286 resultados para Myt
Resumo:
Being at the crossroads of the Old World continents, Western Asia has a unique position through which the dispersal and migration of mammals and the interaction of faunal bioprovinces occurred. Despite its critical position, the record of Miocene mammals in Western Asia is sporadic and there are large spatial and temporal gaps between the known fossil localities. Although the development of the mammalian faunas in the Miocene of the Old World is well known and there is ample evidence for environmental shifts in this epoch, efforts toward quantification of habitat changes and development of chronofaunas based on faunal compositions were mostly neglected. Advancement of chronological, paleoclimatological, and paleogeographical reconstruction tools and techniques and increased numbers of new discoveries in recent decades have brought the need for updating and modification of our level of understanding. We under took fieldwork and systematic study of mammalian trace and body fossils from the northwestern parts of Iran along with analysis of large mammal data from the NOW database. The data analysis was used to study the provinciality, relative abundance, and distribution history of the closed- and open-adapted taxa and chronofaunas in the Miocene of the Old World and Western Asia. The provinciality analysis was carried out, using locality clustering, and the relative abundance of the closed- and open-adapted taxa was surveyed at the family level. The distribution history of the chronofaunas was studied, using faunal resemblance indices and new mapping techniques, together with humidity analysis based on mean ordinated hypsodonty. Paleoichnological studies revealed the abundance of mammalian footprints in several parts of the basins studied, which are normally not fossiliferous in terms of body fossils. The systematic study and biochronology of the newly discovered mammalian fossils in northwestern Iran indicates their close affinities with middle Turolian faunas. Large cranial remains of hipparionine horses, previously unknown in Iran and Western Asia, are among the material studied. The initiation of a new field project in the famous Maragheh locality also brings new opportunities to address questions regarding the chronology and paleoenvironment of this classical site. Provinciality analysis modified our previous level of understandings, indicating the interaction of four provinces in Western Asia. The development of these provinces was apparently due to the presence of high mountain ranges in the area, which affected the dispersal of mammals and also climatic patterns. Higher temperatures and possibly higher co2 levels in the Middle Miocene Climatic Optimum apparently favored the development of the closed forested environments that supported the dominance of the closed-adapted taxa. The increased seasonality and the progressive cooling and drying of the midlatitudes toward the Late Miocene maintained the dominance of open-adapted faunas. It appears that the late Middle Miocene was the time of transition from a more forested to a less forested world. The distribution history of the closed- and open-adapted chronofaunas shows the presence of cosmopolitan and endemic faunas in Western Asia. The closed-adapted faunas, such as the Arabian chronofauna of the late Early‒early Middle Miocene, demonstrated a rapid buildup and gradual decline. The open-adapted chronofaunas, such as the Late Miocene Maraghean fauna, climaxed gradually by filling the opening environments and moving in response to changes in humidity patterns. They abruptly declined due to demise of their favored environments. The Siwalikan chronofauna of the early Late Miocene remained endemic and restricted through all its history. This study highlights the importance of field investigations and indicates that new surveys in the vast areas of Western Asia, which are poorly sampled in terms of fossil mammal localities, can still be promising. Clustering of the localities supports the consistency of formerly known patterns and augments them. Although the quantitative approach to relative abundance history of the closed- and open-adapted mammals harks back to more than half a century ago, it is a novel technique providing robust results. Tracking the history of the chronofaunas in space and time by means of new computational and illustration methods is also a new practice that can be expanded to new areas and time spans.
Kohti uudistuvaa Verkkokoulua : Käyttäjätutkimus osana Tilastokeskuksen oppimateriaalin kehittämistä
Resumo:
Tutkimuksen lähtökohtana on tilastojen luku- ja käyttötaitojen kehittäminen verkko-oppimisympäristöissä. Tutkimus käynnistyi Tilastokeskuksen Verkkokoulun kehittämisen tarpeesta. Päätavoitteena on muodostaa toimenpide-ehdotuksia Verkkokoulun kehittämiselle käyttäjälähtöisestä näkökulmasta. Tutkimuksessa selvitetään, miten matematiikan aineenopettajat käyttävät Tilastokeskuksen Verkkokoulua opetuksessaan ja opetuksensa suunnittelussa, ja millaisia toiveita heillä ja Verkkokoulun parissa työskentelevillä tilastokeskuslaisilla on Verkkokoulun kehittämiseksi. Tämän lisäksi selvitetään Verkkokoulun käyttöä kävijäseurantapalvelun avulla. Tutkimuksella etsitään vastauksia siihen, miten Verkkokoulua voidaan kehittää käyttäjän kannalta paremmaksi palveluksi. Tutkimusongelmiin vastataan verkkokyselyllä, sähköpostihaastattelulla, teemahaastatteluilla ja kävijäseurantapalvelulla kerättyjen aineistojen kvalitatiivisella analyysillä. Matematiikan aineenopettajille tehty kyselylomake toteutettiin maaliskuussa 2009 ja haastattelut syksyn 2009 aikana. Kävijäseurantapalvelun tarkasteluajankohta on 1.9.2008–31.8.2009. Tutkimuksen tulosten mukaan Verkkokoulu tunnetaan huonosti matematiikan aineenopettajien keskuudessa. Verkkokoulun oppimateriaaleja käytetään enemmän opetuksen suunnitteluun kuin opetukseen. Opettajat toivovat etenkin arkielämälähtöisiä ja helposti käytettäviä opetuksen suunnitteluun soveltuvia palveluja, jotka soveltuvat myös perinteiseen luokkahuoneopetukseen. Tilastokeskuslaiset näkevät Verkkokoulun kehittämisen tarpeelliseksi, vaikkakin haastavaksi kehittämiseen tarvittavien resurssien vähyyden vuoksi. Heidän mukaansa Verkkokoulua tulisi päivittää ja laajentaa monipuolisilla oppimateriaalikokonaisuuksilla. Myös teknisen toteutuksen toivotaan uudistuvan. Kävijäseurantapalvelun aineiston mukaan Verkkokoulu on keskimääräistä käytetympi kuin Tilastokeskuksen verkkosivut kokonaisuudes- saan. Verkkokoulua käytetään enemmän yksittäisten asioiden tietojen tarkistamiseen kuin kokonaisuuksien opiskeluun. Johtopäätöksenä voidaan todeta, että Tilastokeskuksen Verkkokoulu on palvelu, joka käyttäjälähtöisen kehittämisen ja markkinoinnin myötä voi nousta merkittävään rooliin tilastoalan kouluttajana. Jotta tähän päästään, kehittämiseen on löydettävä riittävästi resursseja.
