Huellas de Eros y Thánatos en la narrativa de Diamela Eltit : La palabra en movimiento en el juego entre tropos, metáforas y deconstrucciones lingüísticas

Väitöskirja analysoi espanjan kielen dekonstruktioita ruumiin metaforista ja troopeista koostuvassa aineistossa chileläisen kirjailijan Diamela Eltitin (1949 -) neljässä romaanissa: Lumpérica (1983), Vaca sagrada (1991), El infarto del alma (1994) ja Los trabajadores de la muerte (1998). Näkökulma on kielen muutoksessa Eltitin proosassa 1980- ja 1990-luvuilla alkaen kokeellisesta huippuvaiheesta 1983, jolloin hän julkaisi esikoisromaaninsa Lumpérica. Tutkimus korostaa Eltitin romaanien historiallista arvoa, kirjallisuuden tapaa murtaa kielen rakenteita ja sitä miten tämä murros kytkeytyy taideteoreettiseen muutokseen kulttuuridiskursseissa. Tutkimus tarkastelee Eltitin kehityskaarta kenraali Augusto Pinochetin sotilasvallankaappauksesta 1973 halki sotilashallituksen kauden (1973-1990) aina kansalaisyhteiskunnan vahvistumiseen ja vuoteen 1998. Tutkimus analysoi ruumiin troopeista ja metaforista koostuvaa tutkimusaineistoa lingvistiikan, kirjallisuustieteen, historian ja sukupuolen tutkimuksen monitieteisessä viitekehyksessä. Sen vuoksi väitöskirja liittyy espanjalaisen filologian, yleisen kirjallisuustieteen, Latinalaisen Amerikan tutkimuksen ja naistutkimuksen oppiaineisiin. Kolme tärkeintä oppiteoreettista runkoa ovat lingvistinen strukturalismi, dekonstruktio ja feministiset kirjallisuusteoriat. Dekonstruktiivinen lähestymistapa tekstiin korostaa kielen merkityksen muodostumisen filosofista perustaa. Se pyrkii selvittämään, miten merkitys muodostuu kirjoittajan, tekstin ja lukijan välillä. Tekstikritiikki koostuu semanttisesta ja dekonstruktiivisesta tekstianalyysistä, jonka metodologisen mallin perusta on tanskalaisen kielitieteilijän Louis Hjelmslevin (1899-1965) kielitieteellinen malli. Väitös ei käytä mallia suoraan, vaan soveltaa sitä kaunokirjallisuuden tutkimukseen. Oppiteoreettisen viitekehyksen osalta tutkimus sijoittuu strukturalismin ja poststrukturalismin murrokseen. Tutkimus korostaa Eltitin radikaalia muotokieltä ja teatraalisuutta, hänen kielensä visuaalisuutta ja ruumiin metaforien eroottista jännitettä, mikä ilmenee mm. falloksen metaforaksi tulkitun hehkuvan valon kuvissa romaanissa Lumpérica. Vanhat kreikkalaiset myytit Éros ja Thánatos kasvavat esille länsimaisen taidehistorian perinteestä ja kontekstualisoituvat uusiksi kielikuviksi Chilen kirjallisessa maaperässä. Ne muodostavat Eltitin taiteellisen tuotannon pysyvän aihepiirin ja luovat teoksiin synkkää ja karua virettä sekä tummia ja eroottisia sävyjä. Tutkimus osoittaa, että Eltit dekonstruoi kieltä, mutta dekonstruktiot eivät ole jatkuvia eivätkä samanlaisia kaikissa romaaneissa. Kielellisten dekonstruktioiden variaatio on laaja eikä Eltit murra kielen syntaktisia ja morfologisia rakenteita kaikissa teksteissään. Tutkimuksen perusteella väitän, että Eltitin kirjoituksesta puhuttaessa useat tutkijat käyttävät epämääräisesti dekonstruktio-termiä. Useiden tutkijoiden toteamus dekonstruktiosta Diamela Eltitin kirjallisessa tuotannossa pysyvänä piirteenä on epätäsmällinen. Sen sijaan dekonstruktiivinen kirjoitus tarkoittaa Eltitillä laajasti vaihtelevaa lähestymistapaa kieleen, mikä ilmenee kehityslinjana hänen tuotannossaan ja eri tavoin jokaisessa teoksessa.

