Perheelliset naisministerit mediassa: Analyysi lehtiteksteistä

Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan sitä, miten perheellisistä naisministereistä kirjoitetaan ja millaisia representaatioita nämä kirjoitukset heistä tuottavat. Tarkasteltaviksi on valittu kolme mediakohua herättänyttä tapausta. Ensimmäinen näistä on viestintäministeri Suvi Lindénin päätös jatkaa ministerin tehtävässään lapsen adoptoimisesta huolimatta vuonna 2007. Toinen tarkasteltava mediakohu syntyi vuonna 2008, kun opetusministeri Sari Sarkomaa päätti erota tehtävästään perhesyihin vedoten. Kolmas tapaus on ympäristöministeri Paula Lehtomäen päätös olla lähtemättä tavoittelemaan keskustan puheenjohtajuutta ja sen mahdollisesti mukanaan tuomaa pääministerin paikkaa. Kaikki kolme tapausta herättivät laajaa keskustelua tasa-arvon toteutumisesta politiikassa. Menestyneiden poliitikkonaisten uran ja yksityiselämän yhteensovittamisen teemaa on käsitelty paljon eri joukkotiedotusvälineissä ja journalismin eri genreissä. Naistenlehdet ovat olleet yksi keskeinen paikka, missä naisten kamppailua kahden ristiriitaisena pidetyn maailman välillä on saatu seurata. Tässä tutkimuksessa on keskitytty tarkastelemaan sitä, miten aihetta on käsitelty uutisjournalismissa ja nimenomaan sanomalehdissä. Uutisia, pääkirjoituksia, mielipidekirjoituksia ja muita lehdessä ilmestyneitä juttuja sisältävä aineisto on kerätty Helsingin Sanomista, Ilta-Sanomista ja Iltalehdestä. Aihetta lähestytään feministisen mediatutkimuksen näkökulmasta. Työssä nojaudutaan sosiaalisen konstruktionismin ja representaatioteorian ajatuksiin. Teoreettisena viitekehyksenä on feministinen teoria sukupuolesta sosiaalisena konstruktiona. Teorian keskeinen ajatus on se, että sukupuoli ei ole pysyvä ja muuttumaton, vaan jatkuvasti sosiaalisessa vuorovaikutuksessa, erityisesti kielenkäytössä rakentuva ja muuttuva. Media on yksi keskeinen yhteiskunnallinen instituutio, jossa sukupuolen määrittelykamppailua käydään. Analyysimetodina tutkimuksessa on diskurssianalyysiä lähellä oleva tekstianalyysi. Tutkimusaineiston analyysi osoittaa, että media käsittelee naispoliitikkojen kohdalla enemmän näiden yksityiselämään liittyviä kysymyksiä, erityisesti perheen ja poliittisen uran yhteensovittamista. Politiikan huippupaikoilla toimiessaankin naiset ovat ensisijaisesti naisia ja äitejä ja vasta toissijaisesti poliitikkoja. Yksityisen piiriin kuuluvien velvollisuuksien täyttäminen näyttäytyy analyysin perusteella edellytykseltä sille, että heidän osallistumisensa politiikkaan katsotaan sopivaksi. Työssä käytetyt keskeisimmät lähteet ovat Annabelle Srebernyn ja Liesbet van Zoonenin Gender, Politics and Communication, Karen Rossin ja Carolyn Byerlyn Women and Media, Liesbet van Zoonenin Feminist Media Studies, Anna Mäkelän, Iina Puustisen ja Iiris Ruohon Sukupuolishow, johdatus feministiseen mediatutkimukseen, Erkka Railon Henkilökohtainen on poliittista sekä Irma Kaarina Halosen Matka journalismin sukupuolittumisen strategisille alueille.

Matalan syntyvyyden syitä ja seurauksia julkisen eläkejärjestelmän ylläpidon ja uudistamisen näkökulmasta