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Javan myötä ohjelmointikielten kääntämisprosessiin on uudelleen esitelty erityisen käsittelyn kohteeksi kelpaava välikieli, tavukoodi. Tavallisesti Java-ohjelmaa suoritettaessa erityinen virtuaalikone lataa tavukoodimuotoisen ohjelman esityksen, jota suoritetaan joko tulkkaamalla tai suoritusaikaisesti suoritusalustan ymmärtämälle kielelle kääntäen. Tässä tutkielmassa tutkitaan välikielen tasolla tapahtuvia optimointimahdollisuuksia. Oliokielten dynaamisen luonteen vuoksi puhtaasti staattinen optimointi on vaikeaa ja siksi usein hedelmätöntä. Tutkielman yhteydessä kuitenkin tunnistettiin mobiiliohjelmointiin soveltuva suljetun maailman oletus, jonka puitteissa tavukoodin tasolla voidaan ohjelmaa parannella turvallisesti. Esimerkkinä tutkielmassa toteutetaan ylimääräisiä rajapintaluokkia poistava optimointi. Koska optimointialgoritmit ovat usein monimutkaisia ja vaikeaselkoisia, tutkitaan työssä myös mahdollisuuksia niiden yksinkertaisempaan esittämiseen. Alunperin Javalla toteutetun luokkahierarkiaa uudelleenjärjestelevän algoritmin esiehtojen tarkastus onnistutaan kuvaamaan ensimmäisen kertaluokan logiikan kaavalla, jolloin esiehtojen tarkastus onnistuu tutkielman puitteissa toteutetulla logiikkakoneella. Logiikkakoneelle kuvataan logiikkakaavojen propositiot Javalla, mutta propositioiden yhdistely tapahtuu ja-konnektiiveja käyttävällä logiikkakielellä. Suorituskyvyltään logiikkakone on joissain tapauksissa Java-toteutusta nopeampi.
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Scrum-prosessimalli jättää menettelyt ohjelmiston käyttöliittymän tuottamiseen auki ja käyttöliittymä syntyy pahimmillaan toimintolistan pohjalta ohjelmoinnin sivutuotteena. Näin syntynyt järjestelmä soveltuu suurella riskillä huonosti käyttötarkoitukseensa. Tässä tutkielmassa analysoitiin Scrum-prosessimallin käyttöliittymäriskikohtia, joita löytyi kolme: asiakkaan toivomat ominaisuudet päätyvät sellaisinaan ohjelmiston vaatimuksiksi, toimintolistan pohjalta syntyy käytettävyydeltään heikkoja käyttöliittymäratkaisuja ja käyttöliittymän arviointi sprintin katselmoinnissa tuottaa epäluotettavia tuloksia. Tutkielmassa käsitellään Scrum-prosessimallin käyttöliittymäriskien minimointia simulointipohjaisella GDD-käyttöliittymäsuunnittelulla. Riskien minimointia tarkastellaan esimerkkitapauksen avulla, jossa ohjelmistoyritys Reaktor toteutti ammattikorkeakoulun toiminnansuunnittelujärjestelmän vuosisuunnitteluosion. Esimerkkitapauksessa Scrumin käyttöliittymäriskit saatiin minimoitua selvittämällä loppukäyttäjien käyttötilanteet kontekstuaalisilla haastatteluilla, suunnittelemalla käyttöliittymä GDD-menetelmällä ja arvioimalla käyttöliittymää hyödyllisyysläpikäynneillä. Alkuperäisessä Scrumissa liiketoiminnallisesta kannattavuudesta vastaava tuotteen omistaja ja toteutustiimi ottavat vastuulleen myös käyttöliittymän toimintalogiikan. GDD:n myötä vastuu toimintalogiikasta siirretään käyttöliittymäsuunnittelijalle, jolloin Scrumin roolit muuttuvat. Tässä työssä käsitellään GDD-käyttöliittymäsuunnittelun tuomat muutokset Scrumin rooleihin ja käytäntöihin. Scrumin käyttöliittymäriskien minimoinnin jälkeen toteutusvaiheeseen jää vielä Scrumista riippumattomia käyttöliittymäriskejä. Tämän työn esimerkkitapauksessa keskeisin näistä oli käyttöliittymätoteutukseen päätyneet puutteelliset interaktiot. Riski eliminoitiin hyväksymismenettelyllä, jossa ohjelmoija antaa toteutetun ominaisuuden käyttöliittymäsuunnittelijalle tarkistettavaksi. Hyväksymismenettelyn avulla projektin työnjako selkiytyi, toteutustyön laatu parani ja toteutustiimin ja käyttöliittymäsuunnittelijoiden välinen kommunikaatio tehostui.