Matti Laurila : Jääkäriupseeri, suojeluskuntapäällikkö, rintamakomentaja

Matti Laurila (1895 1983) This is a biographical research of a Jaeger officer, a Civil Guard Chief, a Field Commander Matti Laurila. A broader practice of qualitative methods was utilized in the research. The main aim is a permanent reconstruction and reinterpretation of past events through the experiences of the study object. The life and times of Laurila are intertwined with the crucial events that led to the Finnish Declaration of Independence. Afterwards he helped to ensure that the young republic also stayed independent. As a Jaeger in the winter of 1917 Laurila witnessed an incident he would never forget. After disobeying a direct order, Sven Saarikoski from Lapua was shot dead by his commanding officer, K. A. Ståhlberg, on the ice of the river Aa. Laurila faced the horrors of war at closer quarters, for he lost his father and his brother in the battle of Länkipohja on 16th March 1918. This battle was a major turning point for Laurila and profoundly influenced the rest of his life. The relationship between Laurila and his superiors was problematic almost throughout his military career, haunted as he was by the memory of Sven Saarikoski's execution and the losses in Länkipohja The position of Laurila as an authority in South Ostrobothnia was a key factor in preventing the extreme right from rallying enough Civil Guard troops to escalate the embryonic Mäntsälä rebellion of 1932. After the rebellion Laurila routinely opposed anything he saw as a threat to the independence of the Civil Guard. He would flatly refuse to even consider the integration of the Civil Guard into the national defence force. His uncompromising stand in this matter annoyed some among the higher ranking officers. After the Winter War Laurila got himself into a dispute with Jaeger Colonel H. E. Hannuksela that would have long-lasting consequences. The conflicts between them became widely known in the attack phase of the Continuation War in 1941 at the latest. Laurila had to give up his military career at the end of 1944. In the years that followed he did what he could to ensure that the South Ostrobothnia Civil Guard patrimony remained in the province. Laurila's position as a respected authority in South Ostrobothnia remained unchanged until his death.

Strike Hard, Strike Sure - Operation Musketeer : British Military Planning during the Suez Crisis, 1956

This study analyses British military planning and actions during the Suez Crisis in 1956. It seeks to find military reasons for the change of concepts during the planning and compares these reasons with the tactical doctrines of the time. The thesis takes extensive advantage of military documents preserved in the National Archives, London. In order to expand the understanding of the exchange of views during the planning process, the private papers of high ranking military officials have also been consulted. French military documents preserved in the Service Historique de la Defence, Paris, have provided an important point of comparison. The Suez Crisis caught the British armed forces in the middle of a transition phase. The main objective of the armed forces was to establish a credible deterrence against the Soviet Union. However, due to overseas commitments the Middle East playing a paramount role because of its economic importance the armed forces were compelled to also prepare for Limited War and the Cold War. The armed forces were not fully prepared to meet this demand. The Middle Eastern garrison was being re-organised after the withdrawal from the Canal Base and the concept for a strategic reserve was unimplemented. The tactical doctrines of the time were based on experiences from the Second World War. As a result, the British view of amphibious operations and the subsequent campaigns emphasised careful planning, mastery of the sea and the air, sufficient superiority in numbers and firepower, centralised command and extensive administrative preparations. The British military had realized that Nasser could nationalise the Suez Canal and prepared an outline plan to meet this contingency. Although the plan was nothing more than a concept, it was accepted as a basis for further planning when the Canal was nationalised at the end of July. This plan was short-lived. The nominated Task Force Commanders shifted the landing site from Port Said to Alexandria because it enabled faster expansion of the bridgehead. In addition, further operations towards Cairo the hub of Nasser s power would be easier to conduct. The operational concept can be described as being traditional and was in accordance with the amphibious warfare doctrine. This plan was completely changed at the beginning of September. Apparently, General Charles Keightley, the Commander-in-Chief, and the Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee developed the idea of prolonged aerial operations. The essence of the concept was to break the Egyptian will to resist by attacking the oil facilities, the transportation system and the armed forces. This victory through air concept would be supported by carefully planned psychological operations. This concept was in accordance with the Royal Air Force doctrine, which promoted a bomber offensive against selected target categories. General Keightley s plan was accepted despite suspicions at every planning level. The Joint Planning Staff and the Task Force Commanders opposed the concept from the beginning to the end because of its unpredictability. There was no information that suggested the bombing would persuade the Egyptians to submit. This problem was worsened by the fact that British intelligence was unable to provide reliable strategic information. The Task Force Commanders, who were responsible for the tactical plans, were not able to change Keightley s mind, but the concept was expanded to include a traditional amphibious assault on Port Said due to their resistance. The bombing campaign was never tested as the Royal Air Force was denied authorisation to destroy the transportation and oil targets. The Chiefs of Staff and General Keightley were too slow to realise that the execution of the plan depended on the determination of the Prime Minister. However, poor health, a lack of American and domestic support and the indecisiveness of the military had ruined Eden s resolve. In the end, a very traditional amphibious assault, which was bound to succeed at the tactical level but fail at the strategic level, was launched against Port Said.

