s day-to-day life by excluding her/him from the norm and by one’s difficulty in making long-term plans (Jokinen 2005). Regardless of the nature of the job contract, the workers themselves are experts in making the best of their sometimes less than satisfying work life and they also build their professional identity by using creatively their education, work experiences and interpersonal relations. However, a long career of short fixed-term employments may seriously change the perception of employee about his/her role. He/she may start concentrating only in coping in his/her unsatisfactory situation and leaves the active improvement of the lousy working conditions to other people. Keywords: narrative, fixed-tem employment, occupational identity, work, story model, social capital, career  

Hard Custom, Hard Dance : Social Organisation, (Un)Differentiation and Notions of Power in a Tabiteuean Community, Southern Kiribati

Hard Custom, Hard Dance: Social Organisation, (Un)Differentiation and Notions of Power in a Tabiteuean Community, Southern Kiribati is an ethnographic study of a village community. This work analyses social organisation on the island of Tabiteuea in the Micronesian state of Kiribati, examining the intertwining of hierarchical and egalitarian traits, meanwhile bringing a new perspective to scholarly discussions of social differentiation by introducing the concept of undifferentiation to describe non-hierarchical social forms and practices. Particular attention is paid to local ideas concerning symbolic power, abstractly understood as the potency for social reproduction, but also examined in one of its forms; authority understood as the right to speak. The workings of social differentiation and undifferentiation in the village are specifically studied in two contexts connected by local notions of power: the meetinghouse institution (te maneaba) and traditional dancing (te mwaie). This dissertation is based on 11 months of anthropological fieldwork in 1999‒2000 in Kiribati and Fiji, with an emphasis on participant observation and the collection of oral tradition (narratives and songs). The questions are approached through three distinct but interrelated topics: (i) A key narrative of the community ‒ the story of an ancestor without descendants ‒ is presented and discussed, along with other narratives. (ii) The Kiribati meetinghouse institution, te maneaba, is considered in terms of oral tradition as well as present-day practices and customs. (iii) Kiribati dancing (te mwaie) is examined through a discussion of competing dance groups, followed by an extended case study of four dance events. In the course of this work the community of close to four hundred inhabitants is depicted as constructed primarily of clans and households, but also of churches, work co-operatives and dance groups, but also as a significant and valued social unit in itself, and a part of the wider island district. In these partly cross-cutting and overlapping social matrices, people are alternatingly organised by the distinct values and logic of differentiation and undifferentiation. At different levels of social integration and in different modes of social and discursive practice, there are heightened moments of differentiation, followed by active undifferentiation. The central notions concerning power and authority to emerge are, firstly, that in order to be valued and utilised, power needs to be controlled. Secondly, power is not allowed to centralize in the hands of one person or group for any long period of time. Thirdly, out of the permanent reach of people, power/authority is always, on the one hand, left outside the factual community and, on the other, vested in community, the social whole. Several forms of differentiation and undifferentiation emerge, but these appear to be systematically related. Social differentiation building on typically Austronesian complementary differences (such as male:female, elder:younger, autochtonous:allotochtonous) is valued, even if eventually restricted, whereas differentiation based on non-complementary differences (such as monetary wealth or level of education) is generally resisted, and/or is subsumed by the complementary distinctions. The concomitant forms of undifferentiation are likewise hierarchically organised. On the level of the society as a whole, undifferentiation means circumscribing and ultimately withholding social hierarchy. Potential hierarchy is both based on a combination of valued complementary differences between social groups and individuals, but also limited by virtue of the undoing of these differences; for example, in the dissolution of seniority (elder-younger) and gender (male-female) into sameness. Like the suspension of hierarchy, undifferentiation as transformation requires the recognition of pre-existing difference and does not mean devaluing the difference. This form of undifferentiation is ultimately encompassed by the first one, as the processes of the differentiation, whether transformed or not, are always halted. Finally, undifferentiation can mean the prevention of non-complementary differences between social groups or individuals. This form of undifferentiation, like the differentiation it works on, takes place on a lower level of societal ideology, as both the differences and their prevention are always encompassed by the complementary differences and their undoing. It is concluded that Southern Kiribati society be seen as a combination of a severely limited and decentralised hierarchy (differentiation) and of a tightly conditional and contextual (intra-category) equality (undifferentiation), and that it is distinctly characterised by an enduring tension between these contradicting social forms and cultural notions. With reference to the local notion of hardness used to characterise custom on this particular island as well as dance in general, it is argued in this work that in this Tabiteuean community some forms of differentiation are valued though strictly delimited or even undone, whereas other forms of differentiation are a perceived as a threat to community, necessitating pre-emptive imposition of undifferentiation. Power, though sought after and displayed - particularly in dancing - must always remain controlled.