Viime vuosikymmeninä teollistuneissa OECD-maissa yksi suurimmista väestöllisistä muutoksista on tapahtunut syntyvyydessä. Sotien jälkeen syntyneiden suurten ikäluokkien jälkeen useissa teollistuneissa maissa väestönkasvun trendi on ollut laskeva, mikä puolestaan on johtanut kasvavaan huoleen matalan syntyvyyden sosioekonomisista seurauksista. Matala syntyvyyden taso on monissa kehittyneissä maissa luonut varjon valtion ylläpitämän sosiaaliturvajärjestelmän ylle ja sen rahoituspohjan heikentyminen on kasvattanut huolta järjestelmän tulevaisuudesta. Myös muun muassa viime vuosikymmenten taloudelliset taantuma-ajat, väestön ikärakenteessa ja työmarkkinoilla tapahtuneet muutokset, sekä väestön ikääntyminen ja veronmaksajien väheneminen ovat luoneet uudenlaiset paineet julkisen sosiaaliturva- ja eläkejärjestelmän ylläpidolle ja rahoittamiselle. Mietittäessä puolestaan syitä syntyvyyden madaltumiseen viime vuosikymmeninä, ovat tutkimukset osoittaneet, etteivät talous- ja sosiaalijärjestelmien rakenne sekä niissä tapahtuneet muutokset ole olleet tässä muutoksessa merkityksettömiä. Verotuksella ja valtion myöntämillä sosiaalituilla on osoitettu olevan vaikutus yksilön lapsenhankinta- ja myös perheenmuodostamispäätökseen. Tässä tutkielmassa tutkimuksen kohteena ovat matala syntyvyys, sekä sen syyt ja seuraukset taloustieteellisestä näkökulmasta. Tutkielman tarkoituksena on selvittää matalan syntyvyyden ja perheen perustamisen sekä jakojärjestelmäisen eläkejärjestelmän välistä yhteyttä, ja löytää todisteita siitä, millaisia kannustimia julkisella eläkejärjestelmällä syntyvyyden suhteen on. Li-säksi tutkielmassa perehdytään julkisen eläkejärjestelmän tulevaisuuteen väestöllisten haastei-den edessä, ja tarkastellaan järjestelmän uudistamismahdollisuuksia. Matalaa syntyvyyttä tarkastellaan muun muassa väestöllisen transition teorian avulla. Matalan syntyvyyden ja jakojärjestelmäisen eläkejärjestelmän suhdetta tutkitaan Zhangin ja Zhangin (2007) matemaattisella mallinnuksella, jonka avulla saadaan selville, että julkisen eläkejärjes-telmän käyttö sosiaalisen hyvinvoinnin optimoinnissa on pääomainvestointien ulkoisvaikutusten myötä oikeutettua, ja että järjestelmällä ja sitä rahoittavalla tuloverolla on negatiivinen vaikutus syntyvyyteen, mikäli vanhemmat preferoivat lastensa laadullisia, hyvinvointiin liittyviä ominai-suuksia niiden lukumäärään. Perheen perustamisen ja eläkejärjestelmän suhdetta puolestaan tarkastellaan Ehrlichin ja Kimin (2007) tutkimuksen pohjalta. Ehrlichin ja Kimin tutkimuksen tulos on, että julkista eläkejärjestel-mää rahoittavan tuloveron ja sen korottamisen vaikutus syntyvyyteen ja perheen perustamiseen on negatiivinen. Julkisen eläkejärjestelmän viittä eri uudistamisvaihtoehtoa ja niiden hyvinvointi-vaikutuksia käsitellään tutkielmassa pääosin Attanasion, Kitaon ja Violanten (2007) mallin avul-la. Jokaisella reformilla on Attanasion, Kitaon ja Violanten mukaan erilaisia makrotaloudellisia vaikutuksia, joita tarkastellaan tutkielmassa pääosin sanallisesti ja graafisesti, sekä eri tutkimus-ten tuloksia vertailemalla. Tutkielmassa käsite syntyvyys rinnastetaan taloustieteellisessä mielessä lasten kysynnäksi, ja sitä tutkitaan pääosin makrotaloudellisesta näkökulmasta. Kaikki tutkielmassa käytettävät matemaattiset mallit ovat limittäisten sukupolvien malleja ja julkisella eläkejärjestelmällä viitataan jakojärjestelmäiseen, pay-as-you-go -eläkejärjestelmään.

Kvadraattisten käyttäytymisfunktioiden eksakti aggregaatio analyysi- ja synteesioperaattorien avulla

