Prospects of Bitcoin diffusion

Currency is something people deal with every day in their lives. The contemporary society is very much revolving around currencies. Even though technological development has been rapid, the principle of currency has stayed relatively unchanged for a long time. Bitcoin is a digital currency that introduced an alternative to other digital currencies, and to the traditional physical currencies. Bitcoin is peer-to-peer, open source, and it erases the need of a third party in transactions. Bitcoin has since inception gained certain fame, but it has not established itself as a common currency in the world. The purpose of this study was to analyse what kind of potential does Bitcoin have to become a widely accepted currency in day-to-day transactions. The main research question was divided into three sub questions: • What kind of a process is the diffusion of new innovations? • What kinds of factors speak for the wider adoption of Bitcoin? • What kinds of factors speak against the wider adoption of Bitcoin? The purpose of the study was approached by having diffusion of innovations as the theoretical framework. The four elements in diffusion of innovations are, innovation, communication, time, and social system. The theoretical framework is applied to Bitcoin, and the research questions answered by analysing Bitcoin’s potential diffusion prospects. The body of research data consisted of media texts and statistics. In this study, content analysis was the research method. The main findings of the study are that Bitcoin has clear strengths, but it faces a large amount of uncertainty. Bitcoin’s strong areas are the transactions. They are fast, easy, and cheap. From the innovation diffusion perspective Bitcoin is still relatively unknown, and the general public’s attitudes towards it are sceptical. The research findings purport that Bitcoin has potential demand especially when the financial system of a region is dysfunctional, or when there is a financial crisis. Bitcoin is not very trusted, and the majority of people do not see a reason to start using Bitcoin in the future. A large number of people associate it with illegal activities. In general people are largely unaware of what Bitcoin is or what are the strengths and weaknesses. Bitcoin is an innovative alternative currency. However, unless people see a major need for Bitcoin due to a financial crisis, or dysfunctionality in the financial system, Bitcoin will not become much more widespread as it is today. Bitcoin’s underlying technology can be harnessed to multiple uses. Developments in that field in the future are something that future researchers could look into.

The Development of Public Finances and Role of Fiscal Constraints in a Monetary Union: Example eurozone

This thesis is about the development of public debt and deficit in the eurozone, which has been in the center of attention for much of the new millennium. The debt-to-GDP and deficit-to-GDP ratios have changed significantly during the period of the European monetary integration, with sharp increases in the levels since the beginning of the financial crisis. We view the levels both before and after the establishment of the European Central Bank. The subject is complemented by a study of the restrictions on fiscal policy in the eurozone. The thesis begins with a review of the most central agreements in the Economic and Monetary Union, namely the Maastricht Treaty, the Stability and Growth Pact and the Fiscal Compact. We study the instructions and requirements provided by these contracts, with the emphasis being on the debt and deficit values. Furthermore, we view two theories that aim to provide us with information, whether the fiscal restrictions are useful or not. The second and empirical part consists of review on the debt and deficit levels in practice. We take a close look on the values for each of the currency union members. The third and last part summarizes the findings, and analyzes the reasons behind the changes. The result of the thesis is, that even though the levels of public debt and deficit have worsened since the beginning of the financial crisis, tight rules on fiscal policy might not be the best possible solution. Private sector has played a crucial part in the increase of the debt levels, and tight rules have their impact on the long awaited economic growth in the eurozone. It is obvious, though, that some form of fiscal guidelines with scientific ground are needed in order to avoid excessive and harmful debt and deficit levels. The main task is to make these guidelines a more essential part of the fiscal policy in each of the member countries.

The Proposed Financial Transaction Tax – Extraterritorial Effect, Tax Evasion and Other Legal Problems Facing the Proposal