Helsingin galleriakenttä, kentän muutokset ja positiot vuosina 1983-2009

Tutkielman aiheena on Helsingin taidegalleriat ja niiden muodostama galleriakenttä. Tutkielmassa tarkastellaan galleriakenttää, galleriakentän ja galleriatoiminnan muutoksia sekä gallerioiden asemia ja asemien muutoksia kentän sisällä vuosina 1983–2009. Tutkielman tavoitteena on toimia Helsingin galleriakentän ja sen lähihistorian perustutkimuksena ja galleriakentän sisäisten asemien rakentumisen analyysina. Tutkimuskysymykset ovat seuraavat: Millaisia muutoksia Helsingin taidegalleriakentässä, sen toimijajoukossa ja gallerioiden toiminnassa on tapahtunut 1980-luvun alkupuolelta 2000-luvun ensimmäisen vuosikymmenen loppuun tultaessa? Mitkä ja millaiset galleriat ovat tutkittavan ajanjakson eri vaiheissa muodostaneet keskeisten gallerioiden joukon, mihin tämä asema on perustunut ja miten galleriakentän sisäiset asemat ovat muuttuneet? Galleriakenttää analysoidaan ja tarkastellaan yhdistäen taidehistoriallisen perustutkimuksen menetelmiä taiteensosiologiseen analyysiin. Tutkielman teoreettinen näkökulma perustuu sosiologi Pierre Bourdieun kenttää koskevaan teoriaan. Teorian rooli on toimia työkaluna tutkittavan kentän ja sen toimijoiden asemien havainnoinnissa ja analyysissa. Tutkielman empiirinen aineisto muodostuu tutkielman tekijän laatimien 28 galleristin ja muun galleriakentän toimijan haastattelujen muodostamasta haastatteluaineistosta. Haastatellut edustavat 22 galleriaa. Niiden muodostama joukko koostuu yksityisistä gallerioista, taiteilijaliittojen gallerioista ja vaihtoehtoisiksi tai taiteilijavetoisiksi määriteltävissä olevista tutkitulla ajanjaksolla eri tavoin keskeisinä pidetyistä gallerioista. Haastattelujen ohella tärkeänä aineistona toimii tutkittavan ajanjakson lehtikirjoittelu. Sen osalta lähteenä on käytetty Helsingin galleriakenttää ja gallerioita koskevaa lehtikirjoittelua, joka on tallennettu Kuvataiteen keskusarkiston leikearkistoon. Lisäksi lähteinä ovat Taide-lehden vuosikerrat tutkittavalta ajalta. Galleriakentän lähihistorian tarkastelun pohjaksi tutkielmassa analysoidaan gallerioiden roolia kuvataiteen kentän portinvartijoina, galleriakentän toimijoiden näkemyksiä keskeisen gallerian aseman rakentumisesta ja gallerioita koskevia luokituksia ja ryhmityksiä. Tutkielman ytimen muodostaa luku, jossa käydään kronologisesti läpi galleriakentän muutoksia ja keskeisiä toimijoita tutkielmassa tarkastellulla ajanjaksolla. Lopuksi syvennetään kentän kronologisen kuvauksen pohjalta galleriakentän muutosten analyysia Bourdieun teorian ja käsitteiden avulla. Tutkielman yhtenä tuloksena on tutkittavan kentän ajanjakson hahmottuminen seuraaviksi jaksoiksi: vuodet 1983–1990, vuodet 1990–1997, vuodet 1997–2002 ja vuodesta 2002 alkanut kentän nykytilanteeseen sidostuva jakso. Jaksot hahmottuvat tarkastellun kentän, galleriatoiminnan ja kentällä kulloinkin keskeisten toimijoiden joukon muutosten pohjalta. Jaksojen liitoskohdat ovat muutosten tihentymiä kentän keskeisten toimijoiden joukossa. Jaksot liittyvät osittain myös yleisen taloustilanteen muutoksiin siltä osin kuin ne ovat vaikuttaneet galleriatoimintaan ja siihen, millainen galleriatoiminta ja mitkä toimijat kulloinkin ovat nousseet keskeisiksi. Tutkielman ydinluvussa tarkasteltava ja analysoitava kentän muutosten ja gallerioiden asemien kronologinen kuvaus muodostaa kokonaisuudessaan tutkielman tärkeimmät perustutkimukselliset tulokset. Tulosten loppupäätelminä tutkielmassa päädytään seuraavaan analyysiin. Galleriakentän muutokset sidostuvat kuvataiteen muutoksiin ja talouden nousu- ja laskukausiin, ne eivät kuitenkaan ole tämänkaltaisista ulkoisista tekijöistä johdettavissa. Gallerioiden asemien rakentuminen ja muutokset ovat kytköksissä kentän sisäisiin muutoksiin siten, että kentän toimijajoukon muutokset joko sidostuvat toisiinsa tai asettuvat samanaikaisiksi. Kentän asemien tila vaikuttaa siihen, millaisen aseman uusi galleria pyrkii ottamaan sekä millaisen aseman se saa kentällä ja mediassa. Kenttä näyttäytyy tilana, jossa toisen toimijan poistuminen kentältä luo aukkoja ja tilauksia toisten toimijoiden synnylle. Kentän asemien rakentuminen ja muutokset syntyvät toisaalta gallerioiden toiminnan ja niiden esittämän taiteen ja taiteilijoiden perusteella sekä toisaalta myös suhteessa gallerioiden jaotteluihin ja luokitteluihin. Kentän rakenteen muodostuessa kentän voimasuhteiden tilan kautta muodostuvat keskeisiksi koettujen gallerioiden joukon muutokset erityisen oleellisiksi sille, miten asemat kentällä ovat kulloinkin rakentuneet

