Perunan Y-viruksen testaaminen korkeassa happi-hiilidioksidipitoisuudessa idätetyistä perunoista

Perunalla (Solanum tuberosum L.) tällä hetkellä maailmanlaajuisesti eniten sato- ja laatutappioita aiheuttaa perunan Y-virus (PVY). Vaikka pelkän Y-viruksen aiheuttamaa satotappiota on vaikea mitata, on sen arvioitu olevan 20-80 %. Viruksen tärkein leviämistapa on viroottinen siemenperuna. Korkealaatuinen siemenperuna on edellytys ruoka-, ruokateollisuus- ja tärkkelysperunan tuotannolle. Kasvuston silmämääräinen tarkastelu aliarvioi yleensä Y-viruksen esiintyvyyttä. Laboratoriotestauksen avulla saadaan tarkempi tieto pellolta korjatun sadon saastunta-asteesta. Ongelmana Y-viruksen testaamisessa on, että sitä ei havaita dormanssissa olevista perunoista otetuista näytteistä yhtä luotettavasti kuin jo dormanssin ohittaneista perunoista testattaessa. Erilaisia menetelmiä kemikaaleista (Rindite, bromietaani) kasvihormoneihin (mm. gibberelliinihappo) ja varastointiolosuhteiden muutoksiin (kylmä- ja lämpökäsittely) on kokeiltu perunan dormanssin purkamiseen, mutta tulokset ovat olleet vaihtelevia. Tässä tutkielmassa perunan dormanssin purkamiseen käytettiin happi-hiilidioksidikäsittelyä (O2 40 % ja CO2 20 %) eripituisina käsittelyaikoina. Tarkoituksena oli selvittää, vaikuttaako käsittely perunan itämiseen ja dormanssin luontaista aikaisempaan purkautumiseen tai Y-viruksen havaitsemiseen. Lisäksi haluttiin selvittää, voiko Y-viruksen määrittämisen ELISA-testillä (Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay) tehdä yhtä luotettavasti myös muista kasvinosista (mukula, itu), kuin tällä hetkellä yleisesti käytetystä perunan lehdestä. Idätyskäsittelyn vaikutuksista dormanssin purkautumiseen saatiin vaihtelevia, eikä kovinkaan yleistettäviä tuloksia. Käsittelyn ei myöskään havaittu vaikuttavan PYY-viroottisuuden havaitsemiseen eri näytemateriaaleilla testattaessa. Kun eri kasvinosien toimivuutta testissä vertailtiin, mukulamateriaalin todettiin aliarvioivan PVY-viroottisuutta kaikissa kokeissa. Myös itumateriaali aliarvioi pääsääntöisesti PVY-viroottisuutta ELISA:lla tehdyissä määrityksissä. Luotettavin testimateriaali oli perunan lehti.

Production process of Scots pine.