The main topic of this master’s thesis is the proposed EU directive on a financial transaction tax. Ten Member States which want to enact the directive by using enhanced cooperation are currently negotiating the contents of the proposal. This tax would be levied on specific products which are traded on the financial markets. As an example the transaction of stocks would be taxed at a percentage of 0.1 percent, and the transaction of derivatives at a percentage of 0.01 percent. The proposed financial transaction tax would enter into force in said ten countries but it would still have effects on those countries, which are not planning on participating in this taxation system. This is one of the main reasons why this tax has faced a lot of opposition in several European Union countries. The main legal problems the tax is predicted to have are tax evasion, double taxation, and extraterritorial effect. The Commission has stated that it is aiming to reach certain objectives with the financial transaction tax. These objectives are for example to stabilise the financial markets following the financial crisis, and to deter tax evasion. Commission has defended the planning of the financial transaction tax by stating that the tax is likely to reach its objectives. The planning of the financial transaction tax began already in 2011 when the Commission published the first draft of the proposal. Following this the proposal was last amended in 2013, but the participating Member States are currently still negotiating the contents of the proposal. The participating Member States published a statement in December 2015 in which they promised that there will be a decision made about the financial transaction tax by the end of June 2016.

Essays on pricing of risk and international linkage of Russian stock market

Last two decades have seen a rapid change in the global economic and financial situation; the economic conditions in many small and large underdeveloped countries started to improve and they became recognized as emerging markets. This led to growth in the amounts of global investments in these countries, partly spurred by expectations of higher returns, favorable risk-return opportunities, and better diversification alternatives to global investors. This process, however, has not been without problems and it has emphasized the need for more information on these markets. In particular, the liberalization of financial markets around the world, globalization of trade and companies, recent formation of economic and regional blocks, and the rapid development of underdeveloped countries during the last two decades have brought a major challenge to the financial world and researchers alike. This doctoral dissertation studies one of the largest emerging markets, namely Russia. The motivation why the Russian equity market is worth investigating includes, among other factors, its sheer size, rapid and robust economic growth since the turn of the millennium, future prospect for international investors, and a number of important major financial reforms implemented since the early 1990s. Another interesting feature of the Russian economy, which gives motivation to study Russian market, is Russia’s 1998 financial crisis, considered as one of the worst crisis in recent times, affecting both developed and developing economies. Therefore, special attention has been paid to Russia’s 1998 financial crisis throughout this dissertation. This thesis covers the period from the birth of the modern Russian financial markets to the present day, Special attention is given to the international linkage and the 1998 financial crisis. This study first identifies the risks associated with Russian market and then deals with their pricing issues. Finally some insights about portfolio construction within Russian market are presented. The first research paper of this dissertation considers the linkage of the Russian equity market to the world equity market by examining the international transmission of the Russia’s 1998 financial crisis utilizing the GARCH-BEKK model proposed by Engle and Kroner. Empirical results shows evidence of direct linkage between the Russian equity market and the world market both in regards of returns and volatility. However, the weakness of the linkage suggests that the Russian equity market was only partially integrated into the world market, even though the contagion can be clearly seen during the time of the crisis period. The second and the third paper, co-authored with Mika Vaihekoski, investigate whether global, local and currency risks are priced in the Russian stock market from a US investors’ point of view. Furthermore, the dynamics of these sources of risk are studied, i.e., whether the prices of the global and local risk factors are constant or time-varying over time. We utilize the multivariate GARCH-M framework of De Santis and Gérard (1998). Similar to them we find price of global market risk to be time-varying. Currency risk also found to be priced and highly time varying in the Russian market. Moreover, our results suggest that the Russian market is partially segmented and local risk is also priced in the market. The model also implies that the biggest impact on the US market risk premium is coming from the world risk component whereas the Russian risk premium is on average caused mostly by the local and currency components. The purpose of the fourth paper is to look at the relationship between the stock and the bond market of Russia. The objective is to examine whether the correlations between two classes of assets are time varying by using multivariate conditional volatility models. The Constant Conditional Correlation model by Bollerslev (1990), the Dynamic Conditional Correlation model by Engle (2002), and an asymmetric version of the Dynamic Conditional Correlation model by Cappiello et al. (2006) are used in the analysis. The empirical results do not support the assumption of constant conditional correlation and there was clear evidence of time varying correlations between the Russian stocks and bond market and both asset markets exhibit positive asymmetries. The implications of the results in this dissertation are useful for both companies and international investors who are interested in investing in Russia. Our results give useful insights to those involved in minimising or managing financial risk exposures, such as, portfolio managers, international investors, risk analysts and financial researchers. When portfolio managers aim to optimize the risk-return relationship, the results indicate that at least in the case of Russia, one should account for the local market as well as currency risk when calculating the key inputs for the optimization. In addition, the pricing of exchange rate risk implies that exchange rate exposure is partly non-diversifiable and investors are compensated for bearing the risk. Likewise, international transmission of stock market volatility can profoundly influence corporate capital budgeting decisions, investors’ investment decisions, and other business cycle variables. Finally, the weak integration of the Russian market and low correlations between Russian stock and bond market offers good opportunities to the international investors to diversify their portfolios.

