Imazhinist Mariengof : Dendi. Montazh. Ciniki.

The study is dedicated to the Russian poet and prose writer Anatolii Borisovich Mariengof (1897–1962). Mariengof – “the last dandy of the Republic” – was one of the leaders and main theoreticians in the poetic group of the Russian Imaginists. For his contemporaries, he was an Imaginist par excellence. His Imaginist principles – in theory and practice – are applied to the study of his first fictional novel, Cynics (1928), which served as an epilogue for his Imaginist period (1918–1928). The novel was not published in the Soviet Union until 1988. The method used in the study is a conceptual and literary historical reading, making use of the contemporary semiotic understanding of cultural mechanisms and of intertextual analysis. There are three main concepts used throughout the study: dandy, montage and catachresis. In the first chapter, the history, practice and theory of the Russian Imaginism are analyzed from the point of view of dandyism. The Imaginist theatricalisation of life is juxtaposed with the thematic analysis of their poetry, and Imaginist dandyism appears as a catachrestic category in culture. The second chapter examines the Imaginist poetic theory. It is discussed in the context of the montage principle, defining the post-revolutionary culture in Soviet Russia. The Imaginist montage can be divided into three main theoretical paradigms: S. Yesenin’s “technical montage” (reminiscent of Dadaist collage), V. Shershenevich’s “nominative montage” (catalogues of images) and Anatolii Mariengof’s “catachrestic montage”. The final chapter deals with Mariengof’s first fictional novel, Cynics. The study begins with the complex history of publication of the novel, as well as its relation to the Imaginist poetic principles and to the history of the poetic movement. Cynics is, essentially, an Imaginist montage novel. The fragmentary play of the fictional and the documentary material follows the Imaginist montage principle. The chapter concludes in a thematic analysis of the novel, concentrating on the description of the October Revolution in Cynics.

Literaturnaja skazka A.M. Remizova (1900-1920-e gody)

Literary tale of A.M. Remizov (1900’s – 1920’s) The thesis is devoted to a detailed historical-literary description of a tale as a genre tradition in the creative work of Alexei Mikhailovich Remizov (1877-1957), one of the major Russian prose writers of the 20’s century. This very approach allows to specify the place and functional meaning of this genre in literary practice of the writer and to appeal to one of the key problems of the 20-21 century literature history – a specific of modernistic literature composition principle and a role of montage techniques in its formation. Remizov was working on tales during his whole life, though the most productive years of folklore studies fell to 1900’s – 1910’s. During this period he intensively studied folklore materials, narrated several hundreds of folk tales and in 1900’s – 1920’s published eight tale collections which played a significant role in the formation of stylistic and compositional principles of his prose of the 1910’s – 1920’s, especially montage techniques, which in its turn influenced the development of the narrative forms in the Russian post-revolutionary literature. At the same time a tale has specified not only poetics but also problematics of Remizov’s creative work, as when choosing folklore sources the writer always alluded to modern themes and relevant intellectual trends. The current research work, based on various archive materials and a wide spectrum of modern historical-literary data, complies four chapters with a consistent description of creation history, publication and critics’ reviews of Remizov’s tale collections and single tales contributing to his creative evolution characteristic. Furthermore, the work refers to composition and subject of the particular collections. On the whole it enables to follow up genre dynamics. The first chapter of the work is devoted to Posolon’ (Sunwise), the earliest tale collection of Remizov. The main feature of the collection is that its composition is oriented on the agrarian calendar and the subject – on the system of mythological views reflected in the Russian folklore. This very collection to a large extent corresponds to the writer’s views on the myth represented in Pis’mo v redaktsiyu (Letter to the Editor). The history of this manifesto appearing is analyzed in the second chapter. The incident which caused its forthcoming contributed to ‘legitimization’ of Remizov’s narrations as a relevant genre of modern literature and to upgrading the writer in professional hierarchy. The third chapter analyzes Remizov’s collections of 1900’s – early 1920’s, a result of Remizov’s scrupulous work with a specific tale material. He is acting here as a tale repertory researcher and in some cases as a collector as well. The means of such collections’ topical organization is not the myth but the hero of the tale. According to this principle single pieces are grouped into cycles, which then form complicated montage constructs. Texts themselves can be viewed as a sort of hyper-quotations, as they in fact entirely coincide with their original sources. Besides, collections usually have their own ideal patterns. In the fourth chapter a connection of Remizov’s creative work with folk fun culture and a tradition of the folklore noel story is being demonstrated on Zavetnyie skazy (Secret Tales) material. A consistent collections’ history creation analysis convinces us that the tale was a sort of laboratory in which main writer’s prose methods were being worked out.