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This study examines the organisation and transformation of altar space in the modern Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland in liturgical and architectural perspective. The research data consists of 65 altar spaces in The Finnish Evangelical Lutheran church buildings. All of these were characterised in Church Government records as churches , built 1962 1999 and had been consecrated. The main data was collected by means of observation, photographing, and drawing sketches of altar spaces. The focus of this study concerns the organisation of modern Finnish Evangelical Lutheran altar spaces and, in particular, their changes also in relation to the liturgical movement. The challenge of this approach was especially in discovering the spatial identity of an altar space in terms of unequivocal boundaries. The analysis was realised in three stages. Interiors, the organisation of altar space, as well as architectonic qualities of altar spaces in terms of floor elevations, shapes of ceilings, lighting, and openings in the altar space were analysed. Moreover, attention was focused on furnishing and fixed versus movable pieces of furniture (such as the altar, altar rail, the pulpit, the baptismal font, and lectern). Finally, the potential qualitative and quantitative changes in altar space were examined. All in all, the majority of churches in the data featured elongated church halls with an altar at the end of the nave. To look at the data in chronological perspective, increasingly wide church halls had been built since the 1980s (yet there was only one central hall in which the altar was placed at the middle point of the church). Every third church altar was movable. As for the focal point of this study and the altar in particular, it was my aim to pay attention to the versus populum altar and its development in relation to the (Lutheran) liturgy. Hence, it was meaningful to determine, in terms of interior design, whether liturgists were able to celebrate facing the people attending the service. In the 1960s and 70s, a versus orientem altar featured in more than half of all new Finnish Lutheran churches, yet in 2000 two out of three churches featured a versus populum altar. For architectural and esthetic reasons (and not primarily due to liturgical ideas), also altars standing freely off the walls had been constructed. In terms of the liturgy, versus populum altars had been realised in expectation of increased communication between liturgist and worshippers. However, the analysis indicated that the altar could also become a divider of space. This aspect is a novel finding in relation to earlier and concurrent discussions concerning the liturgical movement. This study concluded, all in all, that altars had been increasingly constructed closer and closer to the worshiping parish and, accordingly, used increasingly often in the versus populum manner. Lecterns were often movable until the millennium this was the case in most altar spaces. Baptismal fonts did not have a permanent place in this data, and the data even included altar spaces with no baptismal fonts in the choir, nor the church hall. The position and status of fonts was generally weakened even if baptism in the Lutheran Church was regarded as one of the two sacraments together with the eucharist. The study concluded that even if baptism is regarded as a sacrament in the church, the position and status of baptismal fonts had weakened overall in newer church architecture. In other words, the tendency of the liturgical movement to emphasise the service and its celebration had obviously had its effect on the placement of baptismal fonts in the church hall. This research indicated that the pieces of furniture that mostly involved (many kinds of) visual and spatial changes included the altar and the lectern. In certain instances, fixed furnishings had been substituted by movable pieces or, moreover, new pieces of furniture and paraphernalia such as music instruments, pieces of art, tables, chairs and plants were brought in. In the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland, liturgical changes were principally inspired by the Catholic Church, in which liturgical changes are essentially based on Canon Law. Unlike Finnish Lutheranism, Catholicism provides detailed rules and principles even regarding the design of an altar space. According to this study, in the Finnish Lutheran Church, the primarily functional nature of given guidelines and instructions characterises several practical solutions in furnishing.
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Can war be justified? Expressions of opinions by the general assemblies of the World Council of Churches on the question of war as a method of settling conflicts. The purpose of this study is to describe and analyse the expressions of opinions recorded in the documents of the general assemblies of the WCC during the Cold War period from 1948 to 1983 on the use of war as a method of settling international and national conflicts. The main sources are the official reports of the WCC´s assemblies during the years 1948 to 1983. This study divides the discussions into three periods. The first period (1949-1968) is dominated by the pressures arising from the Second World War. Experiences of the war led the assemblies of the WCC to the conclusion that modern warfare as a method of settling conflicts should be rejected. Modern war was contrary to God´s purposes and the whole meaning of creation, said the assembly. Although the WCC rejected modern war, it left open the possibility of conflict where principles of just war may be practised. The question of war was also linked to the state and its function, which led to the need to create a politically neutral doctrine for the socio-ethical thinking of churches and of the WCC itself. The doctrine was formulated using the words "responsible society". The question of war and socio-ethical thinking were on the WCC`s agenda throughout the first period. Another issue that had an influence on the first period was the increasing role of Third World countries. This new dimension also brought new aspects to the question of war and violence. The second period (1968-1975) presented greater challenges to the WCC, especially in traditional western countries. The Third World, political activity in the socialist world and ideas of revolution were discussed. The WCC`s fourth Assembly in Uppsala was challenged by these new ideas of revolution. The old doctrine of "responsible society" was seen by many participants as unsuitable in the modern world, especially for Third World countries. The situation of a world governed by armaments, causing social and economic disruption, was felt by churches to be problematic. The peace movement gathered pace and attention. There was pressure to see armed forces as an option on the way to a new world order. The idea of a just war was challenged by that of just revolution. These ideas of revolution did not receive support from the Uppsala Assembly, but they pressured the WCC to reconsider its socio-ethical thinking. Revolution was seen as a possibility, but only when it could be peaceful. In the Nairobi Assembly the theme of just, participatory and sustainable society provided yet another viewpoint, dealing with the life of the world and its problems as a whole. The third period (1975-1983) introduced a new, alternative doctrine the "JPIC Process", justice, peace and the integrity of creation for social thinking in the WCC. The WCC no longer wanted to discuss war or poverty as separate questions, but wanted to combine all aspects of life to see the impact of an arms-governed world on humankind. Thus, during the last period, discussions focused on socio-ethical questions, where war and violence were only parts of a larger problem. Through the new JPIC Process, the WCC`s Assembly in Vancouver looked for a new world, one without violence, in all aspects of life. Despite differing opinions in socio-ethical thinking, the churches in the WCC agreed that modern warfare cannot be regarded as acceptable or just. The old idea of a "just war" still had a place, but it was not seen by all as a valid principle. As a result the WCC viewed war as a final solution to be employed when all other methods had failed. Such a war would have to secure peace and justice for all. In the discussions there was a strong political east-west divide, and, during the last two decades, a north-south divide as well. The effect of the Cold War was obvious. In the background to the theological positions were two main concepts namely the idea of God´s activity in man´s history through the so-called regiments and, the concept of the Kingdom of God on Earth.