The accompanying collective research report is the result of the research project in 1986­90 between The Finnish Academy and the former Soviet Academy of Sciences. The project was organized around common field work in Finland and in the former Soviet Union and theoretical analyses of tree growth determining processes. Based on theoretical analyses, dynamic stand growth models were made and their parameters were determined utilizing the field results. Annual cycle affects the tree growth. Our theoretical approach was based on adaptation to local climate conditions from Lapland to South Russia. The initiation of growth was described as a simple low and high temperature accumulation driven model. Linking the theoretical model with long term temperature data allowed us to analyze what type of temperature response produced favorable outcome in different climates. Initiation of growth consumes the carbohydrate reserves in plants. We measured the dynamics of insoluble and soluble sugars in the very northern and Karelian conditions. Clear cyclical pattern was observed but the differences between locations were surprisingly small. Analysis of field measurements of CO2 exchange showed that irradiance is the dominating factor causing variation in photosynthetic rate in natural conditions during summer. The effect of other factors is so small that they can be omitted without any considerable loss of accuracy. A special experiment carried out in Hyytiälä showed that the needle living space, defined as the ratio between the shoot cylindric volume and needle surface area, correlates with the shoot photosynthesis. The penetration of irradiance into Scots pine canopy is a complicated phenomenon because of the movement of the sun on the sky and the complicated structure of branches and needles. A moderately simple but balanced forest radiation regime submodel was constructed. It consists of the tree crown and forest structure, the gap probability calculation and the consideration of spatial and temporal variation of radiation inside the forest. The common field excursions in different geographical regions resulted in a lot of experimental data of regularities of woody structures. The water transport seems to be a good common factor to analyse these properties of tree structure. There are evident regressions between cross-sectional areas measured at different locations along the water pathway from fine roots to needles. The observed regressions have clear geographical trends. For example, the same cross-sectional area can support three times higher needle mass in South Russia than in Lapland. Geographical trends can also be seen in shoot and needle structure. Analysis of data published by several Russian authors show, that one ton of needles transpire 42 ton of water a year. This annual amount of transpiration seems to be independent of geographical location, year and site conditions. The produced theoretical and experimental material is utilised in the development of stand growth model that describes the growth and development of Scots pine stands in Finland and the former Soviet Union. The core of the model is carbon and nutrient balances. This means that carbon obtained in photosynthesis is consumed for growth and maintenance and nutrients are taken according to the metabolic needs. The annual photosynthetic production by trees in the stand is determined as a function of irradiance and shading during the active period. The utilisation of the annual photosynthetic production to the growth of different components of trees is based on structural regularities. Since the fundamental metabolic processes are the same in all locations the same growth model structure can be applied in the large range of Scots pine. The annual photosynthetic production and structural regularities determining the allocation of resources have geographical features. The common field measurements enable the application of the model to the analysis of growth and development of stands growing on the five locations of experiments. The model enables the analysis of geographical differences in the growth of Scots pine. For example, the annual photosynthetic production of a 100-year-old stand at Voronez is 3.5 times higher than in Lapland. The share consumed to needle growth (30 %) and to growth of branches (5 %) seems to be the same in all locations. In contrast, the share of fine roots is decreasing when moving from north to south. It is 20 % in Lapland, 15 % in Hyytiälä Central Finland and Kentjärvi Karelia and 15 % in Voronez South Russia. The stem masses (115­113 ton/ha) are rather similar in Hyytiälä, Kentjärvi and Voronez, but rather low (50 ton/ha) in Lapland. In Voronez the height of the trees reach 29 m being in Hyytiälä and Kentjärvi 22 m and in Lapland only 14 m. The present approach enables utilization of structural and functional knowledge, gained in places of intensive research, in the analysis of growth and development of any stand. This opens new possibilities for growth research and also for applications in forestry practice.

Sotalapsuus, äitiys ja isoäitiys : Kertomuksia sotalapsuuden varjossa

War children were sent away to shelter without their parents to other Nordic countries, mainly to Sweden. The phenomenon was remarkable. During the Second World War nearly 80,000 children were sent from their homes by trains or boats. These children travelled to foster homes where they were placed with new parents looking after them. After the conclusion of the peace, for some months or sometimes years later, orders were given to send the children back to their families in Finland. Returning back to Finland and to their biological parents and families was not always easy. Deep bonds between the children and their foster families were created and leaving caused grief to those small travellers once again. In some cases, distances were created in the relations between Mothers and their daughters. Many had forgotten their Finnish, and returning to school proved difficult. Some of the war children felt rootlessness, a result of being torn away from their family and culture. The aim of this study is to describe how former war children became mothers by themselves, and later on grandmothers. The study also explores how they describe the meaning of the war and their childhood in their own parenthood and what were their experiences of time in foster homes. Seven former war children and three daughters were interviewed for this study. Interviews were biographical. A narrative approach and thematic reading (by Riessman 2008) has guided the analysis of the texts. According to the results of this study, the importance of having your own home , family and security in childhood relationships is significant. Caring and having responsibility for disadvantaged others was important for former war children. What come from the detailed experiences of the 'war childhood' most of all were the difficulties they found on returning to Finland. Some of them had become very attached to their foster parents. There were varying degrees of language problems among the returnees. Some of the interviewees had completely forgotten their native language. Given that, starting the school at home was difficult. They also remembered continuous travelling.When asked on the outcome of their relationship with their biological mother, most interviewees were happy, with a few experiencing some distance in this relationship. Security and being available to protect their children were important in their own motherhood and grand motherhood. In difficult family situations like divorce, they wanted to give their time and support for helping with grandchildren. Another important aspect in family life is interaction between all its members. Talking things through in families and also in War Child Associations was highly valued. However, talking of war childhood had been silenced in some families. In conclusion, the experiences of former war children should take in consideration when difficult situations between parents and children or children s positions in war zones are resolved. War children also have a lot to give for further educational study.