Luonto, tiede ja teknologia : Kansanvalistuksen Suomi-kuva 1870-1920

Nature, science and technology. The image of Finland through popular enlightenment texts 1870-1920 This doctoral thesis looks at how Finnish popular enlightenment texts published between 1870 and 1920 took part in the process of forming a genuine Finnish national identity. The same process was occurring in other Nordic countries at the time and the process in Finland was in many ways influenced by them, particularly Sweden. In Finland the political realities under Russian rule especially during the Russification years, and the fact that its history was considered to be short compared to other European countries, made this nation-building process unique. The undertaking was led by members of the national elite, influential in the cultural, academic as well as political arenas, who were keen to support the foundation of a modern Finnish identity. The political realities and national philosophy of history necessitated a search for elements of identity in nature and the Finnish landscape, which were considered to have special national importance: Finland was very much determined as a political entity on the basis of its geography and nature. Nature was also used as means of taking a cultural or political view in terms of, for example, geographical facts such as the nation s borders or the country s geographical connections to Western Europe. In the building of a proper national identity the concept of nature was not, however, static, but was more or less affected by political and economic progress in society. This meant that nature, or the image of the national landscape, was no longer seen only as a visual image of the national identity, but also as a source of science, technology and a prosperous future. The role of technology in this process was very much connected to the ability to harness natural resources to serve national interests. The major change in this respect had occurred by the early 20th century, when indisputable scientific progress altered the relationship between nature and technology. Concerning technology, the thesis is mainly interested in the large and at the time modern technological manifestations, such as railways, factories and industrial areas in Finland. Despite the fact that the symbiosis between national nature and international but successfully localized technology was in Finnish popular enlightenment literature depicted mostly as a national success story, concerns began to arise already in last years of the 19th century. It was argued that the emerging technology would eventually destroy Finland s natural environment, and therefore the basis of its national identity. The question was not how to preserve nature through natural science, but more how to conserve such natural resources and images that were considered to be the basis of national identity and thus of the national history. National parks, isolated from technology, and distant enough so as to have no economic value, were considered the solution to the problem. Methodologically the thesis belongs to the genre of science and technology studies, and offers new viewpoints with regard to both the study of Finnish popular enlightenment literature and the national development process as a whole.

Kansakunnan parhaaksi. : Suomalaiset naisten- ja lastensairaalat 1920 1940-luvulla arkkitehtonisena, lääketieteellisenä ja yhteiskunnallisena suunnittelukohteena

This dissertation addresses the modernization process of Finnish hospital architecture between the First and Second World War, with focus on facilities explicitly designed for women and children, which as special hospitals reflect specialization, a distinct feature of the modern era. The facilities considered in the study are the Salus hospital, Dr. Länsimäki s women s hospital, the Folkhälsan in Svenska Finland association s child-care institute, the Helsinki Women s Clinic, the Viipuri Women s Hospital, the Helsinki Children s Clinic and the Children's Castle (Lastenlinna) in Helsinki. The study considers hospital architecture as an architectural, medical and social object of design. The theoretical starting point and perspective are the views of the French philosopher and historian Michel Foucault (1925 1983) concerning the relationship of bio-power and architecture. Underlying the construction of health-care facilities for women and children were not only the desire to help but also issues of population policy, social policies, training and professionalization. In this study, hospital architecture is interpreted as reflecting developments in medicine, while also producing and reinforcing discourses associated with the ideologies of the time of design and construction. The results of the present research provide new information on the field of hospital design. The design of hospitals was no longer the sole prerogative of architects. Instead, modern hospital design involved the collaboration and networking of experts in various fields. During the period studied, the pavilion system was incorporated in hospital architecture in the block system, which was regarded as a rational. Rationalization was implemented upon the conditions of medical work. This led to spatial design in accordance with medical practices, through which norms were reinforced and created. An important aspect of the material is that the requirements of light, air, openness and hygiene created architecture in glass of an x-ray character, strongly associated with the element of discipline. The alliance of hygiene and architecture became a strategy for controlling the behaviour and encounters of people, for producing pedagogical and moral hygiene, and for reinforcing class hygiene. The modern hospital building also had to meet the requirements of aesthetic hygiene. Health-care facilities designed for women and children became production-oriented machinery, instruments for producing a healthy population and for reinforcing medical discourses.