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This study explores ecumenical activity of professor and bishop E. G. Gulin (1893 1975). Gulin was one of the key figures in the Finland s Evangelical Lutheran Church during the twentieth century. He was also one of the leading persons who imported ecumenical influences from abroad. However, unlike other churches, the Church of Finland did not recognise his importance. For example, in the 1950s Gulin was seen by the Anglicans as a future archbishop for the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland. Gulin s career as an ecumenist can be divided to three parts. Between 1917 and 1929, Gulin learned ecumenical working methods in Finland s World Student Christian Federation. He had a background in the revivalist movement, and his parents supported him in his studies. The Evangelical Lutheran Church did not originally play a major role for Gulin, although he was a member. Between 1930 and 1944, Gulin had more and more responsibility as a leading ecumenist in Finland. He became a member of Finland s ecumenical board, Yleiskirkollinen toimikunta. During the Second World War Gulin tried to solicit assistance for Finland s war effort at theological conferences, where Finnish theologians often discussed cooperation among Christians. A third period started in 1945, when Gulin became the bishop of Tampere. His new status in the Evangelical Lutheran Church placed him in a challenging position in ecumenical questions. He had responsibility for inter-church aid in Finland. He also participated in the World Council of Churches (WCC) assemblies in Evanston in 1954 and in New Delhi in 1961. Gulin s role was quite insignificant in those meetings. Closely related to Gulin s texts about ecumenism is kokemus, experience. Gulin wrote about his ecumenical experience or ekumeeninen kokemus. He believed that it was vital for the churches to appreciate their own experiences, since experience was the basis for further development. Yet Gulin mentioned very little about Christian dogma. The main reason seems to have been that he did not believe that a union between churches could be built on dogma.
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The Church in one s heart. The formation of religion and individuation in the lives of Ingrian Finns in the 20th century. Sinikka Haapaniemi University of Helsinki, Finland 302 pages The study falls within the sphere of religious views and the problematique of the life trajectory. The target group comprises those Finnish speakers (Ingrian Finns, Ingrians) living in what was historically Ingermanland and who in varying circumstances became scattered. These times were characterized by pressures for change due to societal reasons and reasons of war. In conditions of change external living conditions matters of religious conviction may assume new meaning and form. The examination focuses on sustaining personal faith in difficult life situations and on how crises affected religious views. Another level of scrutiny takes shape through the terminology of the analytic psychology of C.G. Jung. Individuation is deemed to occur as a cumulative process through the stages of life. The basic data for the study comprises interviews with twenty (20) natives of Ingria and their biographical narratives written in standard language. Many biographical accounts and memoirs serve as secondary data. The interviewees, who were largely selected at random, recounted their lives without questions formulated in advance. The study falls within the field of comparative religion and adheres to the principles of qualitative research practice and the case-study method. Effort was made to get to know each interviewee in the situation which his/her narrative presents. The aim is to pay attention to the interpretations given by the narrators of their various experiences and to understand their meanings on a personal level. The years during which the Ingrians were scattered, wandering and returning raise problems of survival. An individual s own initiative assumes individual forms and emphases. Religion was part of the narrators lives as one factor in the quality of life. Their religious thinking was influenced by both their home upbringing and the teaching of the Church. The interviewees took a serious attitude to the informative teaching of confirmation training. When there was no longer a church, it was claimed that the church travelled with them. Changed circumstances tested the validity of the teachings. The message of the Church institution persisted and helped them to preserve their traditions. A striving for unity and for the presence of a community emerged both in the form of ritual behaviour and in a predilection to sociability. Gradually, as they returned, the activity of the Church of Ingria began to revive. At the turn of the millennium the network of parishes was extensive and cultural activity flourished wherever the Ingrians settled in the postwar decades. Religion is part of the process of individuation. Examination of religion and individuation shows that religion remained an individual view, whose factual base was formed by Christianity and the tradition of the Church. Home upbringing served to orientate, but not to bind. With ageing the importance of independent thought is emphasized, for example in relation to confession, it did not pose a threat to individuality. Keywords: Life story, Religiosity, individuation, Ingrian, the Church of Ingria
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Satanism in the Finnish Youth Culture of the 1990s The aim of this study was to investigate Satanism among Finnish youth in the 1990s. Thematic interviews of young Finnish Satanists are the basic material of this study. The research employs a theoretical framework derived from narrative psychology and the role-theoretical thinking of Dan P. McAdams. The young Satanists in Finland have been divided into two different groups: the criminal and drug using "devil-worshipping gangs"; and the more educated and philosophically oriented "Satanists" (Heino 1993). What can we say about this division? In the 1990s around Finland, there were young people calling themselves as devil- worshippers (either singular or in groups). They were strongly committed to a mythical devilish and cosmic battle, which they believed was going on in this world. They had problems with their mental health, also in their family socialization and peer groups. In their personal attitudes they were either active fighters or passive tramps. There were also rationally oriented young Satanists, that were ritually active and mainly atheistic. They strongly expressed their personal experiences of being individual and of being different than others. In their personal attitudes they were critical fighters and active survivors. They saw their lives through the satanistic 'finding-oneself experience'. They understood themselves as a "postmodern tribe" (Michel Maffesoli's sosiocultural concept): their sense of themselves was that of a dynamic collectivity which is social, dynamic, nonlocal and mythically historical. Death and black metal culture in the 1990s formed a common space for youth culture, where young individuals could work out their feelings and express their attitudes to life using dark satanic themes and symbols. The sense of "otherness" (also other than satanic) and collective demands for authenticity were essential tools that were used for identity work here. Personal disengagement from satanic/satanistic groups were observed to be gradual or quite rapid. Religious conversions back-and-forth also accured. At the end of the 1990s all off satanism in Finland bore a negative devil-worshipping stigma. Ritual homicide in South-Finland (Kerava/Hyvinkää) was connected to Satanism, which then became unpopular both in the personal life stories and alternative youth cultural circles at the beginning of the 2000s.