Ekotuotteet kuluttajan arjessa – vastuullisuutta, puhtautta ja arjen luksusta

Tutkielmassa tarkastellaan kuluttajien näkemyksiä ekotuotteiden valintaan vaikuttavista tekijöistä. Analysoin ekotuotteiden hankintaa kolmen teeman kautta. Ne ovat vihreys ja vastuullisuus, puhtaus tuotevalinnoissa sekä niin sanottu arjen luksus. Tutkimukseni empiirinen osa koostuu 10 teemahaastattelusta. Tutkimuskohteena on ekokauppa Ruohonjuuressa ostoksiaan tekevät kuluttajat. Haastateltavia etsin ilmoituksella ekokauppa Ruohonjuuresta sekä kaupan Facebook-sivuilta. Lisäksi oma haastattelupäivä Ruohonjuuren myymälässä tuotti haastateltavia mukaan tutkimukseen. Kirjoitin haastatteluista yhteenvedon ja analysoin aineistoa teemoittelun avulla. Nykyiset ympäristöongelmat vaikuttavat siihen, millaisena koemme arjen tulevaisuudessa. Vihreä ja vastuulllinen kuluttaja ottaa huomioon kulutuspäätöksiensä vaikutukset ympäristöön. Vihreät kulutuspäätökset tarkoittavat kestäviä kulutustapoja kuten jätteiden lajittelua, kirpputorikierrättämistä ja ympäristöä säästävien ekotuotteiden valintaa. Aineiston perusteella voi todeta, että ekotuotteiden ympäristömyönteisyyteen liitetään läheisesti luomutuotanto ja luomutuotteet. Ekotuotteet nähdään myös eettisinä ja moraalisina valintoina, joiden avulla halutaan vaikuttaa myös muiden hyvinvointiin. Ekotuotteisiin kohdistuu siten monenlaisia odotuksia, mutta myös epäilyjä. Aineistoni perusteella tuotetta ei välttämättä koettu ekotuotteeksi, jos sen valmistamiseen on käytetty paljon resursseja. Kuluttajat ovat kiinnostuneita ruoan alkuperästä ja sen aitoudesta. Ekotuotteet koetaan muita tuotteita päinvastoin puhtaiksi vaihtoehdoiksi. Puhtaus ekotuotteissa mielletään laadultaan turvallisiksi ja terveellisiksi tuotteiksi, jotka maistuvat hyvältä. Haastatteluaineiston perusteella voi todeta, että ekotuotteet koettiin myös arjen ostosten erikoisuudeksi. Arjen luksus lisää käyttäjälleen mielihyvän elämyksiä. Ekotuotteita ostamalla rakennetaan myös omaa elämäntyyliä ja erottaudutaan muista. Aineiston perusteella ekokauppaan mennään kiertelemään, tekemään heräteostoksia ja etsimään uutuuksia. Shoppailu ekokaupassa voi olla nautinnollista ja miellyttävää toimintaa, vaikka ostamista vain harkitaan. Ekotuote lahjana kertoo lahjan antajasta ja tuo lahjan saajalle palan luksusta vaikkapa luomusuklaan muodossa.

Kymmenen teollisesti merkittävän puulajin kuoriuutteiden mahdollisuudet tuholaistorjunnassa