"America Would Lose Its Soul" : The Immigration Restriction Debate, 1920-1924

Vuosien 1830 ja 1924 välillä Yhdysvaltoihin muutti noin 35 miljoonaa eurooppalaista. Tämä niinkutsuttu "maahanmuuton vuosisata" päättyi varsin äkillisesti kun Yhdysvallat päätti rajoittaa maahanmuuttoa 1920-luvulla. Vuosina 1921 ja 1924 säädetyt lait asettivat kansallisuuteen perustuvat kiintiöt kaikille eurooppalaisille maahanmuuttajille; vuoden 1924 laki myös lopetti kokonaan japanilaisten maahanmuuton. Tämä työ tutkii näihin kiintiölakeihin johtanutta maahanmuuttajavastaisuuden kasvua sekä etenkin lakien ympärillä käytyä keskustelua. Pääpaino on kongressissa esitetyissä maahanmuuton vastaisissa argumenteissa. Nämä jakautuivat karkeasti ottaen kolmeen kategoriaan: maahanmuuton vastustajat sanoivat, että siirtolaisten vaikutus taloudelliseen tilanteeseen oli epäsuotuisa, siirtolaisten rodullinen ja kulttuurinen "laatu" oli huonontunut, ja siirtolaiset olivat radikaaleja ja bolshevismiin taipuvaisia. Erityistä huolta herätti maahanmuuttajien vaikutus Amerikan kulttuuriseen, rodulliseen ja poliittiseen yhtenäisyyteen. Huoli kansakunnan yhtenäisyydestä oli tulosta paitsi siirtolaisten määrästä myös amerikkalaisessa yhteiskunnassa tapahtuneista muutoksista. Erityisen tärkeitä olivat työväenliikkeen vaikutusvallan kasvu ja teollisuusjohtajien pyrkimys pysäyttää se. Maahanmuuttajien "bolshevismi" olikin käyttökelpoinen argumentti paitsi maahanmuuttajia myös amerikkalaisia työläisiä vastaan: teollisuusjohtajat painottivat että lakot ja työväenliike olivat tulosta siirtolaisten mukanaan tuomista "epäamerikkalaisista" ajatusmalleista, eivät yhteiskunnan epäoikeudenmukaisuudesta. Kongressin keskustelun lisäksi työssä käsitellään myös eri yhteiskunnallisten ryhmien ja vaikuttajien kantaa siirtolaisuuteen. Keskusteluun maahanmuutosta vaikuttivat etenkin eugenistit ja muut sosiaalitieteilijät, jotka väittivät itä- ja eteläeurooppalaisten olevan rodullisesti anglosakseja huonompia. Tämän väitteen vaikutusvaltaa lisäsivät yhteiskunnassa vallalla olleet ennakkoluulot, ja monet yhdistykset ja liikkeet (mm. Ku Klux Klan ja erilaiset isänmaalliset järjestöt) olivatkin tärkeitä rajoittamisen kannattajia. Keskustelu maahanmuutosta painottui ideologisiin ja tunteellisiin kysymyksiin, mutta rajoitusten taustalla oli myös konkreettisempia tekijöitä. Yhteiskunnan teollistuminen ja kaupungistuminen olivat pienentäneet siirtolaisista koituvaa taloudellista hyötyä: siirtolaisia ei enää tarvittu raivaamaan uusia viljelysmaita, kun taas tuotannon koneistuminen vähensi työvoiman tarvetta huomattavasti. Pitkän aikavälin taloudellisten tekijöiden roolin merkitys käy ilmeiseksi kun otetaan huomioon, että muut maahanmuuttomaat (esim. Kanada ja Australia) eivät juuri rajoittaneet siirtolaisuutta tänä aikana vaikka niissäkin esiintyi runsaasti rodullista ja kulttuurista maahanmuuttajavastaisuutta. Pääsyy rajoitusten vähäisyyteen näissä maissa oli juuri maahanmuuttajien tuoma taloudellinen hyöty, sekä teollisena työvoimana että maanviljelijöinä. Vaikka kiintiölakiehdotusten ympärillä käytiin kiivasta väittelyä, kongressi kuitenkin hyväksyi lait varsin suurella enemmistöllä. Siirtolaisia itseään lukuunottamatta varsin harvat näkivät lait haitallisina, kun taas useat erilaiset ryhmät katsoivat hyötyvänsä maahanmuuton rajoittamisesta. Avainsanat: siirtolaisuus, maahanmuutto, Yhdysvallat, 1920-luku, kiintiölait, maahanmuuton rajoittaminen