Early-onset depressive disorders,related mental health disorders and substance use-A prospective : longitudinal study of Finnish twins born 1983-1987

Early-onset psychiatric illnesses effects scatter to academic achievements as well as functioning in familial and social environments. From a public health point of view, depressive disorders are the most significant mental health disorders that begin in adolescence. Using prospective and longitudinal design, this study aimed to increase the understanding of early-onset depressive disorders, related mental health disorders and developing substance use in a large population-derived sample of adolescent Finnish twins. The participants of this study, FinnTwin12, an ongoing longitudinal population-based study, came from Finnish families with twins born in 1983-87 (exhaustive of five birth cohorts, identified from Finland s Central Population Register). With follow-up ongoing at age 20-24, this thesis assessed adolescent mental health in the first three waves, starting from baseline age 11-12 to follow-ups at age 14 and 17½. Some 5600 twins participated in questionnaire assessments of a wide range of health related behaviors. Mental health was further assessed among an intensively studied subsample of 1852 adolescents, who completed also professionally administered interviews at age 14, which provided data for full DSM-IV/III-R (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Health disorders, 4th and 3rd editions) diagnoses. The participation rates of the study were 87-92%. The results of the study suggest, that the diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder (MDD) may not capture youth with clinically significant early-onset depressive conditions outside clinical settings. Milder cases of depression, namely adolescents fulfilling the diagnostic criteria for minor depressive disorder, a qualitatively similar condition to MDD with fewer symptoms are also associated with marked suicidal thoughts, plans and attempts, recurrences and a high degree of comorbidity. Prospectively and longitudinally, early-onset depressive disorders were of substantial importance in the context of other mental health disorders and substance use behaviors: These data from a large population-derived sample established a substantial overlap between early-onset depressive disorders and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adolescent females, both of them significantly predictive for development of substance use among girls. Only in females baseline DSM-IV ADHD symptoms were strong predictors of alcohol abuse and dependence and illicit drug use at age 14 and frequent alcohol use and illicit drug use at age 17.½ when conduct disorder and previous substance use were controlled for. Early-onset depressive disorders were also prospectively and longitudinally associated to daily smoking behavior, smokeless tobacco use, frequent alcohol use and illicit drug use and eating disorders. Analysis of discordant twins suggested that these predictive associations were independent of familial confounds, such as family income, structure and parental models. In sum, early-onset depressive disorders predict subsequent involvement of substance use and psychiatric morbidity. A heightened risk for substance use is substantial also among those depressed below categorical diagnosis of MDD. Whether early recognition and interventions among these young people hold potential for substance use prevention further in their lives has potential public health significance and calls for more research. Data from this population-derived sample with balanced representation of boys and girls, suggested that boys and girls with ADHD behaviors may differ from each other in their vulnerability to substance use and depressive disorders: the data suggest more adverse substance use outcome for girls that was not attenuated by conduct disorder or previous substance use. Further, the prospective associations of early-onset depressive disorders and future elevated levels of addictive substance use is not explained by familial factors supporting future substance use, which could have important implications for substance use prevention.