Metsäteollisuudesta kertyy vuosittain suuria määriä ylijäämämateriaalia, kuten puun kuorta ja oksia.Ylimääräinen aines käytetään pääasiassa energiantuotantoon, mutta uusia soveltamismahdollisuuksia kaivataan. Kuoren on havaittu olevan potentiaalinen lähde monille bioaktiivisille yhdisteille, joille olisi käyttöä esimerkiksi lääke- ja kemianteollisuudessa sekä maa-, metsä- ja puutarhatuotannon tuholaistorjunnassa. Tutkimus on osa Euroopan Unionin rahoittamaa ForestSpeCs-projektia, jonka tarkoituksena on selvittää metsäteollisuuden ylijäämämateriaalien vaihtoehtoisia käyttötapoja. Valittujen kymmenen teollisesti merkittävän pohjoisen puulajin (Abies nephrolepis, Betula pendula, Larix decidua, L. gmelinii, L. sibirica, Picea abies, P. ajanensis, P. pumila, Pinus sylvestris, Populus tremula) kuoresta uutettujen aineiden soveltuvuutta syönninestoaineeksi testattiin kaaliperhosen (Pieris brassicae L.) ja krysanteemiyökkösen (Spodoptera littoralis Boisduval) toukilla sekä osittain sinappikuoriaisella (Phaedon cochloreae Fabricius) ja idänlehtikuoriaisella (Agelastica alni L.). Uutteet valmistettiin yhteistyössä projektin ryhmien avulla tai itsenäisesti erilaisin menetelmin. Testaukset tehtiin laboratorio-oloissa käyttäen lehtikiekkojen valintabiotestiä sekä karkeilla uutteilla että niistä erotelluilla yksittäisillä yhdisteillä. Tehdyistä mittauksista laskettiin syönninestoindeksit (FDI). Tulosten perusteella lähes kaikki testatut uutteet vaikuttivat ainakin jossain määrin kohdehyönteisen syöntikäyttäytymiseen. Hieman yli puolet kaaliperhosella testatuista 46 uutteesta aiheuttivat yli 50 % syönnineston eli kaaliperhonen suosi kontrollilehtiä uutteella käsiteltyjä todennäköisemmin. Krysanteemiyökkösellä yli 50 %:n syönnineston aiheuttivat vain seitsemän testatuista 56 uutteesta. Lisäksi kolme uutetta lisäsi käsiteltyjen kiekkojen syöntiä merkittävästi. Idänlehtikuoriaistoukat ja -aikuiset karttoivat erityisesti abietiinihapolla käsiteltyjä lehtiä. Sinappikuoriaisella testatut uutteet toimivat myös lupaavasti. Testattujen puulajien kuoresta on mahdollista uuttaa biologisesti aktiivisia yhdisteitä, mutta tuholaistorjunnan kannalta oikeiden pitoisuuksien ja tehokkaiden uuttomenetelmien löytäminen vaatii jatkotutkimuksia. Kuoren sisältämien yhdisteiden laatu ja määrä vaihtelevat monien tekijöiden, kuten ympäristön ja genetiikan vaikutuksesta. Hyönteisten sietokyky vaihtelee myös paljon lajeittain ja yksilöidenkin välillä on eroja. Uutteista valmistettavia torjunta-aineita olisi kuitenkin mahdollista sisällyttää esimerkiksi integroituun torjuntaan muiden menetelmien rinnalle tulevaisuudessa.

Emerging bioenergy business at Finnish independent industrial sawmills

Finnish forest industry is in the middle of a radical change. Deepening recession and the falling demand of woodworking industry´s traditional products have forced also sawmilling industry to find new and more fertile solutions to improve their operational preconditions. In recent years, the role of bioenergy production has often been highlighted as a part of sawmills´ business repertoire. Sawmilling produces naturally a lot of by-products (e.g. bark, sawdust, chips) which could be exploited more effectively in energy production, and this would bring more incomes or maybe even create new business opportunities for sawmills. Production of bioenergy is also supported by government´s climate and energy policies favouring renewable energy sources, public financial subsidies, and soaring prices of fossil fuels. Also the decreasing production of domestic pulp and paper industry releases a fair amount of sawmills´ by-products for other uses. However, bioenergy production as a part of sawmills´ by-product utilization has been so far researched very little from a managerial point of view. The purpose of this study was to explore the relative significance of the main bioenergy-related processes, resources and factors at Finnish independent industrial sawmills including partnerships, cooperation, customers relationships and investments, and also the future perspectives of bioenergy business at these sawmills with the help of two resource-based approaches (resource-based view, natural-resource-based view). Data of the study comprised of secondary data (e.g. literature), and primary data which was attracted from interviews directed to sawmill managers (or equivalent persons in charge of decisions regarding bioenergy production at sawmill). While a literature review and the Delphi method with two questionnaires were utilized as the methods of the study. According to the results of the study, the most significant processes related to the value chain of bioenergy business are connected to raw material availability and procurement, and customer relationships management. In addition to raw material and services, the most significant resources included factory and machinery, personnel, collaboration, and geographic location. Long-term cooperation deals were clearly valued as the most significant form of collaboration, and especially in processes connected to raw material procurement. Study results also revealed that factors related to demand, subsidies and prices had highest importance in connection with sawmills´ future bioenergy business. However, majority of the respondents required that certain preconditions connected to the above-mentioned factors should be fulfilled before they will continue their bioenergy-related investments. Generally, the answers showed a wide divergence of opinions among the respondents which may refer to sawmills´ different emphases and expectations concerning bioenergy. In other words, bioenergy is still perceived as a quite novel and risky area of business at Finnish independent industrial sawmills. These results indicate that the massive expansion of bioenergy business at private sawmills in Finland is not a self-evident truth. The blocking barriers seem to be connected mainly to demand of bioenergy and money. Respondents´ answers disseminated a growing dissatisfaction towards the policies of authorities, which don´t treat equally sawmill-based bioenergy compared to other forms of bioenergy. This proposition was boiled down in a sawmill manager´s comment: “There is a lot of bioenergy available, if they just want to make use of it.” It seems that the positive effects of government´s policies favouring the renewables are not taking effect at private sawmills. However, as there anyway seems to be a lot of potential connected to emerging bioenergy business at Finnish independent industrial sawmills, there is also a clear need for more profound future studies over this topic.