Politiikan paluu : Globalisaatioliike ja julkisuus

The struggle over globalization has arguably been the most important debate in world politics of the 2000 s. This study maps the origins of this debate, its most important actors and its results so far. The focus is on the Global Justice Movement which launched the globalization debate to the mass media spotlight. Particular attention is given to the World Social Forum, the movement s global gathering, analyzed as a new form of global publics. The mediation of the debates initiated by these publics to the Finnish national context is analyzed at two levels: First, through forums for policy debate such as the Helsinki Process on Globalization and Democracy and second, through the public debate in the Finnish mass media. The study proves many common assumptions about the Global Justice Movement wrong. Rather than being a marginal actor, the movement is the initiator of the whole debate. Combining expert knowledge to carnevalistic demonstrations rarely seen in Finland, the movement gains more public attention and more members in Finland than in many other European countries. The political and economic elites are not just adversaries of the movement. Rather, the Finnish elite is divided in two. Some top politicians starting from the president and the minister for foreign affairs adopt many of the movement s claims. Later, the business elite, with support from the nation s largest newspaper, begins a counterattack to challenge the movement and its allies. The return of politics staged by the movement is, first and foremost, a phenomenon in the public sphere. Two downward trends, the decline of party politics and the traditionally strong Finnish field of politically oriented civic associations remain unchanged. This allows for the conclusion that we are witnessing a move from organizational politics towards politics in the public sphere. The study develops a theoretical perspective on social movements as actors in the public sphere. It argues that movements have, in fact, played an important role in the very development of the democratic public sphere as we know it. In the light of this observation, the study assesses the potentials and the pitfalls of social movements and their related publics to global democracy. Methodologically, the most important contribution is the development of Public Justifications Analysis, a method for analyzing political claims in media debates and the ways in which these claims are justified.

Gender, Politics and Democratisation in Cameroon

Gender perceptions, religious belief systems, and political thought have excluded women from politics, for ages, around the world. Combining feminist and modernisation theorists in my theoretical framework, I examine the trends in patriarchal Europe and I highlight the gender-sensitive model of the Nordic countries. Retracing local gender patterns from precolonial to postcolonial eras in sub-Saharan Africa, I explore the links between perceptions, needs, resources, education and women's political participation in Cameroon. Democratisation is supposed to open up political participation, to grant equal opportunities to all adults. One ironic feature of the liberalisation process in Cameroon has been the decrease of women in parliamentarian representation (14% in 1988, 6% in 1992, 5% in 1997 and 10% in 2002). What social, cultural and institutional mechanisms produced this paradoxical outcome, the exclusion of half the population? The gender complementarity of the indigenous context has been lost to male prevalence privileged by education, church, law, employment, economy and politics in the public sphere; most women are marginalised in the private sphere. Nation building and development have failed; ethnicism and individualism are growing. Some hope lies in the growing civil society. From two surveys and 21 focus groups across Cameroon, in 2000 and 2002, some significant results of the processed empirical data reveal low electoral registration (34.5% women and 65.9% men), contrasted by the willingness to run for municipal elections (33.3 % women and 45.2% men). The co-existence of customary and statutory laws, the corrupt political system and fraudulent practices, contribute to the marginalisation of women and men who are interested in politics. A large majority of female respondents consider female politicians more trustworthy and capable than their male counterparts; they even foresee the appointment of a female Prime Minister. The Nordic countries have institutionalised gender equality in their legislation, policies and practices. France has improved women's political inclusion with the parity laws; Rwanda is another model of women's representation, thanks to its post-conflict constitution. From my analysis, Cameroonian institutions, men and more so women, may learn and borrow from these experiences, in order to design and implement a sustainable and gender-balanced democracy. Keywords: democratisation, politics, gender equality, feminism, citizenship, Cameroon, Nordic countries, Finland, France, United Kingdom, quotas, societal social psychology.