Luterilaisen maailmanliiton käsitys pappeudesta 1983-2007

Tämän tutkimuksen tehtävänä oli selvittää, miten Luterilaisen maailmanliiton (LML) käsitys pappeudesta voidaan ymmärtää LML:n vuosien 1983, 1992, 2002 ja 2007 julkilausumien perusteella. Tutkimuksessa kiinnitettiin erityisesti huomiota siihen muutokseen, jota LML:n papinvirkaa koskevissa käsityksissä on vuosien 1983 ja 2007 välillä tapahtunut. Tutkimuksen lähtökohtana oli oletus, että julkilausumissa painopiste on siirtynyt vuosien 1983 ja 2007 välillä yleisen pappeuden korostamisesta kohti vihityn pappeuden ja erityisesti kaitsentaviran korostamista. Tutkimuksen metodina oli systemaattinen analyysi. Myös historiallisiin seikkoihin kiinnitettiin huomiota. Tämän tutkimuksen lähteinä käytettiin LML:n kirkollista virkaa käsitteleviä julkilausumia: The Lutheran Understanding of Ministry (1983), The Lutheran Understanding of Episcopal Office (1983), Women in the Ministries of the Church (1983), MINISTRY -Women -Bishops (1992), The Episcopal Ministry within the Apostolicity of the Church (2002) ja Episcopal Ministry within the Apostolicity of the Church (2007). Tutkimuksen taustaluvussa (2.) esitellään kirkollisen virkakäsityksen kehittymistä Saksan, Pohjoismaiden sekä Pohjois-Amerikan luterilaisissa kirkoissa reformaation ajalta vuoteen 1983 saakka. Taustaluvun jälkeen alkaa tutkimuksen pääluvut (3, 4, 5), joissa tutkitaan julkilausumia aikajärjestyksessä (luku 3: 1983, luku 4: 1992, luku 5: 2002 ja 2007). Viimeiseksi esitellään tutkimustulokset sekä tutkimuksessa käytetyt lähteet ja kirjallisuus (luvut 6 ja 7). Tämä tutkimus paljasti, että LML:n käsitys pappeudesta muuttui vuosien 1983–2007 välillä näkemyksestä, jonka mukaan yleinen pappeus on vihityn pappeuden ensisijainen muoto, näkemykseksi, jonka mukaan yleinen ja vihitty pappeus ovat erillisiä pappeuden muotoja. Tutkimus paljasti myös, että kaitsentaviran arvostus kasvoi vuosien 1983 ja 2007 välillä. Tämä kasvu ei kuitenkaan ollut tasaisen lineaarista nousua, vaan huippuarvostuksen vuosista (1992 ja 2002) oli vuonna 2007 laskeuduttu hieman maltillisemmalle tasolle. Samalla kuitenkin vihityn pappeuden arvostus kasvoi. Tutkimus paljasti myös, että LML on suhtautunut jo vuodesta 1983 lähtien sekä naisten vihittyyn pappeuteen että kaitsentavirassa toimiviin naisiin hyvin positiivisesti. Naisten vihityn pappeuden perustelut olivat kuitenkin muuttuneet 25 vuoden aikana. Käytännön hyötyjä tai muita kirkon käytäntöihin liittyviä perusteluja ei tuotu enää vuoden 1983 jälkeen ilmestyneissä lähteissä esille. Vuoden 1983 julkilausumassa ja vuoden 1992 raportissa naisten vihkimistä perusteltiin yleisen pappeuden kautta. Tätäkään ei esiintynyt enää 2000-luvun julkilausumissa, joissa keskityttiin ainoastaan raamatullisiin perusteluihin. Tutkimus paljasti myös, että kaikissa lähteenä käytetyissä LML:n julkilausumissa apostolinen seuraanto nähtiin BEM-asiakirjan mukaisesti laajassa mielessä. Konsekraation seuraantoa ei nähty missään vaiheessa kirkon apostolisen seuraannon kannalta ehdottoman välttämättömänä. Konsekraation seuraannon arvostus oli matalimmalla vuonna 1983, korkeimmalla vuosina 1992 ja 2002 sekä maltillisemmalla tasolla vuonna 2007. Vihityn pappeuden seuraannon merkitystä korostettiin erityisesti vuoden 2007 julkilausumassa. Tutkimus paljasti myös, että luterilaisten kirkkojen hallinnolliset rakenteet olivat tässä tutkimuksessa käytettyjen lähteiden ajalla (1983–2007) LML:n näkemyksen mukaan asteittain yhdenmukaistuneet luterilaisissa kirkoissa. Vuonna 1983 luterilaisissa kirkoissa vallitsi lähes lukematon määrä erilaisia hallinnollisia malleja. Vuoden 1992 julkilausuman mukaan piispa-nimike oli yleistynyt, samoin synodaalisten rakenteiden ja henkilöityneen kaitsentaviran yhdistelmästä koostuva kirkkohallinnon malli. Vuoden 2002 julkilausuman mukaan tällainen hallinnollinen järjestelmä oli jo lähes kaikissa LML:n jäsenkirkoissa ja vuoden 2007 Julkilausuman mukaan kaitsentaviran ja synodaalisten rakenteiden yhdistelmä oli ainoa luterilaisissa kirkoissa käytetty kirkkohallinnon malli. Tämä kehitys koettiin LML:ssa positiivisena.