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In this research, the cooperation between Finnish municipalities and Evangelical Lutheran parishes is studied from the standpoint of institutional interaction. The most essential theoretical background for the study is the differentiation thesis of the secularization theory. Cooperation from the viewpoints of both organizations is examined using the functional approach. Furthermore, the market theory and other theories are applied in order to place the studied phenomenon in the wider context of the theories of the sociology of religion. Sacralization in modern society and its relationship with the differentiation thesis of the secularization theory are in the theoretical foci. In addition, along with a descriptive examination of cooperation, the normative sides of the phenomenon are discussed. The survey was conducted among all municipalities and parishes in continental Finland. The questionnaires were sent to all municipal managers of youth work and afternoon activities and to all managers of child, youth and social work in the parishes. The response rate for the municipalities was 73.9 % and for the parishes 69.5 %. In addition, two qualitative data were utilized. The aim of the study is to scrutinize what kind of limitations of differentiation can be caused by the interaction between the secular and the religious. In order to solve the problem, an empirical study of sacralization in the modern context is required. For this purpose, the survey was carried out to determine the effects of the religious on the secular and the impact of the secular on the religious. In the articles of the study the following relationships are discussed: the positions of municipalities and parishes in relation to the state and civil society; cooperation in relation to differentiation; sacralization in relation to the differentiation thesis and cooperation in relation to pluralism. The results of the study highlighted the significance of the cooperation, which was contrary to the secularization theory connected to religious sacralization. The acceptance of the appearance of religion in cooperation and parishes support for municipal function was high in municipalities. Religious cooperation was more active than secular cooperation within all fields. This was also true between fields: religiously orientated child work was more active than the societally orientated social work of the church. Religious cooperation in modern fields of activity underlined sacralization. However, the acceptance of sacralization was weaker in cities than rural areas. Positive relationships between the welfare function of municipalities and the religious function of parishes emphasized the incompleteness of differentiation and the importance of sacralization. The relationship of the function of municipalities with parishes was neither negative nor neutral. Thus, in the most active fields, that is, child work and the traditional social work of the church, the orientation of parishes in cooperation supported the functions of both organizations. In more passive fields, that is, youth work and the societal social work of the church, parishes were orientated towards supporting the municipal function. The orientation of municipalities to religion underlined the perception that religious function is necessary for cooperation. However, the official character of cooperation supported accommodation to the requirements of societal pluralism. According to the results, sacralization can be effective also at the institutional level. The religious effect of voluntary cooperation means that religious sacralization can also readjust to modern society. At the same time, the results of the study stressed the importance of institutional autonomy. Thus, the public sector has a central role in successful cooperation. The conditions of cooperation are weakened if there is no official support of cooperation or adjustment to the individual rights of modern society. The results called into question the one-directional assumptions in the secularization paradigm and the modernization theory in the background. In these assumptions, religion that represents the traditional is seen to give way to the modern, especially at the institutional level. Lack of an interactional view was identified as a central weakness of the secularization paradigm. In the theoretical approach created in the study, an interactional view between religious and secular institutions was made possible by limiting the core of the differentiation thesis to autonomy. The counter forces of differentiation are despecialization and sacralization. These changes in the secularization theory bring about new interactivity on the institutional level. In addition to the interactional approach, that is, the secularization and sacralization theory created as a synthesis of the study, interaction between the religious and the secular is discussed from the standpoint of multiple modernities. The spiritual welfare role of religion is seen as a potential supporter of secular institutions. Religion is set theoretically amongst other ideologies and agents, which can create communal bonds in modern society. Key words: cooperation, municipalities, parishes, sacralization, secularization, modernization, multiple modernities, differentiation, interaction, democracy, secularism, pluralism, civil society
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The Pastor and the Bible: Finnish Evangelical Lutheran Pastors Relationship with the Bible Since 1970s there has been extensive discussion in Finland about questions relating to the interpretation of the Bible. The themes of this discussion have focused on the trustworthiness and authority of the Bible, and the discussion has attracted participation not only from representatives of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland but also from representatives of the academic community. The discussion has resulted in extensive publication on the relation of postmodern theology to the Bible. Despite this debate and the texts that have been produced, there is little empirical data on how Evangelical Lutheran pastors with theological education view the Bible. In the present study, 22 pastors of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland were interviewed about how they defined their relationship with the Bible. The interview material was analyzed by means of data-based content analysis. The analysis showed, first, that the pastors viewed the Bible as a mirror of the spiritual growth that they had experienced in the past. Second, the Bible was viewed as a source in the interpretation of matters of faith. The third theme concerned the pastors key experiences in their relationship with the authority of the Bible. The time periods that were significant in defining pastors spiritual growth and past perspective on the Bible included childhood, youth, the period of theological education, and the time spent as a pastor. In childhood, the Bible was part of the spiritual atmosphere of the home, and parents and grandparents made a crucial contribution to the child s emerging view of the Bible. In childhood, the Bible was essentially the Old Testament and its exciting stories. In youth, reading the Bible became more personal, and the teachings of Jesus began to take on a more central role. In youth, most of the interviewees had strong experiences of faith and began to view the Bible as an absolute and divine source of dogma. The