Kansanterveysongelman synty : Tuberkuloosi ja terveyden hallinta Suomessa ennen toista maailmansotaa

The study focuses on the emergence of tuberculosis as a public health problem and the development of the various methods to counteract it in Finland before the introduction of efficient methods of treatment in the 1940s and 50s. It covers a time period from year 1882 when the tuberculosis bacterium was identified to the 1930s when the early formation of tuberculosis work became established in Finland. During this time there occurred important changes in medicine, public health thinking and methods of personal health care that have been referred to as the bacteriological revolution. The study places tuberculosis prevention in this context and shows how the tuberculosis problem affected the government of health on all these three dimensions. The study is based on foucauldian analytics of government, which is supplemented with perspectives from contemporary science and technology studies. In addition, it utilises a broad array of work in medical history. The central research materials consist of medical journals, official programs and documents on tuberculosis policy, and health education texts. The general conclusions of the study are twofold. Firstly, the ensemble of tuberculosis work was formed from historically diverse and often conflicting elements. The identification of the pathogen was only the first step in the establishment of tuberculosis as a major public health problem. Important were also the attention of the science of hygiene and statistical reasoning that dominated public health thinking in the late 19th century. Furthermore, the adoption of the bacteriological tuberculosis doctrine in medicine, public health work and health education was profoundly influenced by previous understanding of the nature of the illness, of medical work, of the prevention of contagious diseases, and of personal health care. Also the two central institutions of tuberculosis work, sanatorium and dispensary, have heterogeneous origins and multifarious functions. Secondly, bacteriology represented in this study by tuberculosis remodelled medical knowledge and practices, the targets and methods of public health policy, and the doctrine of personal health care. Tuberculosis provided a strong argument for specific causes (if not cures) as well as laboratory methods in medicine. Tuberculosis prevention contributed substantially to the development whereby a comprehensive responsibility for the health of the population and public health work was added to the agenda of the state. Health advice on tuberculosis and other contagious diseases used dangerous bacteria to motivate personal health care and redefined it as protecting oneself from the attacks of external pathogens and strengthening oneself against their effects. Thus, tuberculosis work is one important root for the contemporary public concern for the health of the population and the imperative of personal health care.

Kriitkko Einari J. Vehmas ja moderni taide

The doctoral dissertation Critic Einari J. Vehmas and Modern Art deals with one of the central figures of the Finnish art scene and his work as an art critic, art museum curator and cultural critic. The main body of research material consists of the writings of Einari J. Vehmas (1902 1980) from 1937 to the late 1960s. Vehmas wrote art reviews for magazines, and from the year 1945 he was a regular art critic for one of the major newspapers in Finland. Vehmas was heavily inclined towards French literature and visual arts. Marcel Proust and Charles Baudelaire influenced his views on the nature of art from the late 1920s onwards. Vehmas is commonly regarded as the most influential art critic of post-war Finland. His writings have been referred to and cited in numerous research papers on Finnish 20th-century art. A lesser known aspect of his work is his position as the deputy director of the Ateneum Art Museum, the Finnish national gallery. Through his art museum work, his opinions also shaped the canon of modern art considered particularly Finnish following the second world war. The main emphasis of the dissertation is on studying Vehmas s writings, but it also illustrates the diversity of his involvement in Finnish cultural life through biographical documents. The long chronological span of the dissertation emphasises how certain central themes accumulate in Vehmas s writings. The aim of the dissertation is also to show how strongly certain philosophical and theoretical concepts from the early 20th century, specifically Wassily Kandinsky s principle of inner necessity and Henri Bergson s epistemology highlighting intuition and instinct, continued to influence the Finnish art discourse even in the early 1960s, in part thanks to the writings of Vehmas. Throughout his production, Vehmas contemplated the state and future of modern art and humanity. Vehmas used a colourful, vitalistic rhetoric to emphasise the role of modern art as a building block of culture and humanity. At the same time, however, he was a cultural pessimist whose art views became infused with anxiety, a sense of loss, and a desire to turn his back on the world.

