Tiede ja tutkijan sosiaalinen vastuu : Joseph Ben-Davidin, Roger Sperryn ja Knut Erik Tranøyn käsitykset tieteestä ja tutkijan sosiaalisesta vastuusta

Science and the Scientist's Social Responsibility. Joseph Ben-David's, Roger Sperry's and Knut Erik Tranøy's Views of Science and the Scientist's Social Responsibility The aim of the study was to investigate, whether or not there is any connection between Jewish sociologist Joseph Ben-David's, American neuroscientist Roger Sperry's and Norwegian philosopher Knut Erik Tranøy's views of science and views of the scientist's social responsibility. The sources of information were their writings concerning this topic. Ben-David has a classical view of science. He thinks that the Mertonian norms of scientific activity, first written in 1942, are still valid in modern science. With the help of these norms Ben-David defends the view that science is morally neutral. Ben-David thinks that a scientist has a limited social responsibility. A scientist only reports on the new results, but he is not responsible for applying the results. In any case Ben-David's ideas are no longer valid. Sperry has a scientistic view of science. According to Sperry, science is the source of moral norms and also the best guide for moral action. The methods of natural sciences "show" how to solve moral problems. A scientist's personal views of science and social responsibility are not important. However Sperry's view is very problematic on the ethical side. Tranøy stresses the scientist's social responsibility. A scientist has common norms with the society from with he or she comes. This is why a scientist has the right, and also the responsibility, to discuss social and ethical questions between science and society. Tranøy's view has some ethical and practical problems, but it is valid in principle. Finally, Ben-David's, Sperry's and Tranøy's views of both science and the scientist's social responsibility have a connection: the view of science corresponds to the certain view of scientist's social responsibility. The result of this study is: Ben-David's, Sperry's and Tranøy's view of science have an ethical starting point as its fundamental presupposition, which include certain views of scientific knowledge, good and the scientist's ethical responsibilities. The connection between Ben-David's, Sperry's and Tranøy's views of science and views of the scientist's social responsibility means that their views of epistemology, meta-ethics and the scientist's ethical responsibilities have a connection to their views of the scientist's social responsibility. The results of this study can help the scientific community to organize the social responsibility of a scientist and deepen the conversation concerning the scientist's social responsibility.

Food intake, growth and social interactions of signal crayfish, Pacifastacus leniusculus (Dana)

The knowledge about the optimal rearing conditions, such as water temperature and quality, photoperiod and density, with the understanding of animal nutritional requirements forms the basis of economically stable aquaculture for freshwater crayfish. However, the shift from a natural environment to effective culture conditions induces several changes, not only at the population level, but also at the individual level. The social contacts between conspecifics increase with increasing animal density. The competition for limited resources (e.g. food, shelter, mates) is more severe with the presence of agonistic behaviour and may lead to unequal distribution of these. The objectives of this study were to: 1) study the distribution of a common food resource between communally reared signal crayfish (Pacifastacus leniusculus) and to assign potential feeding hierarchy on the basis of individual food intake measurements, 2) explore the possibilities of size distribution manipulations to affect population dynamics and food intake to improve growth and survival in culture and 3) study the effect of food ration and spatial distribution on food intake and to explore the effect of temperature and food ration on growth and body composition of freshwater crayfish. The feeding ranks between animals were assigned with a new method for individual food intake measurement of communally reared crayfish. This technique has a high feasibility and a great potential to be applied in crayfish aquaculture studies. In this study, signal crayfish showed high size-related variability in food consumption both among individuals within a group (inter-individual) and within individual day-to-day variation (intra-individual). Increased competition for food led to an unequal distribution of this resource and this may be a reason for large growth differences between animals. The consumption was significantly higher when reared individually in comparison with communal housing. These results suggest that communally housed crayfish form a feeding hierarchy and that the animal size is the major factor controlling the position in this hierarchy. The optimisation of the social environment ( social conditions ) was evaluated in this study as a new approach to crayfish aquaculture. The results showed that the absence of conspecifics (individual rearing vs. communal housing) affects growth rate, food intake and the proportion of injured animals, whereas size variation between animals influences the number and duration of agonistic encounters. In addition, animal size had a strong influence on the fighting success of signal crayfish reared in a social milieu with a wide size variation of conspecifics. Larger individuals initiated and won most of the competitions, which suggests size-based social hierarchy of P. leniusculus. This is further supported by the fact that the length and weight gain of smaller animals increased after size grading, maybe because of a better access to the food resource due to diminished social pressure. However, the high dominance index was not based on size under conditions of limited size variation, e.g. those characteristic of restocked natural populations and aquaculture, indicating the important role of behaviour on social hierarchy.

