Vammaisen lapsen äidin vanhemmuuden kokemus sekä lähiympäristön ja kasvatuskumppanuuden merkitys

The parenthood experience of a mother with a disabled child and the meaning of the social environment and parent-professional partnerships The importance of parental guidance when a family has a child with a disability or autism has been pointed out by several studies. The present research was based on the premise that by supporting the mother we can help the whole family to cope better and the professionals in day care or at school are able to support parents. The starting point was the subjective experience, which is also the central focus of the phenomenological method. The purpose of this study was firstly to describe the experience of the mother and the dialogue between mother and educational professionals. Secondly it was the task of this research to discover what kind of support and information the mother obtains from her social environment. At the background of this study there was the ecological theory of Bronfenbrenner, the ecocultural approach by Gallimore and the interactive examination of family that take into consideration the whole environment and personal situation. The research data was collected by interviewing the mothers, the day care personnel and the teachers at school. In this research there were a total of 32 interviews and 24 informants: 10 mothers who have a child with a disability and/or autism, 8 professionals in day care and 6 teachers at school. This study was longitudinal because the same mothers were interviewed twice, first in 1998 and then after five years in 2003. It was thus possible to get information on whether their life situation had changed and the nature of those changes. The data of this study was analysed by the method of phenomenological psychology that was applied for this study. The findings indicated that all mothers had experienced many complicated emotional feelings such as: anger, mourning, fear and sadness as well as love and bonding. It can be said that several human feelings existed at the same time. Mothers experienced that the support of the social environment, for example, relatives, families in the same situation and persons taking care of the child had significant meaning for their coping. However the life situation among the mothers varied. Mostly mothers received valuable support for their parenthood and they have adopted a strong emotion for manage ring. Mothers with an autistic child were more stressed than mothers with a mentally retarded child. A few mothers had numerous problems with taking care of their child and they did not get enough help. Same mothers were very exhausted too and the situation was quite the same after five years, when their child was teenager. All mothers said that after starting school the support for the family had significally diminished. Mothers said that dialogue with teacher got on without problems, but there were meetings seldom, so it wasn´t possible to get enough support for their parenthood. Keywords: parenthood, motherhood, disability, early special education, family-centred.

Opettajan ja vanhemman vuorovaikutus ja keskustelun kehykset koululaisen kehityskeskusteluissa

The aim of the study is to describe the consultation discussions between the teacher, parents and the student. The structure and the interaction of the conversation is in the focus of the study. The study explicates the organization of the interaction and orientation of the participants in the conversation. The study approaches conversation as a dynamic activity and studies it from the point of view of the participants. Assessment is one of the themes involved in the teacher-parent-student consultation discussions. Assessment as a duty of the school brings an institutional aspect in the conversation, but the ways it is implemented and expressed varies in the conversational situations. Participants communication and interaction in the situation influences the ways the consultation discussions are carried out. The framework of the study is based on the ethno methodological approach where a social situation and its meaning is seen negotiated by the participants. The interest of the study is to find out how the participants implement mutual understanding and how it can be observed in their interaction. Quantitatively, the interaction of the participants is described in the framework of the interaction analysis and linked to the socio-emotional and rational aspects of the interaction. The empirical part of the study consists of data collected with questionnaires and videotaped conversations. The main research problems of the study are, how the teachers and parents described the consultation discussions and how the interaction of the teacher, the parent and the student is organized during the conversation. The background of the study is linked to the previous studies concerning co-operation between the teacher and the parent and home-school relationship. This part of the study aims to enlighten how the consultation discussions are part of the co-operation in the school context. The questionnaires link the consultation discussions to the every day co-operation between the teacher and the family. Expectations and results described by the parents and teachers are analysed. Videotaped data is both analysed quantitatively based on interaction analysis and approached with the ethno methodological interpretation. The interest of my study is, how people participate in the situation of consultation discussion, how they orientate in it and influence the conversation. The analyses of the consultation discussions are based on the both quantitative interaction analysis and ethno methodological frame analysis. With the theoretical approach of my study I want to describe and enlighten the organization of the interaction and ways of orientation of the participants in consultation discussions. Keywords: consultation discussion, interaction, evaluation, orientation in the conversation, home-school cooperation, quantitative interaction analysis, frame analysis

Ongelmana yhteistyökyvyttömyys? : Teoreettisen ymmärryksen etsintää web-avusteiselle tiedontuottamisyhteistyölle