Fatigue fractures in military conscripts : A study on risk factors, diagnostics and long-term consequences

Fatigue fracture is an overuse injury commonly encountered in military and sports medicine, and known to relate to intensive or recently intensified physical activity. Bone responds to increased stress by enhanced remodeling. If physical stress exceeds bone s capability to remodel, accumulation of microfractures can lead to bone fatigue and stress fracture. Clinical diagnosis of stress fractures is complex and based on patient s anamnesis and radiological imaging. Bone stress fractures are mostly low-risk injuries, healing well after non-operative management, yet, occurring in high-risk areas, stress fractures can progress to displacement, often necessitating surgical treatment and resulting in prolonged morbidity. In the current study, the role of vitamin D as a predisposing factor for fatigue fractures was assessed using serum 25OHD level as the index. The average serum 25OHD concentration was significantly lower in conscripts with fatigue fracture than in controls. Evaluating TRACP-5b bone resorption marker as indicator of fatigue fractures, patients with elevated serum TRACP-5b levels had eight times higher probability of sustaining a stress fracture than controls. Among the 154 patients with exercise induced anterior lower leg pain and no previous findings on plain radiography, MRI revealed a total of 143 bone stress injuries in 86 patients. In 99% of the cases, injuries were in the tibia, 57% in the distal third of the tibial shaft. In patients with injury, forty-nine (57%) patients exhibited bilateral stress injuries. In a 20-year follow-up, the incidence of femoral neck fatigue fractures prior to the Finnish Defence Forces new regimen in 1986 addressing prevention of these fractures was 20.8/100,000, but rose to 53.2/100,000 afterwards, a significant 2.6-fold increase. In nineteen subjects with displaced femoral neck fatigue fractures, ten early local complications (in first postoperative year) were evident, and after the first postoperative year, osteonecrosis of the femoral head in six and osteoarthritis of the hip in thirteen patients were found. It seems likely that low vitamin D levels are related to fatigue fractures, and that an increasing trend exists between TRACP-5b bone resorption marker elevation and fatigue fracture incidence. Though seldom detected by plain radiography, fatigue fractures often underlie unclear lower leg stress-related pain occurring in the distal parts of the tibia. Femoral neck fatigue fractures, when displaced, lead to long-term morbidity in a high percentage of patients, whereas, when non-displaced, they do not predispose patients to subsequent adverse complications. Importantly, an educational intervention can diminish the incidence of fracture displacement by enhancing awareness and providing instructions for earlier diagnosis of fatigue fractures.

An Axiom of Military Law : Applicability of National Criminal Law to Military Personnel and Associated Civilians Abroad

States regularly deploy elements of their armed forces abroad. When that happens, the military personnel concerned largely remain governed by the penal law of the State that they serve. This extraterritorial extension of national criminal law, which has been treated as axiomatic in domestic law and ignored by international law scholarship, is the subject of this dissertation. The first part of the study considers the ambit of national criminal law without any special regard to the armed forces. It explores the historical development of the currently prevailing system of territorial law and looks at the ambit that national legal systems claim today. Turning then to international law, the study debunks the oddly persistent belief that States enjoy a freedom to extend their laws to extraterritorial conduct as they please, and that they are in this respect constrained only by some specific prohibitions in international law. Six arguments historical, empirical, ideological, functional, doctrinal and systemic are advanced to support a contrary view: that States are prohibited from extending the reach of their legal systems abroad, unless they can rely on a permissive principle of international law for doing so. The second part of the study deals specifically with State jurisdiction in a military context, that is to say, as applied to military personnel in the strict sense (service members) and various civilians serving with or accompanying the forces (associated civilians). While the status of armed forces on foreign soil has transformed from one encapsulated in the customary concept of extraterritoriality to a modern regulation of immunities granted by treaties, elements of armed forces located abroad usually do enjoy some degree of insulation from the legal system of the host State. As a corollary, they should generally remain covered by the law of their own State. The extent of this extraterritorial extension of national law is revealed in a comparative review of national legislation, paying particular attention to recent legal reforms in the United States and the United Kingdom two states that have sought to extend the scope of their national law to cover the conduct of military contractor personnel. The principal argument of the dissertation is that applying national criminal law to service members and associated civilians abroad is distinct from other extraterritorial claims of jurisdiction (in particular, the nationality principle or the protective principle of jurisdiction). The service jurisdiction over the armed forces has a distinct aim: ensuring the coherence and indivisibility of the forces and maintaining discipline. Furthermore, the exercise of service jurisdiction seeks to reduce the chances of the State itself becoming internationally liable for the conduct of its service members and associated civilians. Critically, the legal system of the troop-deploying State, by extending its reach abroad, seeks to avoid accountability gaps that might result from immunities from host State law.