Suomalaisten yritysten vapaaehtoinen sosiaalinen vastuu : Sidosryhmäviitekehys yritysten ja ulkoisten sidosryhmien edustajien näkemyksissä

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) is no longer only an issue of companies but a concern shared by e.g. the European Union, the International Labour Organization, labour market organizations and many others. This thesis examines what kind of voluntary corporate social responsibility exceeding the minimum level set in the legislation can be expected from the Finnish companies. The research was based on the interviews of some representatives of Finnish companies and of external stakeholders. Earlier Finnish empirical research on the topic has solely analysed the stakeholder thinking and the ethics of the views of the company representatives. The views of the external stakeholders brought ht up a much more versatile perspective on the voluntary corporate social responsibility of the companies. That is the particular surplus value of this research. This research, founded on stakeholder thinking, evaluated what kind of starting points and ideas on responsibility the views of the representatives of the companies and the external stakeholders were based on the voluntary social responsibility. Furthermore, the research also investigated how their views about the corporate social responsibility indicated the benefits achieved on the cooperative actions with different partners - for example companies, communities and public administration. To fulfil the aims of the research, the following questions were used as part tasks in mapping the basic foundations and starting points expressed by the representatives of the companies and the external stakeholders: 1) How do laws, directions concerning social responsibility of companies, and opinions and demands of the stakeholders guide and affect the voluntary corporate social responsibility? 2) How can companies assume voluntary corporate social responsibility in addition to their core functions and without compromising their profitability, and how does, for example, the tightening competition affect the possibility of taking responsibility? 3) What kind of ethic and moral foundations is the corporate social responsibility based on? 4) What kind of roles can companies have in securing and promoting the well-being of citizens in Finland and on the global market as one subsystem of the society? The views on the voluntary corporate social responsibility of nine big companies, one medium-sized company and one small company, all considered responsible pioneer companies, were studied with surveys and half-structured theme interviews between 2003 and 2004. The research proceeded as a theory-bounded study. The empirical material and the previous stakeholder thinking theories (Takala 2000b, Vehkaperä 2003) guided the thesis and worked abductively in interplay with each other during the research process. (Tuomi, Sarajärvi 2002.) The aims and the methods of the research and the themes of the interviews were defined on the basis of that information. The aims of the research were surveyed qualitatively with the strategy of a multiple case study. Representatives from nine big peer companies and nine external stakeholders were interviewed with half-structured themes between 2004 and 2005. The external stakeholders and the peer companies were chosen with the "thinking" of theoretical replication by Yin, according to which the views of the representatives of those groups would differ from those of the pioneer companies and also from those of each others. The multiple case study supports analysing the internal cohesion of the views of different groups and comparing their differences, and it supports theoretical evaluation and theory-building as well. (Yin 2003.) Another reason for choosing the external stakeholders was their known cooperation with companies. The spoken argumentations of the company and stakeholder representatives on the voluntary social responsibility of the companies were analysed and interpreted in the first place with an analytic discourse analysis, and the argumentations were classified allusively into the stakeholder discourses in three of the part tasks. In the discourse analysis, argumentations of the speech is seen to be intervowen with cultural meanings. (Jokinen, Juhila 1999.) The views of the representatives of the pioneer companies and the external stakeholders were more stakeholder-orientated than the views of the representatives of the peer companies. For the most part, the voluntary corporate social responsibility was seemingly targeted on single, small cooperation projects of the companies and external stakeholders. The pioneer companies had more of those projects, and they were participating in the projects more actively than the peer companies were. The significant result in this research was the notion that, in particular, the representatives of the pioneer companies and external stakeholders did not consider employing and paying taxes to be enough of reciprocal corporate social responsibility. However, they still wanted to preserve the Finnish welfare model, and the interviewees did not wish major changes in the present legislation or the social agreements. According to this study, the voluntary corporate social responsibility is motivated by ethical utilitarianism which varied from very narrow to very wide in relation to benefits achieved by companies and stakeholders (Velasquez 2002, Lagerspetz 2004). Compared with the peer companies, more of the representatives of the pioneer companies and of external stakeholders estimated that companies in their decision-making and operations considered not only the advantages and the benefits of the owners and other internal stakeholders, but also those of the external stakeholders and of the whole society. However, all interviewees expressed more or less strongly that the economic responsibility guides the voluntary responsible actions of the companies in the first place. This kind of utilitarian foundation of behaviour appeared from this research was named as business-orientated company moral. This thesis also presents a new voluntary corporate social responsibility model with four variables on the stakeholder discourses and their distinctive characteristics. The utilitarian motivation of a company s behaviour on their operations has been criticized on the grounds that the end justifies the means. It has also been stated that it is impossible to evaluate the benefits of the utilitarian type of actions to the individuals and the society. It is expected however that companies for their part promote the material and immaterial well-being of the individuals on the global, national and local markets. The expectations are so strong that if companies do not take into account the ethical and moral values, they can possibly suffer significant financial losses. All stakeholders, especially consumers, can with their own choices promote the responsible behaviour of the companies. Key words: voluntary corporate social responsibility, external stakeholders, corporate citizenship, ethics and morality, utilitarianism, stakeholder discourses, welfare society, globalisation