Eksakti aggregaatio tarkoittaa makrotaloudellisten suureiden välisiä riippuvuussuhteita kuvaavan makroyhtälön johtamista mikrotaloudellisten toimijoiden (agenttien) toimintaa kuvaavista käyttäytymisfunktioista siten, että johdettu makroyhtälö antaa selitettävälle makromuuttujalle määritelmällisesti saman arvon kuin käyttäytymisfunktioiden makroaggregaatti (keskiarvo tai totaali) laskettuna koko mikrotason informaatiosta. Tässä tutkielmassa käsitellään eksaktia aggregaatiota erityisesti affiinien ja kvadraattisten käyttäytymisfunktioiden tapauksessa, mutta esitellään myös menetelmät, ja käsitteet, joilla aggregaatin-ongelmaa voidaan hallita käyttäytymisfunktioiden muodosta riippumatta. Affiinien ja kvadraattisten käyttäytymisfunktioiden eksakti aggregaatio tulkitaan yleisten analyysi- ja synteesioperaattorien avulla. Tarkastellun eksaktin aggregointitavan tuottaman makroyhtälön pääkomponentti on termi, joka ilmoittaa agenttien keskimääräisen vasteen keskimääräiseen syötteeseen. Tämän termin lisäksi käyttäytymisfunktioiden epälineaarisuus voi tuottaa epälineaarisuusefektin ja parametrien vaihtelu agenttien välillä voi tuottaa heterogeenisuusefektin. Kaksi jälkimmäistä komponenttia erottavat tämän aggregointimenetelmän selkeästi edustavan agentin menetelmästä, joka on yksi tyypillisimmistä tavoista lähestyä aggregointiongelmaa. Eksakti aggregaatio osoittaa, että tiettyjä poikkeuksia lukuun ottamatta mikroriippuvuuksista johdettuja makroriippuvuuksia ei ole mahdollista esittää pelkästään selittävien muuttujien keskiarvojen tai totaalien funktioina. Selittävinä makromuuttujina voivat esiintyä mm. selittävien mikromuuttujien varianssit tai mikromuuttujien ja -parametrien kovarianssit. Tällaisia muuttujia sisältävät termit syntyvät eksaktissa aggregaatiossa epälineaarisuus- ja heterogeenisuusefekteistä. Makromallit voivat antaa approksimatiivisesti oikeansuuntaisia tuloksia, vaikka niissä ei esiintyisi kaikkia eksaktin aggregaation epälineaarisuus- ja heterogeenisuusefektien tuottamissa termeissä esiintyviä selittäviä muuttujia. Tätä makromallien approksimatiivista toimivuutta on selitetty konjektuurilla, joiden mukaan normaaleissa olosuhteissa pienet muutokset selittävissä muuttujissa eivät vaikuta olennaisesti efektien kokoon. Tutkielmassa konjekt uuria havainnollistetaan GNU Ortave -kielellä ohjelmoiduin tietokonesimulaatioin. Konjektuurin toteutumisen syitä arvioidaan myös epälineaarisuus- ja heterogeenisuusefektien funktiomuodon perusteella. Lopuksi pohditaan, miten esitelty eksaktin aggregaation menetelmä sijoittuu yleiseen aggregaatiokeskusteluun.

Sähköinen hallinto muutosjohtamisen haasteena : valtion IT-organisaation vaikutus julkisen hallinnon sähköisen muutoksen johtamiseen

Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan mitkä tekijät ovat sähköisen hallinnon kehittämisen ongelmakohtia muutosjohtamisen teorian valossa ja miten julkisen hallinnon konstruktiot vaikuttavat muutosjohtamiseen liittyviin valintoihin sähköisen hallinnon kehittämisessä. Tutkimuksen kohteena on julkisen hallinnon IT-organisaation rakenne ja sähköisen muutoksen johtaminen julkisessa hallinnossa. Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan muutosjohtamista rakennenäkökulmasta. Gareth Morganin esittämien organisaatiometaforien kautta selvitetään julkisen hallinnon konstruktioiden ja toimintatapojen vaikutusta hallita muutosta, sekä sitä millaisia vaateita sähköinen muutos luo muutosjohtamiselle julkisessa hallinnossa. Tutkimuksessa pyritään vastaamaan kysymykseen: Miten julkisen hallinnon organisaatiorakenne vaikuttaa julkisen hallinnon sähköisen muutoksen johtamiseen? Tutkimus rakentuu kahden pääteeman ympärille, jotka ovat sähköinen hallinto ja muutosjohtaminen. Sähköisen hallinnon pääteema on jaettu kahteen alateemaan sähköiseen demokratiaan sekä sähköiseen identiteettiin, nämä ovat kansalaisille näkyviä sähköisen hallinnon osa-alueita. Sähköisen hallinnon kannalta oleelliset hallinnon sisäiset prosessit, tietojärjestelmät ja julkisyhteisöjen väliset tiedonsiirrot ovat perusta koko sähköisen hallinnon kehittämiselle, ja siksi tutkimuksessa esitellään myös tätä osa-aluetta sähköisestä hallinnosta. Tutkimuksen tieteenfilosofisena lähtökohtana toimii Peter L. Bergerin ja Thomas Luckmannin sosiaalinen konstruktivismi, jonka mukaan todellisuutemme on sosiaalisesti rakentunut. Teoreettisena viitekehyksenä toimii Gareth Morganin organisaatiometaforateoria, joista analyysin tueksi on nostettu konemetafora, poliittinen systeemi -metafora, organismimetafora ja epävakaisuus ja muuttuminen -metafora sekä Cameronin ja Greenin esittelemät muutosjohtamisen mallit, joista analyysin apuna toimii Lewinin kolmen askeleen mallin, Bridgesin johdetun siirtymisen mallin ja Carnallin muutoksen hallintamallin. Tutkimuksen lähestymistapana ja metodina toimii tapaustutkimus, jonka avulla luodaan tutkimuksen kohteesta mahdollisimman selkeä käsitys, ottaen huomioon tutkimuskohteen yhteiskunnallinen ympäristö. Tutkimuksen perusteella voidaan sanoa, että julkisen hallinnon organisaatio rakenteen konemetaforamaiset piirteet vaikuttavat edelleen sähköisen muutoksen johtamiseen julkisessa hallinnossa, ja sähköisen muutoksen johtaminen julkisessa hallinnossa perustuu vahvaan ylhäältä alas kulkevaan konserniohjaukseen. Sähköisen demokratian sekä sähköisen identiteetin ja sähköisten palveluiden kehittäminen vaatii julkiselta hallinnolta vahvaa keskitettyäkin ohjaamista, jotta palveluista voitaisiin kehittää yhdenmukaisia ja helposti käytettäviä. Toisaalta julkisen hallinnon tulee kuitenkin laajentaa näkökulmaansa, jotta sähköisestä hallinnosta saataisiin siihen liittyvä potentiaali kokonaisuudessaan käyttöön. Julkisen hallinnon toimintakentän dynamiikan lisääntyminen voidaan huomioida muutosjohtamisen osalta, ottamalla käyttöön sellaisia muutosjohtamisen malleja ja käytäntöjä, jotka soveltuvat paremmin sähköisen muutoksen johtamisen haasteisiin. Tällaisia ovat ne mallit, jotka ottavat huomioon julkisen hallinnon poliittisen systeemin dynamiikan nopeutumisen, sähköisen hallinnon kehittämisen vaativan kokonaisvaltaisen muutoksen julkisessa organisaatiossa sekä julkisen organisaation rajojen hämärtymisen sähköistä hallintoa kehitettäessä.