Tutkimuksessa analysoidaan teoriatasolla web-avusteisen tiedontuottamisyhteistyön kokeilutoiminnassa esiin tulleita ongelmia ja kootaan niiden viitoittamana teoriaperustaa tulevaisuuden työskentelytavalle, tietämyksen web-avusteiselle ryhmäprosessoinnille. Keskiössä on ihminen kognitiivisena tiedonkäsittelijänä ja elinikäisenä oppijana. Organisaatiossa vallitsevat toimintastrategiat, ryhmätyöskentelyn organisointi ja ryhmässä toteutuvat käytännöt muodostavat yksilön toimintaa ohjaavan sosiaalisen toimintaympäristön, joka säätelee yhteistyöprosessin onnistumista. Yhteistyötä tarkastellaan sosiaalisen tiedonkäsittelyn ryhmäilmiönä, jossa käsite yhteistyökyky kyseenalaistuu. Tuotetussa teoriaperustassa ihminen nähdään monitasoisten oppimishaasteiden ristitulessa. Koulutuksessa vallitseva absoluuttinen tietokäsitys on pystyttävä muuttamaan konstruktivistiseksi tietokäsitykseksi: yhteistä tietämystä ryhmänä tuotettaessa yksilöiden tietämys on rakennusaineena. Koulussa saatu sosiaalisen tiedonkäsittelyn malli, itsekeskeisen tiedonkäsittelyn malli, ei sovellu tietämyksen ryhmäprosessointiin. Malliin liittyviä oppeja on poisopittava samalla kun ryhmäjäsenenä on suunniteltava ja yhdessä opeteltava ryhmäkeskeisiä ja web-avusteisia tiedonkäsittelymalleja. Näin yhteistyöprosessissa toteutuu rinnakkain asiaoppimista ja toimintaoppimista. Näitä molempia on tarpeen tukea kehitettäessä uudenlaisia web-avusteisia työskentelymenetelmiä. Osassa I esitellään tutkimuksen kokemusperäisiä virikkeitä. Suhteellisen tietokäsityksen mukaisesti tämä tutkimus on kiinteästi kytkeytynyt tutkijan elinikäiseen oppimiseen ja tutkimus kuvataan tutkijan yksilöllisen tietämyksen prosessointina. Tutkimusaiheen löytymiseen johtaneet käytännön havainnot aloittavat sen takia raportoinnin. Erityisesti koulun sosiaalisen tiedonkäsittelyn organisointi on tarkastelun kohteena. Osassa II hahmotetaan tutkimusnäkökulmaa. Tutkimuskysymykset ovat lähinnä viitoittamassa tietämyksen etsintää. Tutkimusmenetelmä, kokeilutoiminnan analysointi, on saanut vahvasti vaikutteita toimintatutkimuksesta. Tutkimusasetelman perustana on toimintaan kytkeytyvä ihmiskäsitys. Kirjallisuuden avulla etsitään mahdollisia kytkeytymiä ihmisen käyttäytymisen ja sosiaalisen toiminnan organisoinnin välillä. Osa III kuvailee tutkimusaihetta koskevan ymmärryksen prosessointia. Esiymmärrys yhteistyöstä ja yhteistyökäsitteen määrittely mahdollistavat kokeilutoimintaan ryhtymisen. Uusi viestintämahdollisuus (www) nähdään yhteisessä tiedonkäsittelyssä apuvälineenä. Käytännön kokeilujaksot tarjoavat aineksia kognitiivisen tiedonkäsittelyn syvällisten periaatteiden löytymiselle. Inhimillinen toiminta ja sosiaalinen tiedonkäsittely saavat teoriatason analysoinnissa oppimiseen perustuvia tulkintoja. Osassa IV esitellään tutkimuksen tavoitteena ollutta teoriaperustaa tietämyksen web-avusteiselle ryhmäprosessoinnille. Teoriatiivistelmässä keskiöön nousee ihmisen kognitiivinen tiedonkäsittely sekä konstruktivistisen asiaoppimisen että selviytymispainotteisen toimintaoppimisen muodossa. Sosiaalinen toimintaympäristö nähdään osallisena kognitiivisessa tiedonkäsittelyssä ja selityksenä sille, että yhteinen tiedonkäsittely ei onnistu pelkästään tietoverkkoympäristössä vaan tarvitaan myös sosiaalisia tapaamisia. Kokeilutoiminnan opetuksia tuodaan esille yhteistyöprosessin keskeisten tapahtumien tarkastelussa. Tuotettua teoriaperustaa koetellaan tieteen kentällä vertailemalla sitä muiden tutkijoiden julkaisemiin käsityksiin. Tietoverkkoteknologian suhdetta inhimilliseen tiedonkäsittelyyn verrataan muualla saatuihin ja julkaistuihin käsityksiin. Avainsanat: tietointensiivinen yhteistyö, tiedontuottamisyhteistyö, yhteistyöprosessi, yhteistyökyky, yhteistyökyvyttömyys, virtuaalinen yhteistyöorganisaatio, yksilöllinen tietämys, yhteisen ymmärryksen etsintä, yhteinen tietämys, kognitiivinen tiedonkäsittely, asiaoppiminen, toimintaoppiminen, sosiaalinen tiedonkäsittely, sosiaalinen toimintaympäristö, automatisoitunut toimintamalli, yksilökeskeinen toimintamalli, itsekeskeinen toimintamalli, ryhmäkeskeinen toimintamalli, sosiaalisen tiedonkäsittelyn toimintastrategia, työympäristössä oppiminen.

Noviisiopettajana peruskoulussa : Aloittelevien opettajien autenttisia kokemuksia ensimmäisestä opettajavuodesta