Logistiikan kehittäminen tehdasalueella

Logistiikan kehittäminen on nykypäivänä tärkeä tekijä yrityksen kilpailukyvyn parantamiseksi. Huonon taloustilanteen takia kustannussäästöt sekä logistisen toimitusketjun tehostaminen ovat nyt entistä tärkeämmässä asemassa. Tämän diplomityön päätavoitteena on tehdasalueen logistiikan kehittämisen avulla saavuttaa säästöjä Sulzer Pumps Finland Oy:n Karhulassa sijaitsevien yksiköiden logistiikka-kustannuksissa. Logistiikkatoimintoja on vuosien saatossa vähitellen ulkoistettu, joten tutkimus keskittyy pääosin ulkoistettujen logistiikkapalvelujen kehittämiseen. Nykytilan selvittäminen suoritettiin ensin haastatteluiden ja seurannan avulla. Selvityksen tuloksena havaittiin palveluntoimittajien toiminnoissa esiintyvän päällekkäisyyksiä ja tehottomuutta, joista aiheutuu yritykselle ylimääräisiä kustannuksia. Logistiikan kehittämisehdotuksia käsitellään tässä tutkimuksessa tehokkuuden lisäämisen, ylimääräisten työvaiheiden vähentämisen sekä roolijaon selkeyttämisen näkökulmista. Työn keskeisenä tuloksena todettiin myös, että vaiheittaisen ulkoistamisen myötä on menetetty ulkoistetun logistiikkapalvelun hallinta. Hallinnan palauttamisen keinoina käsitellään raportoinnin ja tiedonkulun lisäämistä, sopimuksellisia ja veloitusperusteellisia näkökulmia sekä palvelu- ja kustannustason mittaamiseen soveltuvien mittareiden kehittämistä.

Venture capital investment on SME

The thesis investigates if venture capital investments affect the development of SMEs positively. The thesis will also view the presence of venture capitalists affect on the capital structure of SMEs and other company determinants in the financial crisis. The theories effecting to SME investment has been presented to provide background information. The data consist of the financial statement data and the results a corporate questionnaire. The questionnaire consists of 63 questions and 860 corporate answered the questionnaire. The result shows that venture capitalist seems to have a negative effect on SMEs productivity. Also SMEs with a venture capitalist have more negative outlook for future in the financial crisis.

Stress testing practices in risk management - Empirical evidence from the Finnish banking and insurance sectors

The main purpose of this study was to analyze how stress tests are used in risk management in the Finnish banking and insurance sectors. In order to enhance understanding of the topic, stress testing was explored in the context of corporate governance and regulato-ry implications of Basel II and Solvency II on stress testing were examined. In addition, the effects of the global financial crisis on stress testing were mapped and the differences in stress testing practices between the banking and insurance sector were discussed. The research method was qualitative case study and it was conducted by interviewing risk managers from ten institutions and a representative from FIN-FSA. Findings pointed out that stress testing practices vary significantly between different institutions. Interesting observations were made in terms of stress testing practices in the banking and insurance sectors. The increasing importance and use of stress tests were recognized as a result of the financial crisis. Stress testing was even considered more like art than science given the amount of challenges it involves. In general, improvements in stress tests were suggested, with an emphasis on stress concentration between different types of risks.