Työntekijän näkökulmat ja oppiminen ulkoistusprojektissa : "Aluks pelkää muutosta ja sit pelkää, ettei mikään muutukaan."

The aim of this master s thesis was to clarify employees views on outsourcing. The main questions of the study were 1) How the employees dealt with the change created by outsourcing and what things they felt important when implementing the change? 2) What kind of organizational questions the employees paid attention to when moving from one organization to another? 3) What kind of management issues the employees brought up in the outsourcing process? and 4) How the employees reflected change while experienced outsourcing? The theoretical foundations of the study were Jack Mezirow s theory of transformational learning and Yrjö Engeström s theory of expansive learning. The management of outsourcing was viewed by John P. Kotter s change management model. Research casted light on transformation and learning on four levels of analysis: on individual, organizational and management levels and on the level of reflection. The target of the study were the outsourced employees, who were moved from a Finnish public corporation to a private ITC organization along with the services they produce. The study material was eleven interviews from the outsourced employees. The study was implemented by fenomenographical theme analysis. The analysis revealed results in all four levels. On the individual level the main results were the importance of systematic and open information, meaning of social and technical integration and the feeling of employee s own control. On the organizational level the move from the public sector to private and all the changes in organizational culture and in fringe benefitswere fundamental. Organizational learning was analyzed with expansive learning theory. Expanding was perceived in four dimensions: temporal dimension, spatial dimension, responsibility-moral dimension and developmental dimension. On the management level the actions of one s closest manager was vital, as was the upper management s clear engagement and a shared view of the necessity of a change. In the data was found employees reflective talking, which was indicating the meaning of the change and which was interpreted from the learning point of view. According to this study, it is possible to identify and analyze reflective talk and that way have information about employees learning in an organizational change. It was prominent to notice how reflection in the process of outsourcing is extremely versatile and extensive.

The non-literary Latin letters. A study of their syntax and pragmatics

This dissertation studies the language of Latin letters that were written in Egypt and Vindolanda (in northern Britain) during the period 1st century BC 3rd century AD on papyri, ostraca, and wooden tablets. The majority of the texts is, in one way or another, connected with the Roman army. The focus of the study is on syntax and pragmatics. Besides traditional philological methods, modern syntactic theory is used as well, especially in the pragmatic analysis. The study begins with a critical survey of certain concepts that are current in the research on the Latin language, most importantly the concept of vulgar Latin , which, it is argued, seems to be used as an abstract noun for variation and change in Latin . Further, it is necessary to treat even the non-literary material primarily as written texts and not as straightforward reflections of spoken language. An examination of letter phraseology shows that there is considerable variation between the two major geographical areas of provenance. Latin letter writing in Egypt was influenced by Greek. The study highlights the importance of seeing the letters as a text type, with recurring phraseological elements appearing in the body text as well. It is argued that recognising these elements is essential for the correct analysis of the syntax. Three areas of syntax are discussed in detail: sentence connection (mainly parataxis), syntactically incoherent structures and word order (the order of the object and the verb). For certain types of sentence connection we may plausibly posit an origin in spoken Latin, but for many other linguistic phenomena attested in this material the issue of spoken Latin is anything but simple. Concerning the study of historical syntax, the letters offer information about the changing status of the accusative case. Incoherent structures may reflect contaminations in spoken language but usually the reason for them is the inability of the writer to put his thoughts into writing, especially when there is something more complicated to be expressed. Many incoherent expressions reflect the need to start the predication with a thematic constituent. Latin word order is seen as resulting from an interaction of syntactic and pragmatic factors. The preference for an order where the topic is placed sentence-initially can be seen in word order more generally as well. Furthermore, there appears a difference between Egypt and Vindolanda. The letters from Vindolanda show the order O(bject) V(erb) clearly more often than the letters from Egypt. Interestingly, this difference correlates with another, namely the use of the anaphoric pronoun is. This is an interesting observation in view of the fact that both of these are traditional Latin features, as opposed to those that foreshadow the Romance development (VO order and use of the anaphoric ille). However, it is difficult to say whether this is an indication of social or regional variation.