As a Novice Teacher at Comprehensive School: The authentic experiences of the beginning teachers during their first year of teaching The aim of this study is to explicate the novice year of teaching in the light of teachers´ authentic experiences. The subject of this investigation is the teachers´ subjective world of experience during their first academic year of teaching and the sharing of these experiences in collaborative consulting meetings. The themes discussed in the meetings were introduced into the collaborative group by the novice teachers themselves, and the progress of discussion was con-trolled by them. The research data was gathered in a consultative working group where the way a novice teacher starts to interpret, analyze and identify his/her own complex and dynamic teaching situations was observed. The research data gathered in this way illuminates novice teachers´ world of experience and mental picture as well as the unconscious sides of school life. In a theoretical frame of reference, the work of a teacher is identified, according to systemic scientific thought, as a dynamic triangle in which the basic elements are the personality of the teacher, the role of the teacher and the school as an organization. These basic elements form a whole within which the teacher works. The dynamics of this triangle in a teacher’s work are brought to light through the study of the phenomena of groups and group dynamics since a teacher works either as a member of a group (working community), as a leader of a group (teaching situations) or in a network (parent – teacher cooperation). Therefore, tension and force are always present in teaching work. The main research problem was to explain how a novice teacher experiences his/her first working year as a teacher. The participants (n=5) were teaching at five different comprehensive schools in the city of Helsinki. This was their first long-term post as a teacher. The research data consists of seven collaborative consulting meetings, as well as recordings and transcripts of the meetings. A classificatory framework was developed for data analysis which enabled a sys-tematic qualitative content analysis based on theory and material. In addition to the consulting meetings, the teachers were interviewed at the beginning and at the end of the process of collecting the research material. The interviews were used to interpret the meanings of the content analysis based on raw data. The findings show that there is a gap between teacher education and the reality of school life, which causes difficulties for a novice teacher during his/her first teaching year. The gap is rather a global educational problem than a national one, and therefore it is independent of cultural factors. Novice teachers desire a well-structured theory of teacher education and a clear programme where the themes and content delve deeper and deeper into the subject matter during the study years. According to the novice teachers, teacher education frequently consists of sporadic and unconnected study and class situations. An individual content weakness of teacher education is the lack of insufficient initiation into evaluation processes. The novice teachers suggest that a student must be provided good-quality and competent guidance during the study years and during his or her induction. There should be a well-organized, structured and systematic induction program for novice teachers. The induction program should be overseen by an organization so that the requirements of a qualified induction can be met. The findings show that the novice teachers find the first year of teaching at comprehensive school emotionally loaded. The teachers experienced teaching as difficult work and found the workload heavy. Nevertheless, they enjoyed their job because, as they said, there were more pleasant than unpleasant things in their school day. Their main feeling at school was the joy of success in teaching. The novice teachers felt satisfaction with their pupils. The teachers experienced the more serious feelings of anger and disgust when serious violence took place. The most difficult situations arose from teaching pupils who had mental health problems. The toughest thing in the teacher´s work was teaching groups that are too heterogeneous. The most awkward problems in group dynamics happened when new immigrants, who spoke only their own languages, were integrated into the groups in the middle of the school year. Teachers wanted to help children who needed special help with learning but restated at the same time that the groups being taught shouldn’t be too heterogeneous. The teachers wished for help from school assistants so that they could personally concentrate more on teaching. Not all the parents took care of their children according to the comprehensive school law. The teachers found it hard to build a confidential relationship between home and school. In this study, novice teachers found it hard to join the teaching staff at school. Some of the teachers on staff were very strong and impulsive, reacting loudly and emotionally. These teachers provoked disagreement, conflicts, power struggles and competition among the other teachers. Although the novice teachers of the study were all qualified teachers, three of them were not interested in a permanent teaching job. For these teachers teaching at a primary school was just a project, a short period in their working life. They will remain in the teaching profession as long as they are learning new things and enjoying their teaching job. This study is an independent part of the research project on Interplay – Connecting Academic Teacher Education and Work, undertaken by the Department of Applied Sciences of Education at the University of Helsinki. Key words: novice teacher, emotions, groups and group dynamics, authority, co-operation between home and school, teacher community, leadership at school, induction, consulting

Keltaista ja kimaltavaa : kodin ja koulun yhteistyöstä koulun ja kodin yhteyteen

Through this study I aim to portray connections between home and school through the patterns of thought and action shared in everyday life in a certain community. My observations are primarily based upon interviews, writings and artwork by people from home (N=32) and school (N=13) contexts. Through the stories told, I depict the characters and characteristic features of the home-school interaction by generations. According to the material, in the school days of the grandparents the focus was on discipline and order. For the parents, the focus had shifted towards knowledge, while for the pupils today, the focus lies on evaluation, through which the upbringing of the child is steered towards favourable outcomes. Teachers and those people at home hold partially different understandings of home-school interaction, both of its manifested forms and potentials. The forms of contact in use today are largely seen as one-sided. Yearning for openness and regularity is shared by both sides, yet understood differently. Common causes for failure are said to lie in plain human difficulties in communication and social interaction, but deeply rooted traditions regarding forms of contact also cast a shadow on the route to successful co-operation. This study started around the idea, that home-school interaction should be steered towards the ex-change of constructive ideas between both the home and school environments. Combining the dif-ferent views gives to something to build upon. To test this idea, I drafted a practice period, which was implemented in a small pre-school environment in the fall of 1997. My focus of interest in this project was on the handling of ordinary life information in the schools. So I combined individual views, patterns of knowledge and understanding of the world into the process of teaching. Works of art and writings by the informants worked as tools for information processing and as practical forms of building home-school interaction. Experiences from the pre-school environ-ment were later on echoed in constructing home-school interaction in five other schools. In both these projects, the teaching in the school was based on stories, thoughts and performances put to-gether by the parents, grandparents and children at home. During these processes, the material used in this study, consisting of artwork, writings and interviews (N=501), was collected. The data shows that information originating from the home environments was both a motivating and interesting addition to the teaching. There even was a sense of pride when assessing the seeds of knowledge from one’s own roots. In most cases and subjects, the homegrown information content was seamlessly connected to the functions of school and the curriculum. This project initiated thought processes between pupils and teachers, adults, children and parents, teachers and parents, and also between generations. It appeared that many of the subjects covered had not been raised before between the various participant groups. I have a special interest here in visual expression and its various contextual meanings. There art material portrays how content matter and characteristic features of the adult and parent contexts reflect in the works of the children. Another clearly noticeable factor in the art material is the impact of time-related traditions and functions on the means of visual expression. Comparing the visual material to the written material reveals variances of meaning and possibilities between these forms of expression. The visual material appears to be related especially to portraying objects, action and usage. Processing through that making of images was noted to bring back memories of concrete structures, details and also emotions. This process offered the child an intensive social connection with the adults. In some cases, with children and adults alike, this project brought forth an ongoing relation to visual expression. During this study I end up changing the concept to ‘home-school collaboration’. This widely used concept guides and outlines the interaction between schools and homes. In order to broaden the field of possibilities, I choose to use the concept ‘school-home interconnection’. This concept forms better grounds for forming varying impressions and practices when building interactive contexts. This concept places the responsibility of bridging the connection-gap in the schools. Through the experiences and innovations of thought gained from these projects, I form a model of pedagogy that embraces the idea of school-home interconnection and builds on the various impres-sions and expressions contained in it. In this model, school makes use of the experiences, thoughts and conceptions from the home environment. Various forms of expression are used to portray and process this information. This joint evaluation and observation evolves thought patterns both in school and at home. Keywords: percieving, visuality, visual culture, art and text, visual expression, art education, growth in interaction, home-school collaboration, school-home interconnection, school-home interaction model.