Onko eläimillä oikeuksia? : Eläinkoelainsäädännön kehitys ja nykytila

The use of animals in scientific experiments tends to arouse strong emotional reactions among the general public, the most essential concern being the pain and suffering they cause. It is felt that suffering inflicted on other beings, including animals, is not morally acceptable. Is the function of a researcher who uses animals morally acceptable and beneficial for humans and animals? May such a researcher him/herself decide what animal experiments he/she can perform or should some outsider have the right to decide what kind of experiments a researcher can or cannot perform? The research material comprises the legislation of Finland and that of some member and non-member states of the European Union, together with European Union directives and pertinent preparatory parliamentary documents. The author has likewise studied the vast literature on animal rights, both pro and contra writings and opinions. The opinions of philosophers on the moral and legal rights of animals are markedly conflicting. Some strongly support the existence of rights, while others totally refute such an opinion, claiming that the question is only of the moral principles of man himself which imply that animals must be treated in a human manner. Speaking of animal rights only tends to muddle ideas on the one hand in philosophical considerations and in legal analyses on the other. The development of legislation in Finland and some other member states of the European Union has in principle been similar. In Finland, the positive laws on animal experiments nowadays comply with the EU directive 86/609/EEC. However, there are marked differences between member states in respect of the way they have in practice implemented the principles of the EU directive. No essential alterations have in practice been discernible in the actual performance of animal experiments during the decades when legislation has been developed in different countries. Self-regulation within the scientific community has been markedly more effectual than legislative procedures. Legal regulation has nevertheless clearly influenced the quality of breeding and life conditions of experimental laboratory animals, cages for example being nowadays larger than hitherto. EU parliament and council have now accepted in September 2010 a new directive on animal experiments which must be implemented in the national legislations by January 1, 2013.

Opetussuunnitelmat puntarissa : Varhaiskasvatussuunnitelman perusteet 2005 ja Esiopetuksen opetussuunnitelman perusteet 2000 kasvatusnäkemyksen ja -ideologian näkökulmasta

The present study compares educational views and ideologies, especially concerning children, childhood and learning, found within two documents guiding early childhood education in Finland, Varhaiskasvatussuunnitelman perusteet 2005 and Esiopetuksen opetussuunnitelman perusteet 2000. These documents are also available in English, titled The National Curriculum Guidelines on Early Childhood Education and Care in Finland 2000 and The Core Curriculum for Pre-school Education in Finland 2005. The method used in the study was a slightly applied Bereday´s comparative method. Both documents talk of the child as weak but also as active and able to learn and develop. The child was also social, emotional and individual in both documents. In Varhaiskasvatussuunnitelman perusteet 2005 parents and social networks were emphasised more than in Esiopetuksen opetussuunnitelman perusteet 2000. Views regarding learning were mainly constructive. The aim of Esiopetuksen opetussuunnitelman perusteet 2000 seemed to be in preparing children to adulthood, whereas in Varhaiskasvatussuunnitelman perusteet 2005 the childhood had an intrinsic value. Applying Davies division, both documents were found to represent mainly romantic ideology, but conservative ideology could also be recognised, especially when the views about children and childhood were under examination. Revisionistic ideology was more apparent in Esiopetuksen opetussuunnitelman perusteet 2000 than in Varhaiskasvatussuunnitelman perusteet 2005, while democratic ideology was more dominant in the latter. Although there was a strong cohesion between these two guiding documents regarding educational views and educational ideologies, there were some traces to be found in Esiopetuksen opetussuunnitelman perusteet 2000 that pointed towards primary school tradition.