Ufologia ja ufokokemukset uskonnollisina ilmiönä : Teoreettinen tutkimus

The main question of my doctoral thesis is whether ufology and UFO experiences are or can be explained as religious phenomena. My research is theoretical in the sense that I combine and systematise cultural scientific knowledge concerning the religiosity of ufology and UFO experiences and complete this theoretical effort with empirical subject matter. The research material for my study consists of theoretical literature and empirical texts written by ufologists and those who have had UFO experiences. I defined the material in a way that it became full and extensive with regard to ufology, stories about UFO experiences and the cultural scientific literature concerning them. In addition, I present a source criticism for the literature because it is in part informal. The method is analysing and synthesising the material in the context of spiral of hermeneutic inferential process. Definitions of religion, ufology and UFO experience, developed by myself, serve as guide lines for the process. The conclusions of my research are as follows. For the most part, ufology and UFO experiences belong to the category of religion and only a fraction of these instances can be explained as something else, for example psychiatric phenomena. From the religious viewpoint I explain ufology and UFO experiences on four different but interlinked levels: historical, comparative, sociological and psychological. Historically ufology and UFO experiences include esoteristic, Christian and folk religious elements. In addition UFO experiences have significant similarities with folk religious stories and shamanistic experiences. From the perspective of the sociology, of religion ufology and UFO experiences can be analysed as products of our scientific and technological Western culture. Social crisis and social psychological group mechanisms affect the appearance of ufological ideas and UFO experiences. Psychologically, in the background of religious UFO experiences there can be found several factors, such as wishful thinking. Concerning UFO sightings these are misinterpretations of certain ordinary and some rare or exotic natural and technical phenomena. Intense UFO experiences, such as UFO abductions, are stimulated for the most part by hallucinations, sleep paralysis disorders, lively fantasies (in case of fantasy prone personalities) and false memories. In group cases social pressure, small group delusion and the guilt of exposing the true nature of a story come into play. A UFO experience can be traumatising because of certain inferential mechanisms and cognitive dissonance involved in the process of conversion as a UFO experiencer. UFO religiosity is a cross cultural, widespread and a significant field of phenomena, which can offer insight about religious developments in the future. However, UFO religiosity has not been studied extensively. This research is one effort to address this lack of documentation. The motivation behind my thesis was to make ufology and UFO experiences more understandable.

The Homeless Etiquette : Social Interaction and Behavior Among the Homeless in Taito Ward, Tokyo

The thesis focuses on the social interaction and behavior of the homeless living in Tokyo's Taito Ward. The study is based on the author's own ethnographic field research carried out in the autumn 2003. The chosen methodologies were based on the methodology called "participant observation", and they were used depending on the context. The ethnographic field research was carried out from the mid-August to the beginning of the October in 2003. The most important targets of the research were three separate loosely knit groups placed in certain parts of Taito Ward. One of these groups was based in proximity to the Ueno train station, one group gathered every morning around a homeless support organization called San'yûkai, and one was based in Tamahime Park located in the old San'ya area of Tokyo. The analysis is based on the aspects of Takie Sugiyama Lebra's theory of "social relativism". Lebra's theory consists of the following, arguably universal aspects: belongingness, empathy, dependence, place in the society, and reciprocity. In addition, all the interaction and behavior is tied to the context and the situation. According to Lebra, ritual and intimate situations produce similar action, which is socially relative. Of these, the norms of the ritual behavior are more regulated, while the intimate bahavior is less spontaneous. On the contrary, an anomic situation produces anomic behavior, which is not socially relative. Lebra's theory is critically reviewed by the author of the thesis, and the author has attempted to modify the theory to make it more adaptable to the present-day society and to the analysis. Erving Goffman's views of the social interaction and Anthony Giddens' theories about the social structures have been used as complementary thoretical basis. The aim of the thesis is to clarify, how and why the interaction and the behavior of some homeless individuals in some situations follow the aspects of Lebra's "social relativism", and on the other hand, why in some situations they do not. In the latter cases the answers can be sought from regional and individual differences, or from the inaptness of the theory to analyze the presented situation. Here, a significant factor is the major finding of the field study: the so called "homeless etiquette", which is an abstract set of norms and values that influences the social interaction and behavior of the homeless, and with which many homeless individuals presented in the study complied. The fundamental goal of the thesis is to reach profound understanding about the daily life of the homeless, whose lives were studied. The author argues that this kind of profound understanding is necessary in looking for sustainable solutions in the areas of social and housing policy to improve the position of the homeless and the qualitative functioning of the society.