Vaikeavammaisen nuoren aikuistuminen : Yksilöllinen ja erilainen elämänkulku

Transition to adulthood of severely disabled adolescents. Diversity in individual life courses. The focus of this study is to examine the transition to adulthood of severely disabled adolescents as part of their life course. The data for this study were gathered through interviews with nine severely disabled adolescents, who were interviewed several times over a period of eight years. At the beginning of the study the adolescents were between 18 and 24 years old. The informants had severe disabilities manifesting themselves as physical incapacity, cerebral palsy, vision or hearing impairment, neurological disease, or developmental disability. One of the adolescents communicated with symbols. All except one used a wheelchair. As severely disabled adolescents, they received benefits from Kela for persons with severe disabilities, such as the higher-rate or special disability allowance or disability pension, the higher-rate or special pensioners' care allowance, or medical rehabilitation services. The interviews focused on a number of selected themes such as relationships, family, education, work, leisure-time activities, dating, decision-making, independence, happiness, and one s self-image and identity. Data were also derived from interviews with five experts. Two of the experts interviewed were severely disabled themselves. The theoritical foundation of the study lies in perviuos research on the severly disabled, the transition to adulthood and the life course. The method of analysis and interpretation is qualitative and based on interviews with the adolescents. In terms of the analytical process, the focus is on recognizing individual events in the transition process to adulthood and identifying the meanings assigned to them by the adolescents. The narratives also provide a method to shed light on the individuality of the transition. The individual situations of severely disabled adolescents vary, and their disability impacts the range of options available to them as they plan their life course. The medical and social models of disability also have an effect on life courses. Although severely disabled adolescents are able to attain some goals, they remain outsiders in many respects. Key words: Disabled person, severely disabled person, adolescent, transition to adulthood, identity, life course.

"Onko yhteisöllisyydellä väliä?" : identiteettiprosessi ja sosiaalinen pääoma epävarmuuden sietämisen merkityksellisinä elementteinä

”Does the community really count? – identity process and social capital as elements in surviving in insecurity and uncertainty” is a combination of five articles. The aim of this study is to answer the question: how or in which ways is it possible to find the role of identity process and social capital in surviving in insecurity and uncertainty? In the introduction part the concepts of community and social capital are examined. Then I will study the articles and try to find out what kinds of elements of identity process and social capital in them can be found in order to survive in the societal change. The study consists of the introduction part and the articles. The articles are: 1. “Is Becoming a Researcher Some Kind of Role-playing” - Roles of the Researcher in the Process of Forming the Identity 2. What Composes Collective Identity in the Polytechnic Community? 3. Opportunities to Succeed or Fear of Failure? -Entrepreneurship from the Youngsters` Point of View 4. Learning Risk-taking Competences 5. “Bricolage”, or Just Putting Things Together? The starting point for the study is the feeling of insecurity that surrounds a person living in the present society: you cannot be sure with whom you are going to co-operate tomorrow. In the “Good Old Days” the harmonious communities “protected” their members and worked strongly toward common aims. Nowadays, partly because of urbanisation, we are so busy that we only have time to take care of ourselves, or rather to say: just of myself. As Bauman (2001) puts it: people turn to communities in which they feel like home. They still long for communality. For Mead (1962) the group and the communality plays a big role: a person needs others to become the whole ”Self.” In acting with others a person can gain much more than working alone (Field 2003). But, as Day (2006) puts it, the reality of community as discovered by empirical reserach is a great deal messier than the abstract and idealized versions used by theorists. Keywords: uncertainty, insecurity, communality, identity process, social capital, significant groups, survival.