Sukupuoli ala-asteen uskonnon ja elämänkatsomustiedon oppikirjojen kuvissa

Tutkimuksen kohteena ovat 2000-luvun alun ala-asteen uskonnon ja elämänkatsomustiedon oppikirjat. Tutkimuksessa kysytään yhtäältä, miten sukupuolia esitetään oppikirjoissa. Toisaalta tarkastellaan oppikirjojen tarjoamia kuvia uskonno(i)sta sukupuolinäkökulmasta katsottuna. Tutkimus sijoittuu uskontososiologian kenttään, koska siinä tarkastellaan, miten uskonnon ja elämänkatsomustiedon opetusmateriaalit suhteutuvat yhteiskunnassamme eläviin sukupuolistereotypioihin. Oppikirjat heijastavat osaltaan yhteiskunnassamme vallitsevia arvoja ja käytäntöjä. Tutkimuksen lähtökohdat ovat kriittisessä feministisessä tutkimuksessa. Tarkoituksena on paljastaa, miten sukupuolia tehdään tutkituissa oppikirjoissa; taustalla on ajatus, että sukupuolet ovat poliittisesti, historiallisesti ja diskursiivisesti tuotettuja kategorioita. Sukupuolijärjestelmään sisältyy sukupuolten erilläänpito, hierarkia ja heteronormatiivisuus. Siihen liittyy myös aina vallankäyttöä: kun jotain määritellään normaaliksi ja ensisijaiseksi, jää sen ulkopuolelle joukko epänormaaliuksia ja toissijaisuuksia. Tutkimus kytkeytyy siis myös teorioihin diskurssien kautta operoivasta, kaikkialla läsnäolevasta ja verkostoituneesta vallasta. Tutkimusaineistona on WSOY:n kustantama uskonnon oppikirjasarja, Suuri kertomus (neljä kirjaa), Otavan kustantama uskonnon oppikirjasarja Tähti (viisi kirjaa), sekä Opetushallituksen kustantamat elämänkatsomustiedon Miina ja Ville kirjat (kaksi kirjaa). Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan sisällönanalyyttisin keinoin ensisijaisesti kirjojen sisältämiä kuvia, mutta myös tekstejä siltä osin, kuin ne olennaisesti liittyvät analysoituihin kuviin. Koska kyseessä ovat oppikirjat, sivutaan myös niiden suhdetta perusopetuksen opetussuunnitelmien näille oppiaineille määrittelemiin tavoitteisiin. Kuvat on analyysissa jaettu kahteen luokkaan, uskontoon liittyviin ja arkisiin kuviin. Aineisto on käyty läpi etsien vastauksia seuraaviin kysymyksiin: kuinka monessa kuvassa esiintyy tyttö/nainen, poika/mies tai molempia sukupuolia? Miten usein tyttö/nainen, poika/mies tai molemmat sukupuolet ovat kuvassa pääasiallisena toimijana tai kuvan etualalla? Millaisia toimijuuksia eri sukupuolille on annettu, ovatko ne stereotyyppisiä? Löytyykö aineistosta heteronormista poikkeavia esityksiä? Kuvia, joissa stereotyyppisiä sukupuolirooleja erityisesti vahvistetaan tai murretaan, on otettu analyysissa tarkempaan tarkasteluun. Lähempää luettujen kuvien kautta analyysissa käsitellään kulttuurissamme ja yhteiskunnassamme vallitsevia sukupuolittavia käytäntöjä sekä niiden taustalla olevia arvoja ja rakenteita. Uskontoon liittyvien kuvien kohdalla analyysiin kietoutuvat erityisesti uskonno(i)ssa elävät käsitykset sukupuolten järjestyksistä ja paikoista. Keskiöön nousee myös evankelis-luterilaisen kristillisyyden tarjoamat käsitykset sukupuolista ja niiden asemista uskonnonharjoituksessa. Lisäksi tutkimuksessa vertaillaan uskonnon ja elämänkatsomustiedon kirjasarjoista tehtyjä analyyseja keskenään: näkyykö näiden oppiaineiden välillä eroja sukupuolten esittämisessä? Tutkimuksen tulokset ovat suurelta osin samankaltaiset aiemman sukupuolinäkökulmasta tehdyn oppikirjatutkimuksen tulosten kanssa. Poikia ja miehiä esiintyy kuvissa huomattavasti enemmän kuin tyttöjä ja naisia, ja miessukupuolelle on annettu enemmän ja monipuolisempia toimijuuksia kuin naissukupuolelle. Maskuliinisia samastumiskohteita tarjotaan enemmän kuin feminiinisiä. Sukupuolten esitykset ovat enimmäkseen stereotyyppisiä, vaikka joitakin poikkeuksia aineistossa onkin. Vaihtoehtoja heteroseksuaalisuudelle ei aineistossa tuoda esiin. Elämänkatsomustiedon kirjoissa poiketaan stereotyyppisistä esityksistä useammin kuin uskonnon kirjoissa, mutta niidenkin kuvasto on miesvaltainen ja pääosin heteronormatiivinen. Uskontoja esitellään niiden virallisen ja julkisen harjoittamisen kautta, mikä antaa uskonnoista huomattavan mieslähtöisen ja -valtaisen kuvan. Ei esimerkiksi tuoda juurikaan esiin sitä, että monissa uskonnoissa miehet ovat oikeutettuja erilaisiin rooleihin kuin naiset. Naisten uskonnollisuus ohitetaan aineistossa lähes täysin. Taustalla on nähtävissä käsitys miesten ja miehisten elämänpiirien ensisijaisuudesta, kun taas naiset ja naisten elämänpiirit nähdään toiseuden kautta. Tämä ajatusrakennelma on koko kulttuurissamme ja sen perusteissa niin läpikäyvänä, että siihen ei usein kiinnitetä lainkaan huomiota: se näyttäytyy itsestäänselvänä ja ikään kuin luonnollisena asiaintilana. Sukupuolten välinen eriarvoisuus kytkeytyy kuitenkin ihmisten jokapäiväiseen elämään kuten työhön, palkkaan, perhe-elämään ja mahdollisuuksiin toteuttaa itseään ja kehittää taipumuksiaan. Tutkimuksen tulokset tukevat näkemyksiä, joiden mukaan sukupuolten välinen tasa-arvo ei ole yhteiskunnassamme vielä toteutunut. Avainsanat Nyckelord Keywords sukupuoli, oppikirjat, uskonto, elämänkatsomustieto, kuva-analyysi, stereotypia, heteronormatiivisuus, tasa-arvo, sukupuoliroolit, toimijuus