The Commercial Structure of Pedestrian Streets and Shopping Districts - Three Cases from Finland

Kävelykadut ovat tunnustettu tapa elävöittää keskusta-alueiden kauppaa. Aluksi moni kauppias epäilee kävelykadun tuomia muutoksia, mutta kokemus osoittaa, että kävelykadut ovat olleet menestyksekkäitä ja nostavat siellä olevien yritysten myyntiä. Jotkut yritykset eivät kuitenkin hyödy kävelykaduista, kun taas toiset hyötyvät paljon kun katu muuttuu kävelykaduksi. Tämä pro gradu -tutkielma tutkii kävelykatujen kaupallista rakennetta, jotta saataisiin selville minkätyyppiset yritykset löytyvät kävelykadulta. Tuloksia verrataan sen kaupallisen keskusvyöhykkeen kaupalliseen rakenteeseen missä kävelykatu sijaitsee. Näin saadaan selville erot kaupallisessa rakenteessa. Pro gradu tutkii myös miten tavallisia ketjuyritykset ovat kävelykaduilla ja kaupallisissa keskusvyöhykkeissä. Tutkimusaineisto koottiin kaupallisen inventoinnin avulla, joka suoritettiin kolmessa suomalaisessa kaupungissa: Tammisaaressa, Keravalla ja Porissa. Saatu aineisto luokiteltiin ja tulokset piirrettiin kartalle. Perustilastollisia menetelmiä käytettiin tulosten analysoimisessa. Tulokset eriteltiin kävelykadun, kauppakeskusten ja muiden paikkojen osalta ja luokiteltiin yleisluokkiin vähittäiskauppa, ravintola ja muu palvelu. Tulokset näyttävät, että on olemassa selkeitä eroja kun vertaa kävelykatuja ja kaupallisia keskusvyöhykkeitä. Kävelykaduilla on paljon enemmän vähittäiskauppoja, etenkin muotikauppoja, kuin muilla kaduilla. Kauppakeskuksilla on samantapainen kaupallinen rakenne kuin kävelykaduilla kun taas muilla kaduilla esiintyy vähemmän vähittäiskauppoja ja enemmän palveluyrityksiä. Ravintolat ovat melkein yhtä tavallisia koko kaupallisessa keskusvyöhykkeessä. Ketjuyritysten osalta tulokset ovat epäselviä. On olemassa osviittaa siitä, että ne ovat tavallisempia kävelykaduilla, etenkin suurissa kaupungeissa. Saatua tulosta ei ole kuitenkin tarpeeksi, jotta varmaa tietoa olisi saatu. Viimeisten 10–15 vuoden ajan Suomen kävelykadut ovat muuttuneet enemmän ravintolavaltaisiksi muiden palveluiden kustannuksella. Vähittäiskauppojen määrä on pysynyt vakaana. Suomalaiset kävelykadut eroavat kaupalliselta rakenteeltaan pohjoismaisista kävelykaduista, joilla on enemmän vähittäiskauppoja ja vähemmän palveluyrityksiä. Tapauskohtaisissa tuloksissa esiintyy paljon eroavaisuuksia. Paikalliset tekijät ovat usein voimakkaampia kuin yleiset teoriat kauppojen sijainnista kävelykaduilla. Yleisesti ottaen tulokset tukevat teoreettista viitekehystä. Tulokset antavat tarkempaa tietoa kävelykatujen ja kaupallisten keskusvyöhykkeiden kaupallisesta rakenteesta ja siitä, mitkä tekijät tähän vaikuttaa.