"Ni sit mä tajusin, et on muitakin kuin minä" : Suomenuskoisten sosiaalinen identiteetti

Työ on uskontososiologian tutkimusalaan lukeutuva laadullinen tapaustutkimus, joka perustuu argumentatiiviseen haastatteluaineistoon ja sosiaalisen identiteetin teoriaan. Tutkimuskysymys liittyy sosiaalisen identiteettiin. Miten suomenuskoinen hahmottaa oman yhteisönsä ja sen jäsenyyden? Mitä merkitystä yhteisöllä on suomenuskoiselle? Tutkimuksen aihepiiri on suomalainen uuspakanuus ja sen eräs suuntaus, suomenusko. Työn eräänä tarkoituksena on määritellä suomenuskon käsitettä ja sijoittaa suomenuskoinen suuntaus nykyajan suomalaisen uuspakanuuden kentälle. Hypoteesin mukaan suomenusko on uusiin uskontoihin lukeutuva uuspakanallinen liike. Se kuuluu ásatrún tavoin etnopakanuuden luokkaan, eli kansallisista muinaisperinteistä inspiraationsa ammentaviin suuntauksiin. Suomenuskolle on omalaatuista esikristillisten suomalaisten uskontoperinteiden sekä suomalaisen kansanuskon korostaminen lähteinä. Suomenuskon muut ominaispiirteet vastaavat tyypillistä uuspakanuutta: Luonnon ja perinteiden kunnioitus sekä epädogmaattisuus ja tasavertaisuus ovat keskeisiä arvoja. Työ tehtiin puolistrukturoituna haastattelututkimuksena. Seitsemää suomenuskoista haastateltiin laadullisen asennetutkimuksen menetelmän mukaisesti. Menetelmä on uudehko ja kiinnostava. Se perustuu argumentatiivisen haastatteluaineiston tuottamiseen väittämäkorttien avulla. Analyysissä haastatteluaineistosta paikannetaan asenteita, eli subjektin ilmaisemaa jonkin kohteen arvottamista. Asenteista pyrittiin löytämään ulkoryhmiin kohdistuvia vertailuja ja retorisia erottautumisia. Työn teoreettisena tukirankana on Henri Tajfelin ja John C. Turnerin kehittämä sosiaalisen identiteetin teoria. Teorian mukaan sosiaalista identiteettiä on mahdollista tutkia ainoastaan sosiaalisten ryhmien keskinäisen vertailun asetelmassa. Omia sisäryhmiä vertaillaan aina ulkoryhmiin siten, että oma ryhmä näyttäytyy voittajana. Tämä takaa yksilölle myönteisen omanarvontunnon. Karmela Liebkindin mukaan vähemmistöryhmät vertailevat itseään valtakulttuurin enemmistöryhmiin. Heikki Pesosen ja Elina Huhdan mukaan vähemmistöuskonnot pyrkivät oikeuttamaan omaa uskontoaan tekemällä omalle ryhmälle suotuisia vertailuja. Tutkimuksessa havaittiin haastateltavien tekemiä retorisia erottautumisia ulkoryhmistä sekä heidän ilmaisemiaan asenteita, jotka liittyvät suomenuskoisten sisäryhmän dynamiikkaan. Tulosten perusteella haastatellut suomenuskoiset erottautuvat ryhmänä muusta uuspakanuudesta ja vielä selvemmin New Agesta ja satanismista, jotka eivät ole uuspakanuutta. Lisäksi haastateltavat korostavat eroa dogmaattisiin valtauskontoihin, varsinkin evankelis-luterilaisen valtionkirkon enemmistöryhmään. Suomenuskoisten yhteisöön liittymisen prosessin havaittiin muistuttavan sosiaalista itsekategorisointia yhteisön jäsenyydessä ratkaiseva tekijä on oman jäsenyyden tajuaminen itse. Teorian mukaan tämä johtaa sosiaalisen identiteetin muodostumiseen ja siten ryhmäkäyttäytymiseen. Haastateltavilla oli havaittavissa vahva sosiaalinen identiteetti. Uuspakanuuden kenttään suhteutettuna se oli poikkeuksellisen yhtenäinen. Lisäksi selvisi, että suomenuskoiset suunnittelevat uskonnolliseksi yhdyskunnaksi rekisteröitymistä.