"Mikä ihana kuva: isä, äiti ja lapset Herran työssä" : Lähetystyöntekijöiden perhe-elämä Kiinassa 1910- ja 1920-luvuilla

Tutkimukseni käsittelee Suomen Lähetysseuran Kiinan-työssä olleita perheitä vuosina 1915–1928. Enemmistö tuolloin SLS:n lähetystössä olleista läheteistä oli perheellisiä, ja perheiden elämäntilanteet lähetyskentällä vaikuttivat koko SLS:n yhteisön työmahdollisuuksiin. Tutkimukseni kohdehenkilöt ovat Signe ja Väinö Kantele sekä Inkeri ja Toivo Koskikallio perheineen, ja he edustavat sitä kokonaisuutta, jonka perheelliset lähetit Kiinassa muodostivat. Tutkin pro gradu -työssäni, millaista lähetystyöntekijöiden perhe-elämä oli lähetyskentällä. Kysyn myös, miten lähetystyö vaikutti perheeseen, ja miten perhe vaikutti lähetystyön tekemiseen. Lisäksi selvitän, miten kiinalainen kulttuuri vaikutti lähettiperheiden elämään. Tutkimukseni tärkeimmät lähteet ovat Signe Kanteleen kirjeet omaisilleen sekä Inkeri Koskikallion kirjeet ja päiväkirjat. Lähetyshistoriaa ei ole aiemmin tutkittu perheen näkökulmasta, joten tutkimus on hyvin aineistolähtöinen. Tärkeimpään käyttämääni kirjallisuuteen kuuluvat SLS:n Kiinan-työn historiaan sekä naislähetystyöntekijöihin liittyvät tutkimukset. Lähetystyöntekijät solmivat Kiinassa keskenään useita avioliittoja. Jotkut läheteistä olivat avioituneet jo Suomessa. SLS:n johtokunta kontrolloi lähettien avioliittoja ja myös perheiden lapsia, joten perhe ei ollut pelkästään lähettien yksityisasia. 1910- ja 1920-luvut olivat erityisen lapsirikasta aikaa, mikä vaikutti merkittävästi SLS:n Kiinan-yhteisön toimintaan. Joihinkin perheisiin oli syntynyt lapsia jo Suomessa ja lähetyskentällä perheisiin syntyi tutkimusajankohtana 26 lasta. Monet lähettiperheiden haasteista liittyivät lähetystyön ja perhe-elämän yhdistämiseen. Perheenäideillä oli vahva lähetyskutsumus, mutta raskaudet, synnytykset ja elämä pienten lasten kanssa rajoittivat naisten työskentelymahdollisuuksia ja aiheuttivat rooliristiriitoja. Perheen arjessa haasteena oli myös perheenisän poissaolo lähetystyöhön liittyneiden matkojen takia. Erityisesti tuolloin korostui lähetysasemalla asuneiden muiden suomalaisten läsnäolon tärkeys, vaikka SLS:n yhteisön tiiviys myös rajoitti perheiden yksityisyyttä. Perhe-elämällä oli SLS:n tuki, sillä monien muiden protestanttisten lähetysseurojen tavoin SLS kannusti perheellisiä lähettejään hyödyntämään perhettään evankelioimistyössä ja toimimaan kristityn perheen esimerkkinä paikallisille. Perheen esimerkillisyyteen kannustamisesta huolimatta Suomen Lähetysseura oli virallisissa julkaisuissaan vaitonainen perhetapahtumien vaikutuksesta työhön lähetyskentällä. Työn tukijat haluttiin vakuuttaa työn häiriöttömyydestä, vaikka todellisuus Kiinassa oli ajoittain toinen. Perheenäitien ja lasten sairastelut pakottivat perheenisiä välillä vähentämään tai lopettamaan työskentelyä. Lähetit myös menettivät Kiinassa lapsia ja puolisoita, mikä luonnollisesti vaikutti lähettiyhteisön toimintaan. Suomalaisvanhemmat kokivat perhe-elämän kiinalaisen kulttuurin keskellä ajoittain haasteelliseksi. Ristiriitatilanteita aiheuttivat kiinalaisten erilaiset elintavat ja esimerkiksi suomalaisten mielestä kyseenalainen lastenhoito- ja kasvatuskulttuuri. Suomalaisperheiden elämä Kiinassa oli joiltain osin samanlaista kuin heidän aikakautenaan Suomessa, mutta lähetystyö ja kiinalainen kulttuuri toivat siihen oman erikoisleimansa. Elämä perheenä lähetystyössä sisälsi paljon ulkoapäin tulleita ja sisäisiä haasteita. Lähetit kertoivat näistä haasteista, mutta korostivat myös vahvaa hengellistä kutsumustaan, tyytyväisyyttään elämäänsä sekä perheensä onnellisuutta.