Silva Fennica Vol. 10, 1976.

Julkaistu Silva Fennica Vol. 10(4) -numeron liitteenä.

Silva Fennica Vol. 17, 1983.

Julkaistu Silva Fennica Vol. 17(4) -numeron liitteenä.

Bridging East and West : The Establishment of the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) in the United States Foreign Policy of Bridge Building, 1964-1972.

The dissertation examines the foreign policies of the United States through the prism of science and technology. In the focal point of scrutiny is the policy establishing the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) and the development of the multilateral part of bridge building in American foreign policy during the 1960s and early 1970s. After a long and arduous negotiation process, the institute was finally established by twelve national member organizations from the following countries: Bulgaria, Canada, Czechoslovakia, Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), France, German Democratic Republic (GDR), Great Britain, Italy, Japan, Poland, Soviet Union and United States; a few years later Sweden, Finland and the Netherlands also joined. It is said that the goal of the institute was to bring together researchers from East and West to solve pertinent problems caused by the modernization process experienced in industrialized world. It originates from President Lyndon B. Johnson s bridge building policies that were launched in 1964, and was set in a well-contested and crowded domain of other international organizations of environmental and social planning. Since the distinct need for yet another organization was not evident, the process of negotiations in this multinational environment enlightens the foreign policy ambitions of the United States on the road to the Cold War détente. The study places this project within its political era, and juxtaposes it with other international organizations, especially that of the OECD, ECE and NATO. Conventionally, Lyndon Johnson s bridge building policies have been seen as a means to normalize its international relations bilaterally with different East European countries, and the multilateral dimension of the policy has been ignored. This is why IIASA s establishment process in this multilateral environment brings forth new information on US foreign policy goals, the means to achieve these goals, as well as its relations to other advanced industrialized societies before the time of détente, during the 1960s and early 1970s. Furthermore, the substance of the institute applied systems analysis illuminates the differences between European and American methodological thinking in social planning. Systems analysis is closely associated with (American) science and technology policies of the 1960s, especially in its military administrative applications, thus analysis within the foreign policy environment of the United States proved particularly fruitful. In the 1960s the institutional structures of European continent with faltering, and the growing tendencies of integration were in flux. One example of this was the long, drawn-out process of British membership in the EEC, another is de Gaulle s withdrawal from NATO s military-political cooperation. On the other hand, however, economic cooperation in Europe between East and West, and especially with the Soviet Union was expanding rapidly. This American initiative to form a new institutional actor has to be seen in that structural context, showing that bridge building was needed not only to the East, but also to the West. The narrative amounts to an analysis of how the United States managed both cooperation and conflict in its hegemonic aspirations in the emerging modern world, and how it used its special relationship with the United Kingdom to achieve its goals. The research is based on the archives of the United States, Great Britain, Sweden, Finland, and IIASA. The primary sources have been complemented with both contemporary and present day research literature, periodicals, and interviews.

The German Military Entrepreneur Ernst von Mansfeld and His Conduct of Asymmetrical Warfare in the Thirty Years War