Ravintoa keholle, ruokaa mielelle : vertailututkimus pohjoismaisten nuorten ruokatottumuksista kotona ja koulussa

Aims. The main meals that youngsters have during the day are eaten at home and at school. In the Nordic countries breakfast and supper are often eaten with other members of the family. The way that Nordic countries arrange the school lunch and the frequency of family meals differ between countries. However, the challenges related to eating habits of the young are surprisingly similar. The aim of this study is to discuss how the Nordic countries could support youngsters’ healthy eating habits. This study was carried out as a part of a Nordic research project and it completed the work done by Kauppinen (2009) and Niemi (2009) in their Master’s Theses. The research questions are: 1. How do the youngsters evaluate their own eating habits and those of their family? 2. How do the youngsters evaluate the influence of home, family and school on their own eating habits? 3. What kind of relationship exists between eating at home and at school according to the data? Data and methods. A quantitative internet-based survey was used to collect data (N=1539) on the 9th graders conceptions and understandings. The survey consisted of respondents from Finland (N=586), Sweden (N=427), Denmark (N=295) and Norway (N=246). In this study the whole data to the appropriate extent was analyzed. The analysis was done with the SPSS-software and included examination of means, standard deviations, cross-tabulations, Pearson´s correlations, Chi-squared -tests, t-tests and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). The results were compaired between the countries and between sexes. Results and discussion. The studied youngsters evaluated their own eating habits positively. There were statistically signifigant differences (p< .05) between countries concerning the people who influence the youngsters’ healthy eating habits. Youngsters from Finland and Sweden considered making healthy choices at school easier than those from Denmark and Norway. Also eating a so called healthy lunch at school was more common in Finland and in Sweden. Eating breakfast and eating a healthy meal at school had a statistically significant interconnection (p< .001). The differences between sexes were not equal between the countries. The results supported those from previous studies, but also raised ideas for further study. Youngsters’ near environments should support their possibilities to make healthy choices and to participate to the decicion making process. Co-operation between the Nordic countries and between the home and the school is important. Listening to the youngsters’ own voice is a challence and a possibility for developing both home economics education and research in this area. Key words: Nordic countries, youngsters, healthy eating habits, eating at home, school meals

Tapiolan kuoron pedagoginen merkitys vuosina 1963-2003

This study examines the impact that the Tapiola choir has had on its singers under its four decades. This pedagogical meaning was studied through the former singers of the Tapiola choir, their life choices and their choice of profession. The purpose of this study was to find out how the Tapiola choir has influenced its singers in the long run - their individuality and personality as well as their world view. The target group of this research were all the former members of the Tapiola choir. Altogether 400 individuals have sung in the Tapiola choir. One hundred of them could be reached and 87 of them answered the enquiry. The enquiry was divided in to the following sections: 1) background, 2) years in the choir, 3) hobbies, 4) statements, 5) complete the sentences and 6) with your own words. The main emphasis in this enquiry was on the 50 statements, which were used to study the respondents' attitudes towards the choir as a hobby, the choir's working methods and music education. Through the analysis of this section the researcher was able to generalize the impacts that Tapiola choir has had on its singers. The theoretical base of this study examines the subtext of musicality and musical development as well as music as a hobby. Communal music hobbies and the requirements for a functioning music community were also accentuated. This was connected to my hypothesis of an educative music community. A music community can't be truly educative if its members are unable to collaborate in different situations of practicing and performing. The research results support my hypothesis of the educativeness of a children's choir. The former choristers are socially skilled and self-confident individuals, who are well prepared for the challenges in life. In the Tapiola choir every member is a responsible individual as well as an important part of the whole. The different tasks given in the choir teach the choristers to trust their own skills. Working in a group for its part develops social skills. Many of the respondents also felt that singing in the Tapiola choir was more than a hobby, almost like a way of life. Many of them impress that they would be totally different persons without this period in their life. Children's choir, music education, life choices, social interest group, communal music hobby

Reformin implementaatio - Michael Fullanin teoriaan perustuva muutosteoreettisten tekijöiden sisällönanalyyttinen tarkastelu Kelpo-kehittämistoiminnan kunnallisten koordinaattoreiden puheessa

The educational reform, launched in Finland in 2008, concerns the implementation of the Special Education Strategy (Opetusministeriö 2007) under an improvement initiative called Kelpo. One of the main proposed alterations of the Strategy relates to the support system of comprehensive school pupils. The existed two-level model (general and special support) is to be altered by the new three-level model (general, intensified and special support). There are 233 municipalities involved nationwide in the Kelpo initiative, each of which has a municipal coordinator as a national delegate. The Centre for Educational Assessment [the Centre] at the University of Helsinki, led by Professor Jarkko Hautamäki, carries out the developmental assessment of the initiative’s developmental process. As a part of that assessment the Centre interviewed 151 municipal coordinators in November 2008. This thesis considers the Kelpo initiative from Michael Fullan’s change theory’s aspect. The aim is to identify the change theoretical factors in the speech of the municipal coordinators interviewed by the Centre, and to constitute a view of what the crucial factors in the reform implementation process are. The appearance of the change theoretical factors, in the coordinators’ speech, and the meaning of these appearances are being considered from the change process point of view. The Centre collected the data by interviewing the municipal coordinators (n=151) in small groups of 4-11 people. The interview method was based on Vesala and Rantanen’s (2007) qualitative attitude survey method which was adapted and evolved for the Centre’s developmental assessment by Hilasvuori. The method of the analysis was a qualitative theory-based content analysis, processed using the Atlas.ti software. The theoretical frame of reference was grounded on Fullan’s change theory and the analysis was based on three change theoretical categories: implementation, cooperation and perspectives in the change process. The analysis of the interview data revealed spoken expressions in the coordinators’ speech which were either positively or negatively related to the theoretical categories. On the grounds of these change theoretical relations the existence of the change process was observed. The crucial factors of reform implementation were found, and the conclusion is that the encounter of the new reform-based and already existing strategies in school produces interface challenges. These challenges are particularly confronted in the context of the implementation of the new three-level support model. The interface challenges are classified as follows: conceptual, method-based, action-based and belief-based challenges. Keywords: reform, implementation, change process, Michael Fullan, Kelpo, intensified support, special support

Orphan nuclear receptor subfamily NR4A their interplay with other nuclear receptors and functions in osteoblasts