Ett' varttuisi Suomenmaa : Suomalaisten kasvattaminen kulutusyhteiskuntaan kotimaisissa lyhytelokuvissa 1920-1969

The birth of the Modern Consumer Society in Finnish short films 1920-1969 The main subject of this research is Finnish short films in 1920-1969. These short films were produced by film studios for private enterprises, banks, advisory organizations, communities and the state. The evolution of short films on consumer affairs was greatly influenced by a special tax reduction system that was introduced in 1933 and lasted until 1964. The tax reduction system increased the production volumes of educational short films significantly. This study covers 342 Finnish short films, more than any other study in the field before this. The aim of this research is to examine how short films introduced Finns to modern consumer society. The cinemagoers were an excellent target group for different advisory groups as well as advertisers. Short films were used by organizations and private enterprises from very early on. In the 1920's Finns were still living in rural areas and agriculture was the dominant industry. Consumer society was still in its infancy, and the prevalent attitude to industrially produced goods was that of suspicion. From the cultural and ideological point of view the evolution of trust was one of the first steps towards the birth of the consumer society. Short films were an excellent means for helping to transform public attitudes. During the war period short films were an important means of propaganda. Short films were produced in abundance and shown for big audiences. They guided people how to survive shortages caused by the war. Even though the idea of rationalization was presented in short films somewhat in the 1920's and 1930's it became a national virtue during the war period. The idea of rationalization widened from the industry to households expecially in the late 1940's and the 1950's. New household apparati and the way in which daily chores were taken care of were presented not as luxury consumption but as a way of rationalization and saving money and effort. Banks and the advisory organizations guided the public to save their money for a specific target. Short films were use to help the public to acceps industrial goods and the notions of planning and saving. The ideological change from an agrarian society to consumer society was based on old acricultural ideas and self-sufficiency was evolved into rational and economizing consumerism. This made Finnish consumer society to value durable consumer goods and own homes. The public was also encouraged to consider their own decisions in the national context - especially after the second world war Finland laced capital, and personal savings were strongly presented as a way to help the whole nation. Modern hedonistic values were not dominant in Finland in the1950's and 1960's. Initial traces of modern hedonism can be seen in the films, but they were only marginal paths in the bigger.