The dissertation examines aspects of asymmetrical warfare in the war-making of the German military entrepreneur Ernst von Mansfeld during his involvement in the Thirty Years War. Due to the nature of the inquiry, which combines history with military-political theory, the methodological approach of the dissertation is interdisciplinary. The theoretical framework used is that of asymmetrical warfare. The primary sources used in the dissertation are mostly political pamphlets and newsletters. Other sources include letters, documents, and contemporaneous chronicles. The secondary sources are divided into two categories, literature on the history of the Thirty Years War and textbooks covering the theory of asymmetrical warfare. The first category includes biographical works on Ernst von Mansfeld, as well as general histories of the Thirty Years War and seventeenth-century warfare. The second category combines military theory and political science. The structure of the dissertation consists of eight lead chapters, including an introduction and conclusion. The introduction covers the theoretical approach and aims of the dissertation, and provides a brief overlook of the sources and previous research on Ernst von Mansfeld and asymmetrical warfare in the Thirty Years War. The second chapter covers aspects of Mansfeld s asymmetrical warfare from the perspective of operational art. The third chapter investigates the illegal and immoral aspects of Mansfeld s war-making. The fourth chapter compares the differing methods by which Mansfeld and his enemies raised and financed their armies. The fifth chapter investigates Mansfeld s involvement in indirect warfare. The sixth chapter presents Mansfeld as an object and an agent of image and information war. The seventh chapter looks into the counter-reactions, which Mansfeld s asymmetrical warfare provoked from his enemies. The eighth chapter offers a conclusion of the findings. The dissertation argues that asymmetrical warfare presented itself in all the aforementioned areas of Mansfeld s conduct during the Thirty Years War. The operational asymmetry arose from the freedom of movement that Mansfeld enjoyed, while his enemies were constrained by the limits of positional warfare. As a non-state operator Mansfeld was also free to flout the rules of seventeenth-century warfare, which his enemies could not do with equal ease. The raising and financing of military forces was another source of asymmetry, because the nature of early seventeenth-century warfare favoured private military entrepreneurs rather than embryonic fiscal-military states. The dissertation also argues that other powers fought their own asymmetrical and indirect wars against the Habsburgs through Mansfeld s agency. Image and information were asymmetrical weapons, which were both aimed against Mansfeld and utilized by him. Finally, Mansfeld s asymmetrical threat forced the Habsburgs to adapt to his methods, which ultimately lead to the formation of a subcontracted Imperial Army under the management and leadership of Albrecht von Wallenstein. Therefore Mansfeld s asymmetrical warfare ultimately paved way for the kind of state-monopolized, organised, and symmetrical warfare that has prevailed from 1648 onwards. The conclusion is that Mansfeld s conduct in the Thirty Years War matched the criteria for asymmetrical warfare. While traditional historiography treated Mansfeld as an anomaly in the age of European state formation, his asymmetrical warfare has begun to bear resemblance to the contemporary conflicts, where nation states no longer hold the monopoly of violence.

Trade Blocs and the Cold War : The CMEA and the EC challenge, 1969-1976

The coherence of the Soviet bloc was seriously tested at the turn of the 1970s, as the Soviet Union and its allies engaged in intensive negotiations over their relations with the European Communities (EC). In an effort to secure their own national economic interests many East European countries began independent manoeuvres against the wishes of their bloc leader. However, much of the intra-bloc controversy was kept out of the public eye, as the battle largely took place behind the scenes, within the organisation for economic cooperation, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA). The CMEA policy-making process vis-à-vis the EC is described in this study with reference to primary archival materials. This study investigates the negotiating positions and powers of the CMEA member states in their efforts to deal with the economic challenge created by the progress of the EC, as it advanced towards the customs union. This entails an analysis of the functioning principles and performance of the CMEA machinery. The study traces the CMEA negotiations that began in 1970 over its policy toward the EC. The policy was finally adopted in 1974, and was followed by the first official meeting between the two organisations in early 1975. The story ends in 1976, when the CMEA s efforts to enter into working relations with the EC were seemingly frustrated by the latter. The first major finding of the study is that, contrary to much of the prior research, the Soviet Union was not in a hegemonic position vis-à-vis its allies. It had to use a lot of its resources to tame the independent manoeuvring of its smaller allies. Thus, the USSR was not the kind of bloc leader that the totalitarian literature has described. Because the Soviet Union had to spend so much attention on its own bloc-politics, it was not able to concentrate on formulating a policy vis-à-vis the EC. Thus, the Soviet leadership was dependent on its allies in those instances when the socialist countries needed to act as a bloc. This consequently opened up the possibility for the USSR s allies to manoeuvre. This study also argues that when the CMEA did manage to find a united position, it was a force that the EC had to reckon with in its policy-making. This was particularly the case in the implementation of the EC Common Commercial Policy. The other main finding of the study is that, although it has been largely neglected in the previous literature on the history of West European integration, the CMEA did in fact have an effect on EC decision-making. This study shows how for political and ideological reasons the CMEA members did not acknowledge the EC s supranational authority. Therefore the EC had no choice but to refrain from implementing its Common Commercial Policy in full.