Luomu – ja Reilun kaupan kuluttajien käsityksiä eettisestä ruoan kuluttamisesta

Työn tavoitteena oli kuvata ja analysoida eettisen ruoan kuluttamisen käsitettä luomu – ja Reilun kaupan kuluttajien näkökulmasta. Mielenkiintona oli selvittää, mitä eettisessä ruoan kuluttamisessa koetaan merkitykselliseksi ja mitä ovat eettiset ruokavalinnat. Lisäksi haluttiin selvittää, millä tapaa eettisinä juuri luomu – ja Reilun kaupan tuotteet näyttyivät. Aihetta lähestyttiin tutkielman kirjallisuusosiossa etiikan teorioiden kautta sekä luomalla katsaus eettisen kuluttamisen eri osa-alueisiin eli eettisiin ulottuvuuksiin. Tämä jälkeen keskityttiin eettiseen ruoan kuluttamiseen ja luomu ja Reilun kaupan tuotteiden eettisyyteen vertailevasta näkökulmasta. Kirjallisuuskatsauksen perusteella hahmoteltiin teoreettinen viitekehys, jossa kuvattiin eettisen ruoan kuluttamisen sisältöä ja merkitystä, sekä niiden yhteyttä ruokavalintoihin. Empiirinen aineisto kerättiin keväällä 2010 teemahaastatteluina, joissa haastateltiin 12 luomu- ja Reilun kaupan kuluttajaa. Haastatteluaineisto analysoitiin ja luokiteltiin fenomenografisella menetelmällä. Tutkimuksen tulokset, käsitykset eettisestä ruoan kuluttamisesta esitettiin kuvauskategoriasysteeminä. Eettinen ruoan kuluttaminen näyttäytyi, kuten aikaisemmissa tutkimuksissa, altruistisena välittämisenä niin muista ihmisistä, eläimistä kuin ympäristöstä, mutta voimakkaasti myös kuluttajan ja tämän perheen terveydestä ja turvallisuudesta huolehtimisena. Näistä käsityksistä seuranneet ruokavalinnat olivat lähiruoka, luomu – ja Reilun kaupan tuotteet sekä kasvis- tai kasvispainotteinen ruoka. Näistä korostuneimman eettisenä koettiin lähiruoka. Luomutuotteet puolestaan koettiin pääasiallisesti eettisenä terveyden kannalta ja Reilun kaupan tuotteet muiden ihmisten hyvinvoinnin kannalta. Edellä kuvattujen käsitysten ohella merkittäväksi tulokseksi nousi käsitys eettisestä ruoan kuluttamisesta vapaaehtoisena yksinkertaistamisena, tai ainakin pyrkimyksenä siihen. Yksinkertaistaminen näyttäytyi eriasteisena oman ruoan kulutuksen kohtuullistamisena ja jopa luopumisena omasta mielihyvästä eettisten periaatteiden takia.