Herrat, jätkät ja sotataito : Kansalaissotilas- ja ammattisotilasarmeijan rakentuminen 1920- ja 1930-luvulla

Gentlemen, Lads and the Art of War The Construction of Citizen Soldier- and Professional Soldier Armies into the Miracle of the Winter War During the 1920s and 1930s The Miracle of the Winter War was not a myth - at least according to them, who were making that miracle to happen. This study is not just about the Armed Forces and society, but moreover a study about civil society inside the organization of armed forces. Conscription kept Finnish military organization (and is still keeping) very closely connected with civil society and therefore there is no need to locate the possible critical misunderstandings brought by two different identity-based approaches. The great performance of the Armed Forces during the Second World War was not made of superior art of war. It was not the high level of discipline either. Art of war is basically a (deep level) cultural level equation that has more to do with culturally absorbed schemes of meaning making than rational decision-making. Naturally attrition based approach to effect-making directed the organizational methods in attrition based organisational practices, where there were only minor possibilities to practice any manoeuvre-based organisational behaviour. The practice and method of leadership lent similarly to the attrition-based thinking, which directed the organisational cultural thoughts towards composition that confirmed antagonism between gentlemen and lads . This setting has been absorbed and learned through cultural socialisation and was therefore not a product of the military organisation itself. The Finnish Armed Forces included two different communities (gentlemen and lads) within the same organisation as there were both the official and the unofficial organisations presented. This caused problems as they both made meaning-making processes simultaneously. These organisations had their own overlapping and in most cases also contradictory social meanings. The unofficial organisation has been overshadowed by the vast number of studies concerning the official organisation. The main reason for this systematic neglect is based on the reality of the attitudes and living conditions of the micro-level organisation which produced (perhaps) too realistic and repulsive viewpoints that are presenting a picture of a national level identity process in a way that is separating it from the ideals made to verify the ethos of national values. Complaining, griping, grumbling and moaning are usually situated in a category of abnormal and unwanted behaviour. However, within the context of a citizen soldier army community this was more of a characteristic feature of that organisation (in Finland) and therefore it was crucially important to locate the context of that abnormal behaviour. According to this study, it was not a malicious act but moreover seriously formed efforts in trying to use common sense in the chaos citizen soldiers faced when they were uniformed and placed in an unfamiliar process of disciplinary measures and frictions and competition between different ranks. There is much evidence that reinforces the argument that what seemed to be the most unconventional behaviour was finally the most efficient in a sense of military performance.

Alppihiihdon alkutaival : Pujottelu- ja tunturihiihto Suomessa 1920-luvulta 1960-luvulle