Social dynamics for sustainable food systems : Actors' orientations towards sustainability in primary production and public consumption

The modern food system and sustainable development form a conceptual combination that suggests sustainability deficits in environmental impacts and nutritional status of western populations. This study explores actors orientations towards sustainability by probing into social dynamics for sustainability within primary production and public consumption. If actors within these two worlds were to express converging orientations for sustainability, the system dynamics of the market would enable more sustainable growth in terms of production dictated by consumption. The study is based on a constructivist research approach with qualitative text analyses. The findings were validated by internal and external food system actors and are suggested to represent current social dynamics within Finnish food system. The key findings included primary producers social skilfulness, which enabled networking with other actors in very different paths of life, learning in order to promote one s trade, and trusting reflectively in partners in order to expand business. These activities extended the supply chain in a spiral fashion by horizontal and vertical forward integration, until large retailers were met for negotiations on a more equal basis. This mode of chain level coordination, typically building around the core of social and partnership relations, was coined as a socially overlaid network, and seen as sustainable coordination mode for endogenous growth. The caterers exhibited more or less committed professional identity for sustainability within their reach. The facilitating approaches for professional identities dealt successfully with local and organic food in addition to domestic food, and also imported food. The co-operation with supply chains created innovative solutions and savings for the business parties to be shared. There were also more complicated identities as juggling, critical and delimited approaches for sustainability, with less productive efforts due to restrictions such as absence of organisational sustainability strategy, weak presence of local and organic suppliers, limited understanding about sustainability and no organisational resources for informed choices for sustainability. The convergence between producers and caterers existed to an extent allowing suggestion that increased clarity about sustainable consumption and production by actors could be constructed using advanced tools. The study looks for introduction of more profound environmental and socio-economic knowledge through participatory research with supply chain actors. Learning in the workplace about food system reality in terms of supply chain co-operation may prove to be a change engine that leads to advanced network operations and a more sustainable food system.

Hoivakodin työntekijöiden työhyvinvointi symbolisen interaktionismin näkökulmasta - Työssä kohdattujen ongelmien ja sosiaalisten suhteiden tarkastelua

Tutkielma keskittyy hoivahenkilöstön työhyvinvoinnin merkityksiin ja sen ongelmakohtiin erään vanhusten hoivalaitoksen henkilökunnan kertomana. Tutkimuksen teoreettisena viitekehyksenä toimii Blumerin (1969) teoria symbolisesta interaktionismista, sekä Strykerin strukturaalinen symbolinen interaktionismi (2008). Tutkimuskohteena ovat sosiaaliset prosessit siltä osin kuin ne haittaavat tai tukevat työhyvinvointia hoivalaitoksissa. Tutkielman tavoitteena ei ole käyttää grounded theorya uuden teorian löytämiseen, vaan uusien työhyvinvoinnin tekijöiden kartoittamiseen. Tutkimuskysymykset käsittelivät sitä, millaisena työhyvinvointi näyttäytyy haastateltavien kertomana. Ja lisäksi tarkasteltiin sitä, miten sosiaaliset suhteet työyhteisössä kytkeytyvät työhyvinvoinnin eri aspekteihin. Vanhustenhoidon erityispiirteitä ja aikaisempia työhyvinvoinnin tutkimuksia käydään läpi, sekä kartoitetaan vanhustenhoidon tilaa suomalaisessa yhteiskunnassa. Työhyvinvoinnin käsitettä tarkastellaan sekä yleisesti että vanhustenhoidon osalta. Tutkimusmenetelmänä toimi laadullinen aineistolähtöinen symboliseen interaktionismiin perustuva grounded theory. Aineisto koostui puolistrukturoiduista haastatteluista ja käsitti yhteensä 24 haastattelua, joista 12 valittiin tähän tutkielmaan. Kaikki haastateltavat olivat naisia, johon kuului 8 lähi- ja perushoitajaa, 2 sairaanhoitajaa ja 2 osastonhoitajaa. Haastateltavien valinnan kriteerinä oli työskentely pitkäaikaispotilaiden osastolla. Aineisto analysoitiin glaserilaista grounded theory metodologiaa käyttäen hyödyntäen abduktion logiikkaa. Haastattelut analysoitiin grounded theory metodologian mukaisesti avoimen ja selektiivisen koodauksen avulla CAT-ohjelmaa apuna käyttäen. Tutkimustulosten perusteella havaittiin, että työhyvinvointi koostuu dynaamisista työyhteisön prosesseista, joita säätelevät luottamuksen ja vallankäytön tasapainottelu. Työhyvinvointia kannatteleviin tekijöihin lukeutui avoin kommunikaatio, kollegiaalinen tuki, tasavertaisuus ja yhteiset pelisäännöt. Työhyvinvointia haittaaviksi sosiaalisiksi prosesseiksi fokusoitui vallankäyttö, joka oli selkein työhyvinvointia uhkaava kategoria haastateltavien puheessa. Se oli yhteydessä lukuisiin suoriin ja epäsuoriin interaktion muotoihin, kuten vaientamiseen, syyllistämiseen ja nonkommunikaatioon. Hoivaorganisaation keskeinen dynaaminen elementti oli hoivaorganisaation jähmeys, joka näkyi monella tapaa työyhteisön arjessa vaikeuttaen koko organisaation toimintaa. Organisaation johdolla on merkitystä hoivaorganisaation toiminnan kannalta sekä puheen kulttuurin että konservatiivisen johtamisen muodossa. Merkityssisältöjen erilaisuus johdon ja alaisten välillä aiheutti vuorovaikutuksen vaikeutumista. Sosiaaliset suhteet olivat odotetusti tärkeässä asemassa hoivahenkilöstön työn arjessa. Analyysin tulokset tukivat hoivalaitoksien työntekijöiden työhyvinvointitutkimuksen aikaisempaa linjaa, joissa on korostettu sosiaalisten suhteiden, luottamuksen ja vallankäytön merkitystä työhyvinvointiin. Työn tarkoituksena oli tuottaa uusia työhyvinvoinnin tekijöitä. Tällaisena voidaan pitää nonkommunikaation merkitystä organisaation vuorovaikutusprosessien kannalta. Tutkielman keskeisimmät lähteet ovat: Blumer, H.: Symbolic Interactionism: Perspective and Method; Utriainen, K.: Arvostava vastavuoroisuus ikääntyvien sairaanhoitajien työhyvinvoinnin ytimenä hoitotyössä, sekä Stryker, S.: From Mead to a Structural Symbolic Interactionism and Beyond.