Nurr1, NGFI-B and Nor1 (NR4A2, NR4A1 and NR4A3, respectively) belong to the NR4A subfamily of nuclear receptors. The NR4A receptors are orphan nuclear receptors which means that activating or repressing ligands for these receptors have not been found. NR4A expression is rapidly induced in response to various stimuli including growth factors and the parathyroid hormone (PTH). The studies concerning the NR4A receptors in the central nervous system have demonstrated that they have a major role in the development and function of the dopaminergic neurons of the midbrain and in regulating hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal-axis. However, the peripheral functions of the NR4A family are largely unknown. Cultured mouse primary osteoblasts, a preosteoblastic cell line and several osteoblastic cell lines were used to investigate the role of NR4A receptors in osteoblasts. NR4A receptors were shown to directly bind to and activate the promoter of the osteopontin gene (OPN) in osteoblastic cells, thus regulating its expression. OPN is a major bone matrix protein expressed throughout the differentiation of preosteoblastic cells into osteoblasts. The activation of the OPN promoter was shown to be dependent on the activation function-1 located in the N-terminal part of Nurr1 and to occur in both monomeric and RXR heterodimeric forms of NR4A receptors. Furthermore, PTH was shown to upregulate OPN expression through the NR4A family. It was also demonstrated that the fibroblast growth factor-8b (FGF-8b) induces the expression of NR4A receptors in osteoblasts as immediate early genes. This induction involved phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase, protein kinase C, and mitogen activated protein kinase, which are all major pathways of FGF signalling. Nurr1 and NGFI-B were shown to induce the proliferation of preosteoblastic cells and to reduce their apoptosis. FGF-8b was shown to stimulate the proliferation of osteoblastic cells through the NR4A receptors. These results suggest that NR4A receptors have a role both in the differentiation of osteoblasts and in the proliferation and apoptosis of preosteoblast. The NR4A receptors were found to bind to the same response element on OPN as the members of the NR3B family of orphan receptors do. Mutual repression was observed between the NR4A receptors and the NR3B receptors. This repression was shown to be dependent on the DNA-binding domains of both receptor families, but to result neither from the competition of DNA binding nor from the competition for coactivators. As the repression was dependent on the relative expression levels of the NR4As and NR3Bs, it seems likely that the ratio of the receptors mediates their activity on their response elements. Rapid induction of the NR4As in response to various stimuli and differential expression of the NR3Bs can effectively control the gene activation by the NR4A receptors. NR4A receptors can bind DNA as monomers, and Nurr1 and NGFI-B can form permissive heterodimers with the retinoid X receptor (RXR). Permissive heterodimers can be activated with RXR agonists, unlike non-permissive heterodimers, which are formed by RXR and retinoic acid receptor or thyroid hormone receptor (RAR and TR, respectively). Non-permissive heterodimers can only be activated by the agonists of the heterodimerizing partner. The mechanisms behind differential response to RXR agonists have remained unresolved. As there are no activating or repressing ligands for the NR4A receptors, it would be important to find out, how they are regulated. Permissiviness of Nurr1/RXR heterodimers was linked to the N-terminal part of Nurr1 ligand-binding domain. This region has previously been shown to mediate the interaction between NRs and corepressors. Non-permissive RAR and TR, permissive Nurr1 and NGFI-B, and RXR were overexpressed with corepressors silencing mediator for retinoic acid and thyroid hormone receptors (SMRT), and with nuclear receptor corepressor in several cell lines. Nurr1 and NGFI-B were found to be repressed by SMRT. The interaction of RXR heterodimers with corepressors was weak in permissive heterodimers and much stronger in non-permissive heterodimers. Non-permissive heterodimers also released corepressors only in response to the agonist of the heterodimeric partner of RXR. In the permissive Nurr1/RXR heterodimer, however, SMRT was released following the treatment with RXR agonists. Corepressor release in response to ligands was found to differentiate permissive heterodimers from non-permissive ones. Corepressors were thus connected to the regulation of NR4A functions. In summary, the studies presented here linked the NR4A family of orphan nuclear receptors to the regulation of osteoblasts. Nurr1 and NGFI-B were found to control the proliferation and apoptosis of preosteoblasts. The studies also demonstrated that cross-talk with the NR3B receptors controls the activity of these orphan receptors. The results clarified the mechanism of permissiviness of RXR-heterodimers. New information was obtained on the regulation and functions of NR4A receptors, for which the ligands are unknown.

Oral Health among Iranian Preadolescents : A School-Based Health Education Intervention

The present study assessed oral health and its determinants among Iranian preadolescents, and evaluated a school-based health education programme aimed to promote their oral health. The target population of this study comprised a random sample of the third-grade school children (n = 459) of all public primary schools in 19 areas of Tehran city. The data came from a clinical examination of the children and two self-administered questionnaires: one for children, and one for mothers. The clinical dental examination was performed for recording children's oral health. The mothers' questionnaires covered background factors, oral self-care (OSC) behaviours and oral health-related knowledge and attitude statements. After baseline data collection, a community trial was designed as a 3-month school-based intervention study. For the intervention trial, the third-grade classes as the clusters were randomly assigned to the intervention and control groups. Three kinds of intervention were implemented, one in class, one via the parents, and one as a combination of these. One group served as controls with no intervention. The outcome measures of the study were changes in plaque and bleeding scores recorded. The results showed that mean dmft was 3.75 (SD = 2.8) for the primary teeth and mean DMFT was 0.4 (SD = 0.9) for the permanent teeth. All children had plaque on at least one index tooth and bleeding on probing in at least one index tooth occurred in 81%. About one-third (34%) of the children reported favourable OSC and less than half (46%) of the children reported brushing their teeth at least twice daily. Girls reported favourable OSC (OR = 2.0), had decay-free teeth (OR = 1.8) and treated permanent teeth (OR = 3.3) more than did boys. Mother's oral health-related aspects, i.e., mother's favourable OSC, high knowledge levels of and positive attitudes towards oral health, and active supervision of the child's tooth brushing had a positive effect on all aspects of children's oral health status and behaviours (ORs from 1.3 to 1.9). After the intervention, the results showed a strong intervention effect on healthy gingiva in both groups where parents were involved: the parental-aid group (OR = 7.7, 95% CI 2.2-27.7) and combined group (OR = 6.6, 95% CI 2.0-22.1). To improve children's oral health, community school-based oral health educational programmes should be established to include all primary schools. These programmes should benefit from the common risk factor approach and a multi-sectored approach to employ for communication between the community, the school, and the family. Oral health interventions should empower the parents' ability to improve their own oral health behaviour and then to transfer that healthy behaviour to their children.