period of theological studies meant a change in their relationship with the Bible and particularly, revelation of the human aspects of the Bible. These changes were associated with a deepening of belief in the Bible and also a painful crisis in questions related to the trustworthiness of the Bible. For many of the interviewees, their relationship with the Bible changed also when they started their work as pastors. When faced with a call to work as a pastor, the interviewees created a synthesis of the secure faith that they had experienced in their childhood and the more critical views with which they had become acquainted during their theological education. Pastorhood meant the beginning of public teaching of the Bible. The interviewees felt that, in this new role, they discovered again - but now in a deeper sense - the trustworthiness in the bible that they had experienced during their childhood. Based on the interviewees experiences during the periods mentioned above, five different interpretations were formed regarding how the interviewed pastors viewed their past relationship with the Bible. These interpretations were detachment from literal interpretation of the Bible (1), changes in their relationship with the Bible arising from experiences of faith (2), a slow process during which their relationship with the Bible became more human (3), overcoming hardships (4), and no change in their relationship with the Bible (5). In interpretations 1-3, the past was described as a linear development and journey towards a more coherent relationship with the Bible. Interpretations 4-5, in turn, reflected a desire to detach oneself from the perspectives of linear development and change and, instead, emphasize the immutable and process-like nature of one s relationship with the Bible. Concerning the Bible as a source in matters of faith, a conspicuous aspect of the interviews was that all pastors wanted to disconnect themselves from a fundamentalistic view of the Bible, regarding this as an intellectually dishonest relationship with the Bible. On the other hand, none of the interviewees supported a totally relativist view of the Bible. Instead, all interviewees regarded the Bible as a vital source for both them and the Evangelical Lutheran Church. Between the two poles of extremely fundamental and extremely relativistic views, four different categories of viewing the Bible emerged from the interviews: absolute truth (a), a book about the message of salvation (b), a book about holiness and generous love (c), and a source of inspiration (d). The views in categories (a) and (b) emphasized the divine nature of the Bible. According to the pastors who expressed these views, the Bible contains a clear and trustworthy message of God. The views in categories (c) and (d), in turn, emphasized the human aspects of the Bible. The pastors who expressed these views regarded the Bible as a collection of books that was born in a specific historical and cultural context and includes material characteristic to this time. Due to the time-bound nature of the Bible, each generation has to update its view of the Bible. The views in categories (c) and (d) arose from human reality. Comparisons of the views in the different categories indicated that despite their obvious differences, they also shared some common features. The views in categories (a) and (d) shared the common feature of absoluteness, which was seen in category (a) as an emphasis on dogmatism and in category (d) as an emphasis on rationalism. The views in categories (b) and (c), in turn, shared the common feature of a flexible and dynamic relationship with the Bible. The key experiences that appeared to characterize pastors relationship with the authority of the Bible were a joy that arises from self-evidence, awakening to confusion, fear of openness, falling back upon paradoxes, and new confidence. These experiences reveal the circular nature of the process that was common to all interviewees interpretation of their relationship with the Bible. That is, the interviewees experiences of their relationship with the Bible seem to go through a circular process that is activated again and again in new life events. It is like a journey from self-evidence towards critical questions and again back to new confidence. The interview material showed, hence, that relationship with the Bible are characterized by a process that involves experiences of trust, questioning and new trust. The present study brings out the multifaceted reality of pastors relationship with the Bible. The study breaks down contradictions between conservative and liberal views of the Bible by showing how representatives of these opposing poles share commonalities in their attitudes. The study points to a close association between an individual s life history and his or her relationship with the Bible, and lays the groundwork for future studies to investigate the relation between personality and view of the Bible.
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Light to the East? The Finnish Lutheran Mission and the Soviet Union 1967 1973 The Cold War affected the lives of Christian churches, especially in Europe. Besides the official ecumenical relations between east and west, there existed unofficial activity from west to east, such as smuggling Bibles and distributing information about the severe condition of human rights in the USSR. This study examines this kind of unofficial activity originating in Finland. It especially concentrates on the missionary work to the Soviet Union done by the Finnish Lutheran Mission (FLM, Suomen Evankelisluterilainen Kansanlähetys) founded in 1967. The work for Eastern Europe was organised through the Department for the Slavic Missions. FLM was founded within the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland, but it was not connected to the church on an organisational level. In addition to the strong emphasis on the Lutheran confession, FLM presented evangelical theology. The fundamental work of the Department for the Slavic Missions was to organise the smuggling of Bibles and other Christian literature to the Soviet Union and other countries behind the iron curtain. They also financed several Christian radio programmes produced and aired mainly by the international Trans World Radio. The Department diversified its activity to humanitarian help by distributing material help such as clothes and shoes to the unregistered evangelical and baptist groups, which were called the underground churches . In Finland the Department focused on information services. It published its own magazine, Valoa idässä (Light in the East), 5 to 6 times per year. Through the magazine and by distributing samizdat material received from the unregistered Christian groups, it discussed and reported the violations of human rights in the Soviet Union, especially when the unregistered Christian groups were considered the victims. The resistance against the Soviet Union was not as much political but religious: the staff of the Department were religious and revivalist young people who thought, for instance, that communism was in some way an apocalyptic world power revealed in the Bible. Smuggling Bibles was discussed widely in the Finnish media and even in parliament and the Finnish Security Police (SUPO, Suojelupoliisi) and in the Lutheran Church. From the church s point of view, this kind of missionary work was understandable but bothersome. Through their ecumenical connections, the bishops knew the critical situation of churches behind the iron curtain very well, but wanted to act diplomatically and cautiously to prevent causing harm to ecumenical or political relations. The leftist media and members of parliament especially accused the work of the Department of being illegal and endangering relations between Finland and the Soviet Union. SUPO did not consider the work of the Department as illegal activity or as a threat to Finnish national security.