The object of study in this thesis is Finnish skiing culture and Alpine skiing in particular from the point of view of ethnology. The objective is to clarify how, when, why and by what routes Alpine skiing found its way to Finland. What other phenomena did it bring forth? The objective is essentially linked to the diffusion of modern sports culture to Finland. The introduction of Alpine skiing to Finland took place at a time when skiing culture was changing: flat terrain skiing was abandoned in favour of cross-country skiing in the early decades of the 20th century, and new techniques and equipment made skiing a much more versatile sport. The time span of the study starts from the late 19th century and ends in the mid-20th century. The spatial focus is in Finland. People and communities formed through their actions are core elements in the study of sports and physical activity. Organizations tend to raise themselves into influential actors in the field of physical culture even if active individuals work in their background. Original archive documents and publications of sports organizations are central source material for this thesis, complemented by newspapers and sports magazines as well as photographs and films on early Alpine skiing in Finland. Ever since their beginning in the late 19th century skiing races in Finland had mostly taken place on flat terrain or sea ice. Skiing in broken cross-country terrain made its breakthrough in the 1920 s, at a time when modern skiing techniques were introduced in instruction manuals. In the late 1920 s the Finnish Women s Physical Education Association (SNLL) developed unconventional forms of pedagogical skiing instruction. They abandoned traditional Finnish flat terrain skiing and boldly looked for influences abroad, which caused friction between the leaders of the women s sports movement and the (male) leaders of the central skiing organization. SNLL was instrumental in launching winter tourism in Finnish Lapland in 1933. The Finnish Tourism Society, the State Railways and sports organizations worked in close co-operation to instigate a boom in tourism, which culminated in the inauguration of a tourist hotel at Pallastunturi hill in the winter of 1938. Following a Swedish model, fell-skiing was developed as a domestic counterpart to Alpine skiing as practiced in Central Europe. The first Finnish skiing resorts were built at sites of major cross-country skiing races. Inspired by the slope at Bad Grankulla health spa, the first slalom skiing races and fell-skiing, slalom enthusiasts began to look for purpose-built sites to practice turn technique. At first they would train in natural slopes but in the late 1930 s new slopes were cleared for slalom races and recreational skiing. The building of slopes and ski lifts and the emergence of organized slalom racing competitions gradually separated Alpine skiing from the old fell-skiing. After the Second World War fell-skiing was transformed into ski trekking on marked courses. At the same time Alpine skiing also parted ways with cross-country skiing to become a sport of its own. In the 1940 s and 1950 s Finnish Alpine skiing was almost exclusively a competitive sport. The specificity of Alpine skiing was enhanced by rapid development of equipment: the new skis, bindings and shoes could only be used going downhill.

The British Intervention in South Russia 1918-1920

Soon after the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, a three-year civil war broke out in Russia. As in many other civil wars, foreign powers intervened in the conflict. Britain played a leading role in this intervention and had a significant effect on the course of the war. Without this intervention on the White side, the superiority of numbers in manpower and weaponry of the Bolsheviks would have quickly overwhelmed their opponents. The aim of this dissertation is to explain the nature and role of the British intervention on the southern, and most decisive, front of the Civil War. The political decision making in London is studied as a background, but the focus of the dissertation is on the actual implementation of the British policy in Russia. The British military mission arrived in South Russia in late 1918, and started to provide General Denikin s White army with ample supplies. General Denikin would have not been able to build his army of more than 200,000 men or to make his operation against Moscow without the British matériel. The British mission also organized the training and equipping of the Russian troops with British weapons. This made the material aid much more effective. Many of the British instructors took part in fighting the Bolsheviks despite the orders of their government. The study is based on primary sources produced by British departments of state and members of the British mission and military units in South Russia. Primary sources from the Whites, including the personal collections of several key figures of the White movement and official records of the Armed Forces of South Russia are also used to give a balanced picture of the course of events. It is possible to draw some general conclusions from the White movement and reasons for their defeat from the study of the British intervention. In purely material terms the British aid placed Denikin s army in a far more favourable position than the Bolsheviks in 1919, but other military defects in the White army were numerous. The White commanders were unimaginative, their military thinking was obsolete, and they were incapable of organizing the logistics of their army. There were also fundamental defects in the morale of the White troops. In addition to all political mistakes of Denikin s movement and a general inability to adjust to the complex situation in Revolutionary Russia, the Whites suffered a clear military defeat. In South Russia the Whites were defeated not because of the lack of British aid, but rather in spite of it.

”Totuuden ja oikeuden asia” : Eesti Muinsuskaitse Selts ja Viron historian uudelleensynnyttäminen vuosina 1987–1991