Community forestry and environmental literacy in northern Thailand : Towards collaborative natural resource management and conservation

Conservation and sustainable management of tropical forests needs a holistic approach: in addition to ecological concerns, socio-economic issues including cultural aspects must be taken into consideration. An ability to adapt practices is a key to successful collaborative natural resource management. Achieving this requires local participation and understanding of local conceptions of the environment. This study examined these issues in the context of northern Thailand. Northern uplands are the home of much of the remaining natural forest in Thailand and several ethnic minority groups commonly referred to as hill tribes. The overall purpose of this study was to grasp a regional view of an ethnically diverse forested area and to elicit prospects to develop community forestry for conservation purposes and for securing people s livelihood. Conservation was a central goal of management as the forests in the area were largely designated as protected. The aim was to study local perceptions, objectives, values and practices of forest management, under the umbrella of the concept environmental literacy, as well as the effects of forest policy on community management goals and activities. Environmental literacy refers to holistic understanding of the environment. It was used as a tool to examine people s views, interests, knowledge and motivation associated to forests. The material for this study was gathered in six villages in Chiang Mai Province. Three minority groups were included in the study, the Karen, Hmong and Lawa, and also the Thai. Household and focus group interviews were conducted in the villages. In addition, officials at district, regional and national levels, workers of non-governmental organisations, and academics were interviewed, and some data were gathered from the students of a local school. The results showed that motivation for protecting the forests existed among each ethnic group studied. This was a result of culture and traditions evolved in the forest environment but also of a need to adapt to a changed situation and environment and to outside pressures. The consequences of deforestation were widely agreed on in the villages, and the impact of socio-economic changes on the forests and livelihood was also recognised. The forest was regarded as a source of livelihood providing land, products and services essential to the people inhabiting rural uplands. Traditions, fire control, cooperation, reforestation, separation of protected and utilisable areas, and rules were viewed as central for conservation. For the villagers, however, conservation meant sustainable use, whereas the government has tended to prefer strict restrictions on forest resource use. Thus, conflicts had arisen. Between communities, cooperation was more dominant than conflict. The results indicated that the heterogeneity of forest dwellers, although it has to be recognised, should not be overemphasised: ethnic diversity can be considered as no major obstacle for successful community forestry. Collaborative management is particularly important in protected areas in order to meet the conservation goals while providing opportunities for livelihood. Forest management needs more positive incentives and increased dialogue.

Essays on the Bioeconomics of the Northern Baltic Fisheries

World marine fisheries suffer from economic and biological overfishing: too many vessels are harvesting too few fish stocks. Fisheries economics has explained the causes of overfishing and provided a theoretical background for management systems capable of solving the problem. Yet only a few examples of fisheries managed by the principles of the bioeconomic theory exist. With the aim of bridging the gap between the actual fish stock assessment models used to provide management advice and economic optimisation models, the thesis explores economically sound harvesting from national and international perspectives. Using data calibrated for the Baltic salmon and herring stocks, optimal harvesting policies are outlined using numerical methods. First, the thesis focuses on the socially optimal harvest of a single salmon stock by commercial and recreational fisheries. The results obtained using dynamic programming show that the optimal fishery configuration would be to close down three out of the five studied fisheries. The result is robust to stock size fluctuations. Compared to a base case situation, the optimal fleet structure would yield a slight decrease in the commercial catch, but a recreational catch that is nearly seven times higher. As a result, the expected economic net benefits from the fishery would increase nearly 60%, and the expected number of juvenile salmon (smolt) would increase by 30%. Second, the thesis explores the management of multiple salmon stocks in an international framework. Non-cooperative and cooperative game theory are used to demonstrate different "what if" scenarios. The results of the four player game suggest that, despite the commonly agreed fishing quota, the behaviour of the countries has been closer to non-cooperation than cooperation. Cooperation would more than double the net benefits from the fishery compared to a past fisheries policy. Side payments, however, are a prerequisite for a cooperative solution. Third, the thesis applies coalitional games in the partition function form to study whether the cooperative solution would be stable despite the potential presence of positive externalities. The results show that the cooperation of two out of four studied countries can be stable. Compared to a past fisheries policy, a stable coalition structure would provide substantial economic benefits. Nevertheless, the status of the salmon stocks would not improve significantly. Fourth, the thesis studies the prerequisites for and potential consequences of the implementation of an individual transferable quota (ITQ) system in the Finnish herring fishery. Simulation results suggest that ITQs would result in a decrease in the number of fishing vessels, but enables positive profits to overlap with a higher stock size. The empirical findings of the thesis affirm that the profitability of the studied fisheries could be improved. The evidence, however, indicates that incentives for free riding exist, and thus the most preferable outcome both in economic and biological terms is elusive.