Basic Income Grant in Namibia, a Viewpoint on the Proposal and on the Work of the BIG Coalition

This thesis studies the basic income grant proposal in Namibia. The proposal suggests a monthly grant of N$100 (approximately 10€) to all those Namibian citizens who do not receive the state pension. This thesis concentrates on the Basic Income Grant (BIG) Coalition and on its work. The formation and transformation of the coalition during the time period between 2003 and 2009 is analyzed with the help of data collected during two field work periods in 2008 and 2009. The data includes interviews, newspaper articles, observations and other background material. The analysis of this material is mainly conducted from organizational viewpoint. The final part of the thesis applies the results to the theory of Mosse, whose propositions about policy and practice will be discussed in relation to the basic income grant pilot project. The thesis argues that social legitimacy has been a vital resource for the work of the BIG Coalition and it has sought for it in various ways. The concept of social legitimacy originates from the resource dependence perspective of Pfeffer and Salancik, who propose that organizations are dependent on their environments, and on the resources provided by the surrounding environment. This thesis studies the concept of social legitimacy in the context of resource dependence theory. Social legitimacy is analyzed in the relations between the coalition and its environment, in the formation of the coalition, in the responses towards criticism, and finally in relation to the propositions concerning policy and practice. The work of the coalition in the pilot project will be analyzed through the propositions of Mosse concerning policy and practice. The results will describe and analyze key events in the formation of the BIG Coalition from the South African proposal until the end of the basic income pilot project. This BIG pilot project conducted in 2008-2009 is one of the most well-known activities of the coalition. The clashes between the coalition and its environment will be analyzed through four case studies. It will be shown that the project has been conducted in order to gain more legitimacy to the basic income grant proposal. The conclusion questions the legitimacy of the BIG Coalition as a research and development organization, and requests for more transparent research on the basic income proposal in Namibia.

Kriisinhallintaoperaatioista palaavien sotilaiden psykososiaalinen tuki puolustusvoimissa

Viimeisen vuosikymmenen aikana Suomi on osallistunut toistaiseksi vaarallisimpaan kriisinhallintaoperaatioon koko rauhanturvahistoriansa aikana. Tämä on johtanut henkisten ongelmien kasvuun kriisinhallintaveteraanien keskuudessa. Tästä johtuen Suomen puolustusvoimat aloitti vuonna 2008 kriisinhallintaveteraaneille suunnatun psykososiaalisen tukijärjestelmän. Tämän tutkimuksen tavoitteena on kartoittaa kriisinhallintaoperaatioista palaavien sotilaiden psykososiaalista tukea Puolustusvoimissa. Tutkimus pyrkii vastaamaan minkälaisen prosessin rauhanturvaajat käyvät läpi kotiutumisen yhteydessä. Tutkimuksen tulokset on kerätty vuosina 2013 ja 2014 pääasiassa kahdella asiantuntijahaastattelulla. Haastateltavat asiantuntijat olivat Porin prikaatin henkilökuntaa, jotka vastasivat psykososiaalisen tuen järjestämisestä. Keskeisimpänä tuloksena ja johtopäätöksenä voidaan todeta Puolustusvoimien järjestämän psykososiaalisen tukijärjestelmän olevan tarpeeseen ja resursseihin suhteutettuna tarkoituksenmukaisesti toteutettu. Rauhanturvaajat käyvät kotiutumisen jälkeen läpi tehokkaan prosessin, jonka päätarkoituksena on kouluttaa heille vertaistukea. Tämän lisäksi järjestelmä pyrkii seulomaan mahdollisesti tuen tarpeessa olevia henkilöitä ja saattamaan heidät tarvittavan jatkohoidon piiriin.