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Tutkielman tehtävänä on ollut tutkia kuluttajakansalaisen vapautta ja suotuisaa käytöstä suomalaisessa hyvinvointiyhteiskunnassa. Vapautta on tarkasteltu lähinnä yhteiskunnallisesta näkökulmasta. Lähdemateriaalina ovat olleet Perusoikeudet, Vanhasen hallitusohjelma sekä Kuluttajapoliittinen ohjelma. Tutkimuskysymyksiä oli kolme: 1) Minkälainen ihmiskäsitys on muotoiltavissa lähdeaineistosta? 2) Mistä muodostuu kuluttajakansalaisen tosiasiallinen vapaus markkinoilla, sekä miten talouskasvu ja sen tukeminen vaikuttavat tämän vapauden toteutumiseen? 3) Minkälaisia suotuisan kulutuskäyttäytymisen ideoita kuluttajakansalaiselle lähteissä asetetaan kestävän talouskasvun ja tosiasiallisen vapauden tukemiseksi? Lähteistä hahmottui talouselämän ja toimivien markkinoiden tärkeys suomalaisessa yhteiskunnassa, kuluttajakansalaisen aktiivinen ja vastuullinen rooli yhteiskunnassa sekä perusarvojemme heijastuminen myös markkinoille. Kuluttajakansalaisen vastuullisuus liittyi sekä vastuuseen omasta hyvinvoinnista että kestävästä kehityksestä. Talouselämälähtöisyys korostui kuitenkin lähteissä ihmislähtöisyyden kustannuksella. Syntyi vaikutelma, että kuluttajakansalaisina olemme ensisijaisesti systeemin osia, rationaalisesti ja vastuullisesti toimivia objekteja, joilla on materialistiset arvot. Kuluttajakansalaisen tosiasiallisen vapauden kannalta tärkeiksi oikeuksiksi osoittautuivat tässä tutkimuksessa Perusoikeuksien omaisuudensuoja (15§), valinnan vapauteen liittyvä oikeus elämään sekä henkilökohtaiseen vapauteen ja koskemattomuuteen (7§) sekä kuluttajalle rahallisia resursseja ja peruspalveluita turvaavat oikeudet, joita ovat oikeus työhön ja elinkeinovapaus (18§), oikeus sosiaaliturvaan (19§) ja sivistykselliset oikeudet (16§). Talouskasvu kerrannaisvaikutuksineen osoitettiin olevan keskeinen resurssi tosiasiallisen vapauden turvaamiseksi, mutta myös asia, jonka edistämisellä julkisin toimenpitein on negatiivisia vaikutuksia tosiasialliseen vapauteen. Tutkielmassa osoitettiin kuluttajien olevan keskeinen tosiasiallisen vapauden ja oikeudenmukaisuuden resurssi talouskasvun tukemisen ja oikeanlaisten kulutusvalintojen kautta. Kuluttajakansalaisen suotuisa ostokäyttäytyminen kiteytettiin tutkielmassa seuraavasti: yksityisiin tuotteisiin ja palveluihin kohdistuva runsas kulutushalu, julkisiin palveluihin kohdistuva niukka kulutustarve sekä kyky ja halu tehdä kestävän talouskasvun ja tosiasiallisen vapauden kannalta suotuisia kulutusvalintoja. Toimiessaan tällä tavoin kuluttajakansalaisen todettiin toteuttavan laajaa perusoikeusnäkemystä, jonka mukaan perusoikeuksista huolehtiminen kuuluu kaikille yhteiskunnan jäsenille. Johtopäätöksenä todettiin, että toive kuluttajakansalaisesta, joka tekee vastuullisia päätöksiä koko yhteiskunnan hyvinvoinnin turvaamiseksi, on hyvin perusteltavissa. Oikeanlaisen kulutuskäyttäytymisen ansiosta talous saadaan toimimaan hyvinvointia ja tosiasiallista vapautta edistävällä tavalla. Yhteiskunnan taholta tapahtuvaa kuluttamiseen kannustamista taas voidaan perustella yhteisellä hyvällä. Koska hyvinvointiyhteiskuntamme ylläpitäminen perustuu vahvaan talouskasvuun, on ilmeisenä vaarana kuitenkin se, että talous ja teknologian kehitys muuttuvat hyvinvointiyhteiskunnan välineistä itseisarvoksi. Samalla saatetaan unohtaa, että talouskasvuun liittyvä yksityisen kulutuksen lisääntyminen ei välttämättä enää lisää ihmisten hyvinvointia. Siksi yhteiskunnassamme tulisikin edistää myös sellaisten sosiaalisten innovaatioiden syntyä, jotka muuttavat elämäntapaamme suuntaan, jossa hyvinvoinnin tuottaminen ei ole niin sidoksissa hyödykkeisiin. Tällaisten innovaatioiden myötä saattaisi ihmisten tosiasiallinen vapaus yhteiskunnassa hyvinkin kasvaa.
Resumo:
Tutkielmassa tarkastelen Suomen Sosialidemokraattisen Puolueen (SDP) suhdetta uskonnollisiin ja kirkollisiin kysymyksiin, sekä sitä muuttuiko suhde vuosina 1977–1987. Aikaväli on rajattu yleisen poliittisen historian käännekohtiin. Alkupisteenä toimii Kalevi Sorsan II hallituksen nimittäminen ja päätepisteenä Holkerin hallituksen aloitus. Tutkielman kannalta tärkein lähde on ollut Työväen arkistossa säilytettävä SDP:n puoluearkisto. SDP:n kirkkopolitiikka alkoi Forssan kokouksesta 1903, jolloin puolue vaati kirkon ja valtion erottamista. Linja vaihteli jyrkästä lievään ja uusi kansallinen eheytyminen toisen maailman sodan jälkeen tuntui myös SDP:ssä. 1960- ja 1970-lukujen muutospaineiden myötä kirkko oli herännyt uudistamaan vaalikäytäntöjään. Kirkollisten vaalien muuttuminen suoriksi ja välittömiksi vaaleiksi sai puolueet suuntaamaan katseensa entistä tarkemmin kirkon hallintoon. Myös SDP osallistui vaaleihin ja Kalevi Sorsan puheenjohtajakaudella puolueeseen perustettiin vuonna 1978 seurakunta-asiain jaosto hoitamaan kirkollisia vaaleja. Sitä ennen toiminta oli ollut erillisjärjetön ja aktiivisten seurakuntalaisten käsissä. Osallistuminen kirkollisiin vaaleihin katsottiin siinä määrin tärkeäksi, ettei sitä voitu jättää puolueen suoran organisaation ulkopuolelle. Toiminta tapahtui jatkossakin samojen henkilöiden kautta ja on vaikea pitävästi sanoa, miten merkittävästi vastuu siirtyi pelkästään puolueelle. Vuoden 1978 seurakuntavaaleihin panostettiin mittavasti ja niissä kokeiltiin myös suoraa jäsenistöön vaikuttamista. Vaalit eivät muodostuneet SDP:lle riemuvoitoksi ja niihin osallistuminen oli hyvin vaihtelevaa. Uskonto oli puolueessa omantunnonasia ja jokainen sai toimia sen suhteen vakaumuksensa mukaisesti. Kirkolliskokouksen maallikkoedustajien vaaleissa 1986 SDP oli voimakkaasti mukana. Silloin puolue otti erityisteemaksi naispappeuden. Vaalit tuottivatkin tulosta ja SDP sai tutkimusajan suurimman edustajamäärän. Ehdokkaat eivät tutkimusten mukaan mieltäneet kirkollisia vaaleja sinällään poliittisiksi, vaikka puolueet olivatkin mukana niissä. Vaaleissa ei myöskään saanut käyttää avoimia poliittisia tunnuksia. Rakennemuutoksen myötä ammattikerrostumat muuttuivat ja perinteinen työväenluokka alkoi pienentyä. Osin tästä johtuen SDP käynnisti periaateohjelman uudistamisen. Periaateohjelman uudistuksessa käsiteltiin maailmankatsomuksellisia asioita, perusarvoja ja kannattajapohjaa. Lopulta työskentelyssä päädyttiin erottamaan maailmankatsomukselliset asiat poliittisesta ideologiasta. Uuden periaateohjelman myötä SDP:stä tuli arvopuolue, jonka jäseneksi saattoi tulla erilaisista maailmankatsomuksellisista lähtökohdista käsin. Puolueella oli edelleen voimassa vuoden 1972 toimenpideohjelma valtion ja kirkon erottamiseksi. Ohjelmaa ei kuitenkaan pyritty määrätietoisesti toteuttamaan, ja se jäi horrosmaiseen hiljaiseloon. Sen säilyttäminen voidaan nähdä haluna pitäytyä vanhassa työväenliikkeen perinteessä. Gallup-tutkimusten mukaan SDP:n äänestäjäkunta ei kuitenkaan eronnut kirkollisuudessaan muista kansalaisista. Tämä on voitu huomata myös puolueessa, ja sen seurauksena liian kärkevää kritiikkiä kirkkoa kohtaan varottiin. Kyselyt antoivat SDP:lle aiheen korostaa myös kirkkomyönteistä puolta. SDP:n neutraali suhtautuminen kirkkoon muuttui osin kirkkomyönteiseksi.