Confucian education and enlightenment for the masses in the manner of Guwen guanzhi

The topic of this study is the most renowned anthology of essays written in Literary Chinese, Guwen guanzhi, compiled and edited by Wu Chengquan (Chucai) and Wu Dazhi (Diaohou), and first published during the Qing dynasty, in 1695. Because of the low social standing of the compilers, their anthology remained outside the recommended study materials produced by members of the established literati and used for preparing students in the imperial civil-service examinations. However, since the end of the imperial era, Guwen guanzhi has risen to a position as the classical anthology par excellence. Today it is widely used as required or supplementary reading material of Literary Chinese in middle-schools both in Mainland China and on Taiwan. The goal of this study is to explain the persistent longevity of the anthology. So far, Guwen guanzhi has not been a topic of any published academic study, and the opinions expressed on it in various sources are widely discrepant. Through a comparative study with a dozen classical Chinese anthologies in use during the early Qing dynasty, this study reveals the extent to which the compilers of Guwen guanzhi modelled their work after other selections. Altogether 86 % of the texts in Guwen guanzhi originate from another Qing era anthology, Guwen xiyi, often copied character by character. However, the notes and commentaries are all different. Concentrating on the special characteristics unique to Guwen guanzhi—the commentaries and certain peculiarities in the selection of texts—this study then discusses the possible reasons for the popularity of Guwen guanzhi over the competing readers during the Qing era. Most remarkably, Guwen guanzhi put in practise the equalitarian, educational ideals of the Ming philosopher Wang Shouren (Yangming). Thus Guwen guanzhi suited the self-enlightenment needs of the ”subordinate classes”, in particular the rising middle-class comprised mainly of merchants. The lack of moral teleology, together with the compact size, relative comprehensiveness of the selection and good notes and comments, have made Guwen guanzhi well suited for the new society since the abolition of the imperial examination system. Through a content analysis, based on a sample of the texts, this study measures the relative emphasis on centralism and localism (both in concrete and spiritual terms) expressed in the texts of Guwen guanzhi. The analysis shows that the texts manifest some bias towards emphasising innate virtue on the expense of state-defined moral. This may reflect hidden critique towards intellectual oppression by the centralised imperial rule. During the early decades of the Qing era, such critique was often linked to Ming-loyalism. Finally, this study concludes that the kind of ”spiritual localism” that Guwen guanzhi manifests gives it the potential to undermine monolithic orthodoxy even in today’s Chinese societies. This study has progressed hand in hand with the translation of a selection of texts from Guwen guanzhi into Finnish, published by Gaudeamus Helsinki University Press: Jadekasvot – Valittuja tarinoita Kiinan muinaisajoilta (2005), Jadelähde – Valittuja kirjoituksia Kiinan keskiajalta (2007) and Jadepeili – Valittuja kirjoituksia keisarillisen Kiinan kulta-ajoilta (2008). All translations are critical editions, complete with extensive notation. The trilogy is the first comprehensive translation based on Guwen guanzhi in a European language.

Zur Sättigung der Valenz in den Kleinen Meldungen des Typus Notiz : Eine pragmatisch fundierte Analyse

Valency Realization in Short Excerpts of News Text. A Pragmatics-funded analysis This dissertation is a study of the so-called pragmatic valency. The aim of the study is to examine the phenomenon both theoretically by discussing the research literature and empirically based on evidence from a text corpus consisting of 218 short excerpts of news text from the German newspaper Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. In the theoretical part of the study, the central concepts of the valency and the pragmatic valency are discussed. In the research literature, the valency denotes the relation among the verb and its obligatory and optional complements. The pragmatic valency can be defined as modification of the so-called system valency in the parole, including non-realization of an obligatory complement, non- realization of an optional complement and realization of an optional complement. Furthermore, the investigation of the pragmatic valency includes the role of the adjuncts, elements that are not defined by the valency, in the concrete valency realization. The corpus study investigates the valency behaviour of German verbs in a corpus of about 1500 sentences combining the methodology and concepts of valency theory, semantics and text linguistics. The analysis is focused on the about 600 sentences which show deviations from the system valency, providing over 800 examples for the modification of the system valency as codified in the (valency) dictionaries. The study attempts to answer the following primary question: Why is the system valency modified in the parole? To answer the question, the concept of modification types is entered. The modification types are recognized using distinctive feature bundles in which each feature with a negative or a positive value refers to one reason for the modification treated in the research literature. For example, the features of irrelevance and relevance, focus, world and text type knowledge, text theme, theme-rheme structure and cohesive chains are applied. The valency approach appears in a new light when explored through corpus-based investigation; both the optionality of complements and the distinction between complements and adjuncts as defined in the present valency approach seem in some respects defective. Furthermore, the analysis indicates that the adjuncts outside the valency domain play a central role in the concrete realization of the valency. Finally, the study suggests a definition of pragmatic valency, based on the modification types introduced in the study and tested in the corpus analysis.