Sexual reproduction in chydorid cladocerans (Anomopoda, Chydoridae) in southern Finland - implications for paleolimnology

The relationship between sexual reproduction of littoral chydorid cladocerans (Anomopoda, Chydoridae) and environmental factors in aquatic ecosystems has been rarely studied, although the sexual behavior of some planktonic cladocerans is well documented. Ecological monitoring was used to study the relationship between climate-related and non-climatic environmental factors and chydorid sexual reproduction patterns in nine environmentally different lakes that were closely situated to each other in southern Finland. Furthermore, paleolimnological ephippium analysis was used to clarify how current sexual reproduction is reflected in surface sediments of the same nine lakes. Additionally, short sediment cores from two of the lakes were studied with ephippium analysis to examine how recent climate-related and non-climatic environmental changes were reflected in chydorid sexual reproduction. Ephippium analysis uses the subfossil shells of asexual individuals to represent asexual reproduction and the shells of sexual females, i.e. ephippia, to represent sexual reproduction. The relative proportion of ephippia of all chydorid species, i.e. total chydorid ephippia (TCE) indicates the relative proportion of sexual reproduction during the open-water season. This thesis is part of the EPHIPPIUM-project which aims to develop ephippium analysis towards a quantitative climate reconstruction tool. To be able to develop a valid climate model, the influence of the environmental stressors other than climate on contemporary sexual reproduction and its reflection in sediment assemblages must be clarified so they can be eliminated from the model. During contemporary monitoring a few sexual individuals were observed during summer, apparently forced to sexual reproduction by non-climatic local environmental factors, such as crowding or invertebrate predation. Monitoring also revealed that the autumnal chydorid sexual reproduction period was consistent between the different lakes and climate-related factors appeared to act as the main inducers and regulators of autumnal sexual reproduction. However, during autumn, chydorid species and populations among the lakes exhibited a wide variation in the intensity, induction time, and length of autumnal sexual reproduction. These variations apparently act as mechanisms for local adaptations due to the genetic variability provided by sexual reproduction that enhance the ecological flexibility of chydorid species, allowing them to inhabit a wide range of environments. A large variation was also detected in the abundance of parthenogenetic and gamogenetic individuals during the open-water season among the lakes. On the basis of surface sediment samples, the general level of the TCE is ca. 3-4% in southern Finland, reflecting an average proportion of sexual reproduction in this specific climate. The variation in the TCE was much lower than could be expected on the basis of the monitoring results. This suggests that some of the variation detected by monitoring may derive from differences between sampling sites and years smoothed out in the sediment samples, providing an average of the entire lake area and several years. The TCE is always connected to various ecological interactions in lake ecosystems and therefore is always lake-specific. Hypothetically, deterioration of climate conditions can be detected in the TCE as an increase in ephippia of all chydorid species, since a shortening open-water season is reflected in the relative proportions of the two reproduction modes. Such an increase was clearly detected for the time period of the Little Ice Age in a sediment core. The paleolimnological results also indicated that TCE can suddenly increase due to ephippia of one or two species, which suggests that at least some chydorids can somehow increase the production of resting eggs under local environmental stress. Thus, some environmental factors may act as species-specific environmental stressors. The actual mechanism of the increased sexual reproduction seen in sediments has been unknown but the present study suggests that the mechanism is probably the increased intensity of gamogenesis, i.e. that a larger proportion of individuals in autumnal populations reproduce sexually, which results in a larger proportion of ephippia in sediments and a higher TCE. The results of this thesis demonstrate the utility of ephippium analysis as a paleoclimatological method which may also detect paleolimnological changes by identifying species-specific environmental stressors. For a quantitative TCE-based climate reconstruction model, the natural variation in the TCE of surface sediments in different climates must be clarified with more extensive studies. In addition, it is important to recognize the lakes where the TCE is not only a reflection of the length of the open-water season, but is also non-climatically forced. The results of ephippium analysis should always be interpreted in a lake-specific manner and in the context of other paleoecological proxies.

Hyvän hoidon reuna-alueilla : Potilasvahinko lääketieteellisen toiminnan valossa.

Vuonna 2006 Suomessa korvattiin 2331 potilasvahinkoa. Niistä maksettiin korvauksia yhteensä noin 27 miljoonaa euroa. Tässä tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan potilasvahinkoja lääketieteellisen toiminnan valossa. Tutkimuksessa pyritään vastaamaan kysymykseen: Millä eri tavoilla lääkärin toiminta voi epäonnistua potilasvahinkotapauksissa? Tutkimuksessa määriteltiin neljä kategoriaa, joiden avulla analysoitiin esimerkkitapauksia. Kategoriat käsittelivät hoitojärjestelmää, lääkärin toimintaan vaikuttavia normeja, toiminnan intentionaalisuutta sekä toiminnan suhdetta sen lopputuloksiin ja seurauksiin. Ensimmäisessä tutkimusluvussa määriteltiin kategoriat, joiden avulla lääketieteellistä toimintaa voi arvioida. Ensimmäiseksi analysoitiin hoitojärjestelmää, lääkärin toiminnan kontekstia. Hoitojärjestelmästä nostettiin esille potilas-lääkärisuhde, lääkärien välinen yhteistyö, potilaasta saatavat tiedot, toiminnan mahdollistavat resurssit sekä niin kutsuttu systeemivirhe. Hoitojärjestelmän toimiminen on hyvän hoidon ensimmäinen edellytys. Se vaatii eri terveydenhuollon ammattihenkilöiden saumatonta yhteistyötä.Toinen kategoria käsitteli lääkärin toimintaan vaikuttavia normeja. Georg Henrik von Wrightin teoksen Norm and Action normien jaottelua sovellettiin lääkärin toimintaan. Normien pääryhmään kuuluvat säännöt, määräykset ja ohjeet. Lisäksi voidaan määritellä pienempiä normiryhmiä, jotka sijaitsevat pääryhmien välimaastossa. Näihin pienempiin ryhmiin sijoittuvat tottumukset, moraaliset periaatteet sekä ideaalit säännöt. Kolmannessa kategoriassa käsiteltiin intentionaalisuutta osana toimintaa. Teorian päälähde oli G. E. M. Anscomben teos Intention. Toiminnan intentionaalisuutta analysoitiin Anscomben tunnetun, vesikaivon myrkytystä koskevan, esimerkin avulla. Siinä tekoon liittyvä sisäinen tieto on keskeinen intentiota määrittävä tekijä. Viimeisessä kategoriassa arvioitiin toimintaa von Wrightin mukaan. Esille nousi erityisesti kyky toiminnan perusedellytyksenä sekä toiminnan lopputulos ja seuraukset. Potilasvahingoissa on tärkeää arvioida myös potilasvahingon seurauksia, ei vain epäonnistuneen toimenpiteen lopputulosta. Toimintaa analysoitaessa oli myös otettava huomioon kenen näkökulmasta seurauksia arvioitiin, Potilas, lääkäri ja esimerkiksi osastonylilääkäri saattavat nähdä potilasvahingon seuraukset hyvin eri tavoilla.Toisessa tutkimusluvussa arvioitiin neljää Terveydenhuollon oikeusturvakeskuksen ja lääninhallitusten sosiaali- ja terveysosastojen kantelu- ja valvontaratkaisuista valittua esimerkkitapausta. Ensimmäinen käsitteli lääkärin toiminnan epäonnistumista synnytyksessä, toinen psyykkisistä ongelmista ja alkoholiriippuvuudesta kärsivän lääkärin ammatinharjoittamisoikeuksien rajoittamista, kolmas lääketutkimuksen johtajan vakavia virheitä ja neljäs Terveydenhuollon oikeusturvakeskuksen pysyvän asiantuntijan ristiriitaisia asiantuntijalausuntoja. Lääkärin toiminnan epäonnistuminen vaikuttaa helposti hoitojärjestelmään, jonka toimiminen perustuu työntekijöiden yhteistyöhön. Hoitovirheissä rikotaan yleensä lääketieteen sääntöjä. Potilasvahingon sattuessa lääkärin asema muuttuu normiauktoriteetista normisubjektiksi. Lääkäri saattaa toiminnallaan rikkoa myös moraalisia sääntöjä tai lääkärin ihannetta. Puhtaissa vahinkotapauksissa toiminnan lopputulos ei vastaa lääkärin intentiota, potilaan parantamista. Kaikissa potilasvahinkotapauksissa ei voida puhua vahingoista, vaan kyseessä voi olla myös tarkoituksellinen teko. Toiminnan lopputuloksella voi olla laajat seuraukset, jotka tulisi myös ottaa huomioon toimintaa arvioitaessa.