Disabled Revolutionary War Veterans and the Construction of Disability in the Early United States, c. 1776-1840

This thesis addresses the following broad research question: what did it mean to be a disabled Revolutionary War veteran in the early United States during the period from 1776 to roughly 1840? The study approaches the question from two angles: a state-centred one and an experiential one. In both cases, the theoretical framework employed comes from disability studies. Consequently, disability is regarded as a sociocultural phenomenon rather than a medical condition. The state-centred dimension of the study explores the meaning of disability and disabled veterans to the early American state through an examination of the major military pension laws of the period. An analysis of this legislation, particularly the invalid pension acts of 1793 and 1806, indicates that the early United States represents a key period in the development of the modern disability category. The experiential approach, in contrast, shifts the focus of attention away from the state towards the lived experiences of disabled veterans. It seeks to address the issue of whether or not the disabilities of disabled veterans had any significant material impact on their everyday lives. It does this through a comparison of the situation of 153 disabled veterans with that of an equivalent number of nondisabled veterans. The former group received invalid pensions while the latter did not. In comparing the material conditions of disabled and nondisabled veterans, a wide range of primary sources from military records to memoirs and letters are used. The most important sources in this regard are the pension application papers submitted by veterans in the early nineteenth century. These provide us with a unique insight into the everyday lives of veterans. Looking at the issue of experience through the window of the pension files reveals that there was not much difference in the broad contours of disabled and nondisabled veteran life. This finding has implications for the theorisation of disability that are highlighted and discussed in the thesis. The main themes covered in this study are: the wartime experiences of injured American soldiers, the military pension establishment of the early United States and the legal construction of disability, and the post-war working and family lives of disabled veterans. Keywords: disability, early America, veterans, military pensions, disabled people, Revolutionary War, United States, disability theory.

Ufologia ja ufokokemukset uskonnollisina ilmiönä : Teoreettinen tutkimus

The main question of my doctoral thesis is whether ufology and UFO experiences are or can be explained as religious phenomena. My research is theoretical in the sense that I combine and systematise cultural scientific knowledge concerning the religiosity of ufology and UFO experiences and complete this theoretical effort with empirical subject matter. The research material for my study consists of theoretical literature and empirical texts written by ufologists and those who have had UFO experiences. I defined the material in a way that it became full and extensive with regard to ufology, stories about UFO experiences and the cultural scientific literature concerning them. In addition, I present a source criticism for the literature because it is in part informal. The method is analysing and synthesising the material in the context of spiral of hermeneutic inferential process. Definitions of religion, ufology and UFO experience, developed by myself, serve as guide lines for the process. The conclusions of my research are as follows. For the most part, ufology and UFO experiences belong to the category of religion and only a fraction of these instances can be explained as something else, for example psychiatric phenomena. From the religious viewpoint I explain ufology and UFO experiences on four different but interlinked levels: historical, comparative, sociological and psychological. Historically ufology and UFO experiences include esoteristic, Christian and folk religious elements. In addition UFO experiences have significant similarities with folk religious stories and shamanistic experiences. From the perspective of the sociology, of religion ufology and UFO experiences can be analysed as products of our scientific and technological Western culture. Social crisis and social psychological group mechanisms affect the appearance of ufological ideas and UFO experiences. Psychologically, in the background of religious UFO experiences there can be found several factors, such as wishful thinking. Concerning UFO sightings these are misinterpretations of certain ordinary and some rare or exotic natural and technical phenomena. Intense UFO experiences, such as UFO abductions, are stimulated for the most part by hallucinations, sleep paralysis disorders, lively fantasies (in case of fantasy prone personalities) and false memories. In group cases social pressure, small group delusion and the guilt of exposing the true nature of a story come into play. A UFO experience can be traumatising because of certain inferential mechanisms and cognitive dissonance involved in the process of conversion as a UFO experiencer. UFO religiosity is a cross cultural, widespread and a significant field of phenomena, which can offer insight about religious developments in the future. However, UFO religiosity has not been studied extensively. This research is one effort to address this lack of documentation. The motivation behind my thesis was to make ufology and UFO experiences more understandable.