The Duet between the Author and the Translator: An Analysis of Style through Shifts in Literary Translation

The study proposes a method for identifying the personal imprint of literary translators in translated works of fiction. The initial assumption was that the style of a target text is not determined solely by the literary style of the author but also by features of its translator s idiolect. A method was developed for identifying the idiolectal features of individual translators, which were then used to describe personal translation styles. The method is not restricted to a particular language pair. To test the method and to establish the nature of the proposed personal imprint empirically, extracts from four English-language literary source texts (two novels by James Joyce and two by Ernest Hemingway) were first compared with their translations into Finnish (by four different translators) in order to identify changes, or shifts, that had taken place at the formal linguistic level in the translation process. To allow individual propensities to manifest themselves, only optional shifts in which the translators had a range of choices available to them were included in the study. In the second phase, extracts by different authors rendered into Finnish by the same translator were compared in order to gauge the extent of the potential impact of the author's style on the translator's work. In-depth analysis of the types of shifts made most frequently by the individual translators revealed further intersubjective differences, and the shifts were used to construct translation profiles for each of the translators. In order to determine the potential effects of frequently occurring shifts on the target text, some central concepts of narratology were adapted and used to establish an intermediate link between microlevel choices and macrolevel effects. In this way the propensity of an individual translator to opt for certain types of shift could be linked with the overall artistic effect of the target text.

Univariate, bivariate, and multivariate methods in corpus-based lexicography : A study of synonymy

In this dissertation, I present an overall methodological framework for studying linguistic alternations, focusing specifically on lexical variation in denoting a single meaning, that is, synonymy. As the practical example, I employ the synonymous set of the four most common Finnish verbs denoting THINK, namely ajatella, miettiä, pohtia and harkita ‘think, reflect, ponder, consider’. As a continuation to previous work, I describe in considerable detail the extension of statistical methods from dichotomous linguistic settings (e.g., Gries 2003; Bresnan et al. 2007) to polytomous ones, that is, concerning more than two possible alternative outcomes. The applied statistical methods are arranged into a succession of stages with increasing complexity, proceeding from univariate via bivariate to multivariate techniques in the end. As the central multivariate method, I argue for the use of polytomous logistic regression and demonstrate its practical implementation to the studied phenomenon, thus extending the work by Bresnan et al. (2007), who applied simple (binary) logistic regression to a dichotomous structural alternation in English. The results of the various statistical analyses confirm that a wide range of contextual features across different categories are indeed associated with the use and selection of the selected think lexemes; however, a substantial part of these features are not exemplified in current Finnish lexicographical descriptions. The multivariate analysis results indicate that the semantic classifications of syntactic argument types are on the average the most distinctive feature category, followed by overall semantic characterizations of the verb chains, and then syntactic argument types alone, with morphological features pertaining to the verb chain and extra-linguistic features relegated to the last position. In terms of overall performance of the multivariate analysis and modeling, the prediction accuracy seems to reach a ceiling at a Recall rate of roughly two-thirds of the sentences in the research corpus. The analysis of these results suggests a limit to what can be explained and determined within the immediate sentential context and applying the conventional descriptive and analytical apparatus based on currently available linguistic theories and models. The results also support Bresnan’s (2007) and others’ (e.g., Bod et al. 2003) probabilistic view of the relationship between linguistic usage and the underlying linguistic system, in which only a minority of linguistic choices are categorical, given the known context – represented as a feature cluster – that can be analytically grasped and identified. Instead, most contexts exhibit degrees of variation as to their outcomes, resulting in proportionate choices over longer stretches of usage in texts or speech.

Merenkulun turvallisuuden koetinkiviä : Terminologisen tiedon poiminta teksteistä

The methodology of extracting information from texts has widely been described in the current literature. However, the methodology has been developed mainly for the purposes of other fields than terminology science. In addition, the research has been English language oriented. Therefore, there are no satisfactory language-independent methods for extracting terminological information from texts. The aim of the present study is to form the basis for a further improvement of methods for extraction of terminological information. A further aim is to determine differences in term extraction between subject groups with or without knowledge of the special field in question. The study is based on the theory of terminology, and has mainly a qualitative approach. The research material consists of electronically readable specialized texts in the subject domain of maritime safety. Textbooks, conference papers, research reports and articles from professional journals in Finnish and in Russian are included. The thesis first deals with certain term extraction methods. These are manual term identification and semi-automatic term extraction, the latter of which was carried out by using three commercial computer programs. The results of term extraction were compared and the recall and precision of the methods were evaluated. The latter part of the study is dedicated to the identification of concept relations. Certain linguistic expressions, which some researchers call knowledge probes, were applied to identify concept relations. The results of the present thesis suggest that special field knowledge is an advantage in manual term identification. However, in the candidate term lists the variation between subject groups was not as remarkable as it was between individual subjects. The term extraction software tested here produces candidate term lists which can be useful, but only after some manual work. Therefore, the work emphasizes the need to further develop term extraction software. Furthermore, the analyses indicate that there are a certain number of terms which were extracted by all the subjects and the software. These terms we call core terms. As the result of the experiment on linguistic expressions which signal concept relations, a proposal of Finnish and Russian knowledge probes in the field of maritime safety was made. The main finding was that it would be useful to combine the use of knowledge probes with semi-automatic term extraction since knowledge probes usually occur in the vicinity of terms.