Maailmankuvan uskonnollisuus ja arvot moraaliarviointien selittäjinä

Moraalipsykologit ovat väitelleet vuosikymmeniä siitä, mitä moraali on ja minkälaisiin psykologisiin prosesseihin moraaliarvioinnit perustuvat. Yksi keskeinen kysymys on koskenut sitä vaikuttavatko ihmisten maailmankuvat ja niihin kietoutuvat tiedolliset uskomukset, arvot ja omat käsitykset moraalin luonteesta moraaliarviointeihin. Tämä tutkimus lähti selvittämään maailmankuvan uskonnollisuuden sekä arvojen yhteyttä moraaliarviointeihin tilastollisten analyysien valossa. Kyselytutkimusaineisto kerättiin helsinkiläisiltä yliopisto-opiskelijoilta (N = 161). Nykypäivän ihmisille tuttujen, mutta moraalisesti kiistanalaisten tekojen vääryyden arvioinneista muodostettiin pääkomponenttianalyysiin perustuen kolme tekotyyppiä, jotka nimettiin itseen kohdistuviksi teoiksi (ITSE-teot; abortti, avioero, eutanasia, seksin harrastaminen alaikäisenä ja itsemurha), muihin yksilöihin kohdistuviksi antisosiaalisiksi teoiksi (MYKS-teot; varastetun tavaran ostaminen tietoisesti, pysäköidylle autolle vahingossa aiheuttamansa vahingon ilmoittamatta jättäminen ja toiselle henkilölle kuuluvan auton luvaton käyttöönotto) sekä yhteiskuntaan kohdistuviksi antisosiaalisiksi teoiksi (YHT-teot; maksamatta jättäminen julkisessa liikenteessä ja verovilppi tilaisuuden salliessa). Maailmankuvaltaan perinteisesti uskonnolliset henkilöt arvioivat kaikki tekotyypit lähes yhtä vääriksi (sanallisesti ”väärin” oleviksi) sekä keskimäärin vääremmiksi kuin maailmankuvaltaan ei-perinteisesti uskonnolliset henkilöt. Sen sijaan ei-perinteisesti uskonnolliset henkilöt erottivat selkeästi kaikki kolme tekotyyppiä niin keskiarvojen kuin niiden sanallisten vastineidensakin mukaan (väärimmiksi arviointiin MYKS-teot ja vähiten vääriksi ITSE-teot). Hierarkkisissa regressioanalyyseissä maailmankuvan uskonnollisuuden perinteisyys ennusti merkittävästi ITSE-tekojen vääremmäksi arviointia, mutta kohtalaisesti myös YHT-tekojen vääremmäksi arviointia, kun ikä, sukupuoli ja arvoulottuvuudet oli vakioitu. Uskonnollisuuden perinteisyys ei kuitenkaan ennustanut MYKS-tekojen arviointia muut tekijät vakioituina ja sen ainoaksi tilastollisesti merkitseväksi selittäjäksi osoittautui säilyttämis−muutosvalmiusarvoulottuvuus, joskin melko vähäisellä selitysvoimalla. Kyseinen arvoulottuvuus ennusti myös ITSE- ja YHT-tekotyyppien arviointeja muut edellä mainitut tekijät vakioituina, mutta heikommin kuin maailmankuvan uskonnollisuuden perinteisyys. YHT-tekoja selitti lisäksi ikä, kun kaikki muut selittäjät oli vakioitu. Itsensäylittämis–itsensäkorostamisarvoulottuvuus ei ollut yhteydessä yhdenkään tekotyypin vääryyden arviointiin. Tulokset tukivat aiempia tutkimustuloksia siitä, että eri ihmiset hahmottavat ainakin omasta näkökulmastaan moraalin alaa eri tavoin eli arvioivat samat teot eri tavoin vääriksi tai vapaaehtoisiksi. Tulokset osoittivat myös, että ihmisten maailmankuvan uskonnollisuudella ja säilyttämisarvojen preferoinnilla on selkeä yhteys näihin eroihin arvioinneissa, mutta että muihin yksilöihin kohdistuvat vahingolliset ja epäoikeudenmukaiset antisosiaaliset teot tuomitaan hyvin yleisesti väärinä. Yhdessä nämä tekijät näyttäisivät viittaavan siihen, että ihmisten moraalikäsitykset todella vaihtelevat. Keskeisinä lähteinä toimivat Jonathan Haidtin, Lawrence Kohlbergin, Shalom Schwartzin, Richard Shwederin sekä Elliot Turielin tieteelliset julkaisut ja teokset.