Country Risk and Market Reactions to Earnings Announcements: Evidence from Finnish Stock Markets

The objective of this thesis is to examine the market reaction around earnings announcements in Finnish stock markets. The aim is to find out whether the extreme market conditions during the financial crisis are reflected in stock prices as a stronger reaction. In addition to this, the purpose is to investigate how extensively Finnish listed companies report the country segmentation of revenues in their interim reports and whether the country risk is having a significant impact on perceived market reaction. The sample covers all companies listed in Helsinki stock exchange at 1.1.2010 and these companies’ interim reports from the first quarter of 2008 to last quarter of 2009. Final sample consists of 81 companies and 630 firm-quarter observations. The data sample has been divided in two parts, of which country risk sample contains 17 companies and 127 observations and comparison sample covers 66 companies and 503 observations. Research methodologies applied in this thesis are event study and cross-sectional regression analysis. Empirical results indicate that the market reaction occurs mainly during the announcement day and is slightly stronger in case of positive earnings surprises than the reactions observed in previous studies. In case of negative earnings surprises no significant differences can be observed. In case of country risk sample and negative earnings surprise market reaction is negative already in advance of the disclosure contrary to comparison sample. In case of positive surprise no differences can be observed. Country risk variable developed during this study seems to explain only minor part of the market reaction.

Luottolaitosten oman pääoman määrän muutos ja Basel II

Luottolaitosten pääoman valvonta on tärkeä osa talouden tasapainon säilyttämisessä. Tässä tutkielmassa tutkitaan miten luottolaitosten pääoman sääntelyn Basel II:n säännönmuutokset vuonna 2007 ovat vaikuttaneet luottolaitosten oman pääoman määrään. Muuttuneiden säännösten vaikutuksia selvitetään tutkimalla eurooppalaisten luottolaitosten omavaraisuusasteita ajalla 1999 – 2009 yleistetyllä lineaarisella regressiolla ja autoregressiivisellä aikasarjamallinnuksella. Talouden suhdanteiden ja vuonna 2007 alkaneen finanssikriisin vaikutukset pääoman määrään huomioidaan bruttokansantuotteen kasvun avulla analyysissa. Tuloksena todetaan, että oman pääoman määrä luottolaitoksissa on vähentynyt merkitsevästi Basel II:n voimaan astumisen jälkeen, mutta muutos on luultavasti aiheutunut talouden laskusuhdanteesta.

Venture capital investment on SME

This thesis studies venture capital investment on small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). The specific objective of the study is to test whether venture capitalists have a positive effect on SMEs. In addition effect of several other factors is studied in financial crisis. Used determinants are formulated based on three capital structure theories. The pecking order theory concerns favoring on financing source over another. The agency theory and the tradeoff theory concentrate on the search of optimal capital structure. The data of this study consist of financial statement data and results of corporate questionnaire. Regression analysis was used to find out the effects of several determinants. Regression models were formed based on the presented theories. SMEs with and without venture capitalists were considered separately. It was found that venture capitalists have a positive effect on SMEs. Although some results between SMEs with and without venture capitalists were mixed.

Finanssikriisin vaikutus yritysten investointitoimintaan – tapaustutkimus

Tutkimuksen tarkoituksena on perehtyä suomalaisten yritysten investointitoimintaan ja tutkia miten vuoden 2009 finanssikriisi on siihen vaikuttanut. Tutkimuksessa selvitetään myös yritysten investointiaktiivisuuteen vaikuttavia tekijöitä, investointiprosessia sekä yritysten käyttämiä investointien laskenta- ja riskimenetelmiä. Tutkimuksen teoreettinen viitekehys on rakennettu laskentatoimen investointikirjallisuuden pohjalta. Tutkimuksen empiirinen osuus koostuu sähkönsiirto- ja tilintarkastusyritysten johtohenkilöiden haastatteluista. Tutkimus osoitti, että suuria investointeja tekevät yritykset jatkavat investoimistaan aktiivisesti laman aikana, toisin kuin pieniä investointeja tekevät. Tutkimuksessa selvisi myös, että kohdeyritysten käytetyimmät investointien laskentamenetelmät ovat takaisinmaksuaika ja vaihtoehtolaskelmat. Tosin investointien riskin huomioiminen osoittautui alhaiseksi.