Neuvosto-Viron yhteiskunnassa tapahtui 1980-luvun loppupuoliskolla muutoksia, jotka johtivat virolaisten suurempaan toimintavapauteen. Osana uuden kansalaisyhteiskunnan muotoutumista Viroon syntyi historialle omistautunut joukkoliike, joka järjestäytyi loppuvuodesta 1987 historiaseuraksi nimeltään Eesti Muinsuskaitse Selts. Huomattava osa myöhemmän itsenäisen Viron poliittisesta eliitistä osallistui järjestön toimintaan. Seura oli luonteeltaan sekä poliittinen toimija että Viron historiaa tutkiva kansalaisjärjestö. Tutkielmani tarkastelee kumpaakin mainittua osa-aluetta historiaseuran toiminnassa. Tutkielmani tärkein alkuperäislähde on historiaseuran vuosina 1988 1991 julkaisema kerran kuukaudessa ilmestynyt aikakausilehti Muinsuskaitse Seltsi Sõnumid, jonka sivuilla käytyä keskustelua Viron historiasta, politiikasta ja Eesti Muinsuskaitse Seltsin toiminnasta tutkielmani pääosa tarkastelee. Aiempi historiantutkimus on ainoastaan sivunnut historiaseuran roolia Viron itsenäisyyden palauttamisessa. Eesti Muinsuskaitse Selts oli kansallismielinen järjestö, jonka poliittiset vaatimukset perustuivat voimakkaasti Viron kansallisesta historiasta muodostettuihin tulkintoihin. Kansallismielisten tavoitteena oli alkuvuodesta 1989 lähtien organisoida vuosien 1918 1940 tasavallan kansalaisiin tukeutunut liikehdintä, jonka oli puolestaan tarkoitus palauttaa sotienvälisen tasavallan itsenäisyys. Kansalaisliikehdintä muodosti vuoden 1990 alussa Viron kongressin, jonka syntyyn historiaseura vaikutti keskeisellä tavalla. Tutkielmani päätavoite on tarkastella historiaseuran ja sen ympärillä toimineen historialiikehdinnän tekemiä tulkintoja Viron historiasta. Vuosien 1987 1991 aikana historiaseura käynnisti Virossa ilmiön, jota kutsun historian uudelleensynnyttämiseksi. Neuvostohistorian käsitykset korvattiin kansallisromanttisella tavalla tulkita maan historiaa, joka tuki kansallismielisten poliittisia tavoitteita. Historiaseura toteutti osin tietoista historiapolitiikkaa. Ilmiötä on perusteltua kutsua uudelleensynnyttämiseksi, koska mahdollisimman laajasti noudatettiin vuosien 1918 1940 tasavallan perinteitä. Keskeisimmän osan neuvostoaikana kiellettyjen tulkintojen tuomisessa takaisin julkiseen käyttöön muodosti Viron vapaussodan (1918 1920) muiston elvyttäminen. Tärkein historiakulttuuriin liittynyt toimintamuoto oli tuhottujen muistomerkkien uudelleenrakentaminen. Historiaseuran huomio kohdistui myös presidentti Konstantin Pätsin (1874 1956) kunnianpalautukseen. Päts nostettiin kansallissankarin asemaan, vaikka hänen muistoaan varjosti vuosien 1939 1940 itsenäisyyden menetyksen aiheuttama kansallinen trauma. Viron kansallinen historia esitettiin tavalla, joka legitimoi itsenäisyyden palauttamista sekä korosti jatkuvuutta, vapaustaistelua ja itsenäisyyden välttämättömyyttä osana Viron historian kehitystä. Neuvosto-Viron ja Neuvostoliiton historian tarkastelussa korostettiin tapahtumia, joiden julkinen käsittely ei ollut aikaisempina vuosikymmeninä ollut mahdollista. Keskeiselle sijalle nostettiin monimuotoiseksi koettu punainen terrori sekä Molotovin Ribbentropin sopimus. Vuosina 1988 1991 käsitys Viron miehityksestä vahvistui. Kansallismieliset vähensivät rikolliseksi ja laittomaksi kokemansa neuvostovallan legitimiteettiä korostamalla neuvostojärjestelmän vihamieliseksi kuvattua luonnetta virolaisia kohtaan. Keskeisin päätelmäni on, että Eesti Muinsuskaitse Seltsin ja historialiikehdinnän suorittama historian uudelleensynnyttäminen mahdollisti Viron tasavallan itsenäisyyden palauttamisen vuonna 1991 siinä muodossa kuin se toteutettiin.