Yhteiskunnallisen yrittäjyyden institutionalisaatio Suomessa - haasteet ja mahdollisuudet

Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan yhteiskunnallista yrittäjyyttä suomalaisesta näkökulmasta ja pyritään kartoittamaan niitä tekijöitä, jotka voivat vaikuttaa sen institutionalisaatioon Suomessa. Yhteiskunnallinen yrittäjyys on viimeisen kahden vuosikymmenen aikana kansainvälisesti huomiota saanut pyrkimys yhdistää innovatiivisella tavalla taloudellisesti kestävä yritystoiminta ja sosiaalisen muutoksen aikaansaaminen. Erityisesti yhteiskunnalliset yritykset on nähty yhtenä mahdollisena vastauksena tulevaisuudessa yhä ajankohtaisempaan kysymykseen siitä, miten tärkeinä pidetyt hyvinvointipalvelut saadaan tuotettua huoltosuhteen heikentyessä ja julkisen talouden kiristyessä. Tutkimuksen tarkoituksena on selvittää avainhenkilöhaastatteluiden avulla, miten yhteiskunnallinen yrittäjyys ymmärretään Suomessa, ja mitä mahdollisuuksia tai haasteita nähdään sen vakiintumiselle. Tutkimus muodostuu kahdesta osuudesta. Ensimmäisen osan muodostaa yhteiskunnallisen yrittäjyyden käsitteen selventäminen heijastamalla haastatteluissa nousseita käsityksiä aiempaan pääosin kansainväliseen tutkimuskirjallisuuteen. Toinen osuus on teoriasidonnainen. Aineistosta pyritään kartoittamaan niitä tekijöitä, jotka haastateltavien mukaan vaikuttavat yhteiskunnallisen yrittäjyyden institutionalisaatioon Suomessa. Tutkimuksen teoreettisen viitekehyksen muodostaa (uusi) institutionalismi ja erityisesti teoria institutionalisaatiosta. Uuden alan institutionalisaatioon vaikuttavat Lawrencen ja Phillipsin mukaan sekä makrokulttuuriset instituutiot, eli yhteiskunnan erilaiset rakenteet, että institutionaalinen yrittäjyys, eli aktiivisten yksilöiden toiminta. Olemassa olevat rakenteet voivat olla uuden alan vakiintumista mahdollistavia tai rajoittavia. Tutkimuksen aineiston valinta perustuu teoreettiseen otokseen.Tutkimukseen on haastateltu avainhenkilöitä niistä sidosryhmistä, jotka ovat keskeisessä asemassa uuden alan tai ilmiön vakiintumiseen nähden. Haastattelutekniikkana on käytetty puolistrukturoitua teemahaastattelua. Haastatteluista saatua aineistoa on analysoitu laadullisen sisällönanalyysin avulla. Yhteiskunnallisesta yrittäjyydestä ei vallinnut haastateltujen kesken yhtenäistä kuvaa. Yhteiskunnallisen tehtävän ensisijaisuus nähtiin kuitenkin keskeisenä ilmiötä määrittävänä tekijänä. Haastatteluissa ilmenevät käsitykset ovat myös melko yhdenmukaisia Iso-Britannian mallin kanssa. Keskeisinä tuloksina yhteiskunnallisen yrittäjyyden institutionalisaatioon vaikuttavina tekijöinä nousivat mahdollistavina esiin vahva kolmas sektori, vakiintunut osuustoiminta, myönteinen poliittinen linjaus, vastuullisen kansalaisuuden ja individualismin vahvistuminen sekä tiivis kansainvälinen yhteistyö. Institutionalisaatiota rajoittavina institutionaalisina tekijöinä nousivat esiin vakiintuneet (erityisesti yrityspuolen) organisaatiot, hankintalaki ja sen sovellukset, perinteinen yksipuolinen näkemys yrittäjyydestä, hallintoalamaisuuskulttuuri sekä käsitteiden sekaantuminen ja leimautuminen haihatteluksi.