Finanssikriisi ja finanssiyrityksien vakavaraisuuden- ja riskienhallinta

Työssä tarkastellaan finanssijärjestelmää, sen toimijoita ja sääntelyä sekä vuonna 2007 alkanutta finanssikriisiä. Työ alkaa tutustumisella alan peruskäsitteisiin, jotka luovat pohjan kahden seuraavan luvun ymmärtämiselle. Työssä esitellään Suomen finanssivalvonnan (Fiva) määräykset liittyen finanssiyrityksien sääntelyyn. Fivan määräykset perustuvat Baselin säädöskokoelmaan, joka säätelee koko Euroopan finanssisektoria. Työssä on tarkoitus pohtia, ovatko säädökset riittävän tiukat, sillä ne eivät ole pystyneet estämään Irlannin kaltaisia kriisejä. Työssä myös pohditaan valvonnan ja moraalikadon merkitystä finanssisektorilla. Työssä tarkastellaan Kreikan, Irlannin ja Islannin ongelmia. Nämä kolme tarkasteltavaa maata ovat kärsineet pahiten Euroopassa tapahtuneesta finanssikriisistä. Maiden ongelmana on ollut holtiton velanotto, joka päättyi lamaan. Islannissa pankkisektori pelasi uhkarohkeaa peliä lainaamalla suuria summia ulkomaan valuutassa ja yrittämällä valloittaa Eurooppaa. Tämä toiminta päättyi Islannin kannalta kuitenkin lähes katastrofaalisesti. Kreikassa ei ole noudatettu EU:n vakaussopimusta ja valtion budjetti on ollut alijäämäinen useana vuonna. Irlannissa talous kasvoi vahvasti vuoteen 2008, jonka jälkeen asuntokupla puhkesi ja maa ajautui suuriin ongelmiin. Lisäksi tarkastellaan Sofia Pankin tapausta. Sofia Pankki oli ainoa suomalainen pankki, joka meni konkurssiin finanssikriisin aikana. Baselin sopimukset ovat muuttuneet kriisin aikana ja tulevat muuttumaan tulevaisuudessakin. Pankinjohtajien huimat palkkiot ovat saaneet osakseen suurta kritiikkiä. Niiden taustalla on kannustus riskienottamiseen, jotka johtivat finanssikriisiin.

Liukuviin keskiarvoihin perustuvien kaupankäyntistrategioiden suoriutuminen Suomen osakemarkkinoilla

Tämän tutkimuksen tarkoituksena on selvittää, pystyykö teknistä analyysiä hyväksikäyttävä sijoittaja saamaan markkinatuottoa parempaa tuottoa Suomen osakemarkkinoilla. Tutkielman aineisto koostuu 24:stä vaihdetuimmasta osakkeesta Helsingin pörssissä. Nämä osakkeet muodostavat OMX25 –indeksin lukuun ottamatta yhtä osaketta, jota ei oltu vielä noteerattu tarkasteluperiodin alussa. Teknisen analyysin menetelminä käytetään neljää eripituista liukuvaa keskiarvoa (5, 20, 50 ja 100). Näistä muodostetaan liukuvien keskiarvojen kaksinkertaiset leikkausmenetelmät, joiden avulla saadaan osto- ja myyntisignaaleja kullekin osakkeelle. Tutkielman vertailukohteena käytetään perinteisen rahoitusteorian suosimaa osta ja pidä -strategiaa. Empiiristen testien tarkastelujakso on 1.1.2006 – 30.9.2010. Tutkielmassa havaittiin, että teknistä analyysiä hyväksikäyttäen voi saada markkinoita parempaa tuottoa, vaikka kaikki tulokset eivät olleet tilastollisesti merkittäviä. Tutkimuksessa ei otettu huomioon useista kaupoista syntyviä transaktiokustannuksia, veroja eikä korkotuottoa, jonka sijoittaja saisi pitäessään varoja esimerkiksi pankkitilillä ennen seuraavaa kauppaa. Erityisen huomionarvoista tässä tutkimuksessa oli se, että tekninen analyysi antoi sijoittajalle erittäin hyvän suojan finanssikriisin aikaiselta kurssilaskulta. Se antoi sijoittajalle selvän myyntisignaalin myydä osakkeet, ennen kuin kurssit alkoivat laskea rajusti.

Yrityksen koko ja book-to-market ilmiöt Yhdysvaltojen osakemarkkinoilla

Tämä kandidaatintutkielma käsittelee yrityksen kokoon ja book-to-market arvoon perustuvia anomalioita Yhdysvaltojen osakemarkkinoilla. Tutkimuksen kohteena on epänormaalien tuottojen saavuttaminen kyseisten anomalioiden kautta erityisesti finanssikriisin aikana. Osakeportfolioiden analysointi tapahtuu pääasiassa Fama-French kolmifaktorimallin avulla.