La modernización entre cafetales : San José, Costa Rica, 1880-1930

This work examines the urban modernization of San José, Costa Rica, between 1880 and 1930, using a cultural approach to trace the emergence of the bourgeois city in a small Central American capital, within the context of order and progress. As proposed by Henri Lefebvre, Manuel Castells and Edward Soja, space is given its rightful place as protagonist. The city, subject of this study, is explored as a seat of social power and as the embodiment of a cultural transformation that took shape in that space, a transformation spearheaded by the dominant social group, the Liberal elite. An analysis of the product built environment allows us to understand why the city grew in a determined manner: how the urban space became organized and how its infrastructure and services distributed. Although the emphasis is on the Liberal heyday from 1880-1930, this study also examines the history of the city since its origins in the late colonial period through its consolidation as a capital during the independent era, in order to characterize the nineteenth century colonial city that prevailed up to 1890 s. A diverse array of primary sources including official acts, memoirs, newspaper sources, maps and plans, photographs, and travelogues are used to study the initial phase of San Jose s urban growth. The investigation places the first period of modern urban growth at the turn of the nineteenth century within the prevailing ideological and political context of Positivism and Liberalism. The ideas of the city s elite regarding progress were translated into and reflected in the physical transformation of the city and in the social construction of space. Not only the transformations but also the limits and contradictions of the process of urban change are examined. At the same time, the reorganization of the city s physical space and the beginnings of the ensanche are studied. Hygiene as an engine of urban renovation is explored by studying the period s new public infrastructure (including pipelines, sewer systems, and the use of asphalt pavement) as part of the Saneamiento of San José. The modernization of public space is analyzed through a study of the first parks, boulevards and monuments and the emergence of a new urban culture prominently displayed in these green spaces. Parks and boulevards were new public and secular places of power within the modern city, used by the elite to display and educate the urban population into the new civic and secular traditions. The study goes on to explore the idealized image of the modern city through an analysis of European and North American travelogues and photography. The new esthetic of theatrical-spectacular representation of the modern city constructed a visual guide of how to understand and come to know the city. A partial and selective image of generalized urban change presented only the bourgeois facade and excluded everything that challenged the idea of progress. The enduring patterns of spatial and symbolic exclusion built into Costa Rica s capital city at the dawn of the twentieth century shed important light on the long-term political social and cultural processes that have created the troubled urban landscapes of contemporary Latin America.

The Homeless Etiquette : Social Interaction and Behavior Among the Homeless in Taito Ward, Tokyo

The thesis focuses on the social interaction and behavior of the homeless living in Tokyo's Taito Ward. The study is based on the author's own ethnographic field research carried out in the autumn 2003. The chosen methodologies were based on the methodology called "participant observation", and they were used depending on the context. The ethnographic field research was carried out from the mid-August to the beginning of the October in 2003. The most important targets of the research were three separate loosely knit groups placed in certain parts of Taito Ward. One of these groups was based in proximity to the Ueno train station, one group gathered every morning around a homeless support organization called San'yûkai, and one was based in Tamahime Park located in the old San'ya area of Tokyo. The analysis is based on the aspects of Takie Sugiyama Lebra's theory of "social relativism". Lebra's theory consists of the following, arguably universal aspects: belongingness, empathy, dependence, place in the society, and reciprocity. In addition, all the interaction and behavior is tied to the context and the situation. According to Lebra, ritual and intimate situations produce similar action, which is socially relative. Of these, the norms of the ritual behavior are more regulated, while the intimate bahavior is less spontaneous. On the contrary, an anomic situation produces anomic behavior, which is not socially relative. Lebra's theory is critically reviewed by the author of the thesis, and the author has attempted to modify the theory to make it more adaptable to the present-day society and to the analysis. Erving Goffman's views of the social interaction and Anthony Giddens' theories about the social structures have been used as complementary thoretical basis. The aim of the thesis is to clarify, how and why the interaction and the behavior of some homeless individuals in some situations follow the aspects of Lebra's "social relativism", and on the other hand, why in some situations they do not. In the latter cases the answers can be sought from regional and individual differences, or from the inaptness of the theory to analyze the presented situation. Here, a significant factor is the major finding of the field study: the so called "homeless etiquette", which is an abstract set of norms and values that influences the social interaction and behavior of the homeless, and with which many homeless individuals presented in the study complied. The fundamental goal of the thesis is to reach profound understanding about the daily life of the homeless, whose lives were studied. The author argues that this kind of profound understanding is necessary in looking for sustainable solutions in the areas of social and housing policy to improve the position of the homeless and the qualitative functioning of the society.