The North in the Old English Orosius : A Geographical Narrative in Context

This doctoral dissertation examines the description of the North as it appears in the Old English Orosius (OE Or.) in the form of the travel accounts by Ohthere and Wulfstan and a catalogue of peoples of Germania. The description is discussed in the context of ancient and early medieval textual and cartographic descriptions of the North, with a special emphasis on Anglo-Saxon sources and the intellectual context of the reign of King Alfred (871-899). This is the first time that these sources, a multidisciplinary approach and secondary literature, also from Scandinavia and Finland, have been brought together. The discussion is source-based, and archaeological theories and geographical ideas are used to support the primary evidence. This study belongs to the disciplines of early medieval literature and (cultural) history, Anglo-Saxon studies, English philology, and historical geography. The OE Or. was probably part of Alfred s educational campaign, which conveyed royal ideology to the contemporary elite. The accounts and catalogue are original interpolations which represent a unique historical source for the Viking Age. They contain unparalleled information about peoples and places in Fennoscandia and the southern Baltic and sailing voyages to the White Sea, the Danish lands, and the Lower Vistula. The historical-philological analysis reveals an emphasis on wealth and property, rank, luxury goods, settlement patterns, and territorial divisions. Trade is strongly implied by the mentions of central places and northern products, such as walrus ivory. The references to such peoples as the Finnas, the Cwenas, and the Beormas appear in connection with information about geography and subsistence in the far North. Many of the topics in the accounts relate to Anglo-Saxon aristocratic culture and interests. The accounts focus on the areas associated with the Northmen, the Danes and the Este. These areas resonated in the Anglo-Saxon geographical imagination: they were curious about the northern margin of the world, their own continental ancestry and the geography of their homeland of Angeln, and they had an interest in the Goths and their connection with the southern Baltic in mythogeography. The non-judgemental representation of the North as generally peaceful and relatively normal place is related to Alfredian and Orosian ideas about the unity and spreading of Christendom, and to desires for unity among the Germani and for peace with the Vikings, who were settling in England. These intellectual contexts reflect the innovative and organizational forces of Alfred s reign. The description of the North in the OE Or. can be located in the context of the Anglo-Saxon worldview and geographical mindset. It mirrors the geographical curiosity expressed in other Anglo-Saxon sources, such as the poem Widsith and the Anglo-Saxon mappa mundi. The northern section of this early eleventh-century world map is analyzed in detail here for the first time. It is suggested that the section depicts the North Atlantic and the Scandinavian Peninsula. The survey of ancient and early medieval sources provides a comparative context for the OE Or. In this material, produced by such authors as Strabo, Pliny, Tacitus, Jordanes, and Rimbert, the significance of the North was related to the search for and definition of the northern edge of the world, universal accounts of the world, the northern homeland in the origin stories of the gentes, and Carolingian expansion and missionary activity. These frameworks were transmitted to Anglo-Saxon literary culture, where the North occurs in the context of the definition of Britain s place in the world.

A Sketch of the Phonology and Grammar of Rajbanshi

This dissertation is a synchronic description of the phonology and grammar of two dialects of the Rajbanshi language (Eastern Indo-Aryan) as spoken in Jhapa, Nepal. I have primarily confined the analysis to the oral expression, since the emerging literary form is still in its infancy. The grammatical analysis is therefore based, for the most part, on a corpus of oral narrative text which was recorded and transcribed from three informants from north-east Jhapa. An informant, speaking a dialect from south-west Jhapa cross checked this text corpus and provided additional elicited material. I have described the phonology, morphology and syntax of the language, and also one aspect of its discourse structure. For the most part the phonology follows the basic Indo-Aryan pattern. Derivational morphology, compounding, reduplication, echo formation and onomatopoeic constructions are considered, as well as number, noun classes (their assignment and grammatical function), pronouns, and case and postpositions. In verbal morphology I cover causative stems, the copula, primary and secondary agreement, tense, aspect, mood, auxiliary constructions and non-finite forms. The term secondary agreement here refers to genitive agreement, dative-subject agreement and patient (and sometimes patient-agent) agreement. The breaking of default agreement rules has a range of pragmatic inferences. I argue that a distinction, based on formal, semantic and statistical grounds, should be made between conjunct verbs, derivational compound verbs and quasi-aspectual compound verbs. Rajbanshi has an open set of adjectives, and it additionally makes use of a restricted set of nouns which can function as adjectives. Various particles, and the emphatic and conjunctive clitics are also considered. The syntactic structures studied include: non-declarative speech acts, phrase-internal and clause-internal constituent order, negation, subordination, coordination and valence adjustment. I explain how the future, present and past tenses in Rajbanshi oral narratives do not seem to maintain a time reference, but rather to indicate a distinction between background and foreground information. I call this tense neutralisation .