Resumo:
Tutkin pro gradu -työssäni Yhdysvaltojen mustien kansalaisoikeusliikkeen käsittelyä Suomen kirkollisessa lehdistössä liikkeen keskeisimpinä toiminnan vuosina 1963–1968. Selvitän, miten kirkollinen lehdistö reagoi kansalaisoikeusliikkeeseen, ja mitkä olivat niitä asioita ja tapahtumia, joita lehdet toivat liikkeestä esille. Keskeistä työssäni on myös kansalaisoikeusliikkeen näkyvimmän johtajan Martin Luther King Juniorin lehdistössä saaman huomion analysointi. Olennaista tutkimuksen kannalta on selvittää, käsittelivätkö tutkimani lehdet kansalaisoikeusliikkeen toimintaa hengellisestä näkökulmasta vai pelkästään uutisina Yhdysvaltojen poliittisista tapahtumista. Käytännössä tähän liittyy myös kysymys siitä, koskettiko Yhdysvaltojen mustien ahdinko kirjoitusten mukaan suomalaista kristittyä. Tutkimukseni taustan kannalta tärkeää on selvittää mustien rotusorron historiaa Yhdysvalloissa sekä Kingin liikkeeseen tuomaa ajattelupohjaa. Tutkimukseni lähteinä käytän Kotimaan, Församlingsbladetin, Herättäjän, Sanan ja Etsijän numeroita vuosilta 1963–1968. Vuodelta 1967 lähdemateriaalia ei ole kuitenkaan löytynyt. Ajallisesti tutkimus sijoittuu kansalaisoikeusliikkeen organisoiman Birminghamin kampanjan alusta aina Kingin murhan aiheuttamaan kuohuntaan asti. Tutkimukseni on vahvasti sidottu kansalaisoikeusliikkeen keskeisiin tapahtumiin, joiden kautta esittelen liikkeen saamaa huomiota. Tämän takia en käykään, Etsijää lukuun ottamatta, järjestelmällisesti läpi kaikkia tutkimieni vuosien numeroita, vaan tutkittavat numerot ovat ilmestyneet aikoina, jolloin kansalaisoikeusliike toimi aktiivisesti ja näkyvästi. Tutkimukseni on kirkollisen lehdistön ja kansalaisoikeusliikkeen tutkimuksessa ainutlaatuinen. Liikkeen lehdistössä saamaa vastaanottoa ei ole Suomessa aiemmin tutkittu. Kansalaisoikeusliikettä koskeva tutkimus on keskittynyt lähinnä Kingin ajattelun kuvailuun. Merkityksellisen tutkimusaiheesta tekee myös se, että syvemmällä tasolla tutkimus kuvailee sitä, millaisena kirkon epäviralliset äänenkannattajat näkivät ajan, jolloin yhteiskunnan sosiaalisiin ongelmiin puuttuminen alettiin nähdä kristityn tehtävänä. Lehtien kansalaisoikeusliikkettä koskeva keskustelu onkin nähtävä osana muuta ajan kehitystä ja sen henkeä. Vuosikymmenen ajan henki ja aikakauden suuret muutokset näkyvät selkeästi tutkimukseni tuloksissa. Kaukaisesta tapahtumapaikastaan huolimatta Yhdysvaltojen mustien kansalaisoikeusliike sai varsin paljon huomiota tutkimissani lehdissä niin pakinoissa, uutisissa kuin raporteissa tapahtumapaikoiltakin. Liikkeen toimintaa ja erityisesti Kingiä liikkeen johtajana ihailtiin ja liikettä hyödynnettiin esimerkkinä siitä, miten suomalaisten kristittyjenkin tulisi suhtautua maailmaan. Useissa lehdissä koettiinkin tarpeelliseksi nostaa esille Suomen omia ”rotukysymyksiä”, joista keskeisimpänä nähtiin romanien asema. Ajan kehitykseen varauksellisesti suhtautuvaa Herättäjää lukuun ottamatta lehdet suhtautuivat hyvin suopeasti mustien kansalaisoikeusliikkeen tarjoamaan sosiaalisen herätykseen. Erityisesti Kotimaan päätoimittaja Simo Talvitie paneutui mustien rotusortoon ja sen tarjoamiin opetuksiin myös Suomen tasolla. Selityksenä lehtien mustien kansalaisoikeusliikkeen runsaalle käsittelylle ja niiden tavalle käsitellä liikettä nousee keskeisenä aikaa leimaava kansainvälistyminen. Median kehittyminen erityisesti television myötä ja matkustamisen helpottuminen mahdollistivat entistä enemmän muiden maiden tapahtumien seuraamisen ja niihin kantaa ottamisen. Aikaansa seuraavien kristittyjen tehtäväksi nähtiinkin maailman tapahtumista perillä oleminen ja myös oman yhteiskunnan epäkohtien esille tuominen. Nämä eivät tutkimukseni mukaan olleet vain radikaalin ylioppilasnuorison kiinnostuksen kohteita vaan vähitellen myös monen suomalaisen kristityn.