Taloudellinen menestys etusijalla : Suomalaisten pörssiyritysten ympäristöasenteita

Tässä pro gradu -tutkielmassa selvitetään suomalaisten pörssiyritysten ympäristöasenteita. Asenteella tarkoitetaan suhteellisen pysyvää arviota tai toimintavalmiutta suhteessa ympäristöön. Lähtökohtaoletuksena on, että yrityksen perustehtävä on voiton tuottaminen osakkeenomistajille ja erilaisten sidosryhmien hyödyttäminen. Lähdeaineistona ovat yritysten yhteiskuntavastuu- ja ympäristöraportit, jotka on valittu OMX:n pohjoismaisen pörssin listalta niiden yritysten joukosta, joiden kotipaikka on Suomessa, jotka edustavat energian, perusteollisuuden ja yhdyskuntapalveluiden toimialaryhmää, ja jotka ovat julkaisseet erillisen ympäristö- tai yhteiskuntavastuuraportin. Tällaisia yrityksiä ovat Neste Oil, Fortum, Kemira, Outokumpu, Rautaruukki, M-real, Stora Enso ja UPM. Tutkimusmetodina on systemaattinen analyysi, jolla tarkoitetaan käsitteiden ja argumentaation analyysiä sekä johtopäätösten tekemistä analyysin pohjalta. Tutkimuskysymyksiä on kolme: Minkälaisia ympäristöasenteita lähteinä olevat suomalaisten pörssiyritysten ympäristö- ja yhteiskuntavastuuraportit sisältävät? Mitkä tekijät vaikuttavat tutkimuskohteena olevien yritysten ympäristöasenteisiin lähteiden perusteella? Millaisia toimintavalmiuksia yritysten ympäristöasenteet sisältävät lähteiden perusteella? Tutkielma jakaantuu johdannon, taustaluvun ja loppukatsauksen lisäksi kolmeen päälukuun. Taustaluvussa esitellään ihmis-, tekniikka- ja luontokeskeinen ympäristöasenne. Tämä kolmijako ja näiden eri asenteiden piirteet muodostavat haravan lähteiden analysoinnille sen selvittämiseksi, millainen asenne tutkimuksen kohteeksi valituilla yrityksillä on ympäristöön. Ensimmäisessä pääluvussa tarkastellaan kestävää kehitystä ja sen periaatteiden noudattamista, luonnonvarojen käyttöä raaka-aineena sekä toiminnalle asetettuja tavoitteita ja asiakkaiden toiveisiin vastaamista. Yritykset pyrkivät suojelemaan luontoa tuleville sukupolville, kehittämään ympäristömyötäisempiä tuotteita, käyttämään luonnonvaroja kestävästi ja hallitsemaan päästöjen ja jätteiden syntymistä teknisillä ratkaisuilla ja kierrätyksellä. Toisessa pääluvussa tarkastellaan taloudellisen menestyksen ja ympäristön hallinnan vaikutusta yritysten ympäristöasenteisiin. Asenteisiin vaikuttavat taloudellisen menestyksen saavuttaminen, hiilidioksidipäästöjen vähentäminen, ympäristöpoliittiset ohjauskeinot ja ympäristöasioiden hallinta. Kolmannessa pääluvussa tarkastellaan yritystoiminnan ympäristövaikutuksia, niiden taustalla olevia asenteita sekä millaisia toimintavalmiuksia asenteet sisältävät. Tällaisia toimintavalmiuksia ovat yritysten osallistuminen ympäristönsuojeluun, yrityksen ympäristövaikutukset sekä yhteistyö ympäristöjärjestöjen kanssa ja ympäristöntutkimus. Yritysten asenne ympäristöön on pääsääntöisesti ihmis- ja tekniikkakeskeinen. Luontokeskeinen asenne ympäristöön tulee raporteissa esille vain harvoin, esimerkiksi kuvattaessa ympäristövaikutuksia ekosysteemin ja luonnon monimuotoisuuden kannalta. Yritysten asenne ympäristöön painottuu tällöinkin ihmis- ja tekniikkakeskeiseksi, sillä ympäristönsuojelun motiivina voi olla vain ympäristöpoliittisiin vaatimuksiin vastaaminen tai yrityskuvan parantaminen.