Juoksuhaudoista yhteiskuntaan : Vuosien 1965-1975 sotilaallista maanpuolustusta ja puolustusvoimia koskevan joukkotiedotuksen diskursiivinen tarkastelu

The Finnish society developed rapidly in the 1960´s and 1970´s. This was result of international trends. Development of education, urbanization and wide organization of society increased discontent towards prevailing social structure and towards the power elite. Development of technology created possibility to present radical perspectives in mass media. This caused widely spread discussions dividing opinions. The purpose of this thesis was to complement research on national defence and the Finnish Defence Forces especially between years 1965 and 1975. The task of research was to clarify how changes in society and how the significance of this change was interpreted in public discussion about national defence and development of the Defence Forces. The most essential points for this thesis turned out to be discourses structured from public discussion. Main research material consisted of approximately 35000 news, editorials, articles and opinions presented in mass media supplemented by literature, committee reports and other archival sources. Frame of reference for this thesis is based on relativistic worldview. According to this, social reality is relative and there is no single truth. Environment has significant influence on the issue how knowledge and truth are formed. Data analysis was based on critical discourse. The key objective was to clarify the effects of broad changes in society using discursive methods. One essential goal was to form order of discourse using linguistic analysis and also connect discourses to wider sociocultural custom. On this thesis I came to the conclusion that on the review period there were five significant ensembles of discourse. They consisted of several discussions focused on different themes. The discourse of official security policy aimed to define national defence and the position of the Defence Forces as parts of foreign policy. Foreign policy is often perceived as the most significant part of security policy. Historical memory, geographical position of Finland and also the state contracts, changes in international warfare, tasks of the Defence Forces and increasing critic of national defence and the difference in thinking between generations formed the discourse of security policy. In the discourse of the liability to military service, the issue was about individual responsibility to society and national defence. Resisters and unarmed defence demands, encouraged by international examples were the themes. The discourse pointed out how mass media is used to influence and forced the Defence Forces to develop the practices in public information. The discourses of democracy and politics were closer to internal development of the Defence Forces to integrate more into society. The discourse of democracy focused in changing power relationships of the Defence Forces that were known as authoritarian. Issues like conscript and personnel union activity had lot of similarities to general social development. The discourse of politics presented how the Defence Forces were pushed towards parliamentary decision making. The personnel was granted the same rights as other population. Themes related to the discourse on the will to national defence were development of mental national defence, increasing education on national defence and creation of more open public information culture. According to discourses presented above I can state, that the position of the Defence Forces in society was changed between years 1965-1975. This change was advanced by the Defence Forces reformed attitude towards mass media and public information in general. Active participation in public information important became important instead of only answering topics. This positive development created an atmosphere, that was easier for the public to understand and create own pictures of the armed forces. Due to this, I can describe that the defenders and supporters of the armed forces were stuck in their trenches, until discussions presented in discourses and themes developed the Defence Forces to be better fitting part of society. Key words; society, national defence, Defence Forces, discourse, mass media, security policy, liability to military service, conscription, democracy

Trade Blocs and the Cold War : The CMEA and the EC challenge, 1969-1976

The coherence of the Soviet bloc was seriously tested at the turn of the 1970s, as the Soviet Union and its allies engaged in intensive negotiations over their relations with the European Communities (EC). In an effort to secure their own national economic interests many East European countries began independent manoeuvres against the wishes of their bloc leader. However, much of the intra-bloc controversy was kept out of the public eye, as the battle largely took place behind the scenes, within the organisation for economic cooperation, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA). The CMEA policy-making process vis-à-vis the EC is described in this study with reference to primary archival materials. This study investigates the negotiating positions and powers of the CMEA member states in their efforts to deal with the economic challenge created by the progress of the EC, as it advanced towards the customs union. This entails an analysis of the functioning principles and performance of the CMEA machinery. The study traces the CMEA negotiations that began in 1970 over its policy toward the EC. The policy was finally adopted in 1974, and was followed by the first official meeting between the two organisations in early 1975. The story ends in 1976, when the CMEA s efforts to enter into working relations with the EC were seemingly frustrated by the latter. The first major finding of the study is that, contrary to much of the prior research, the Soviet Union was not in a hegemonic position vis-à-vis its allies. It had to use a lot of its resources to tame the independent manoeuvring of its smaller allies. Thus, the USSR was not the kind of bloc leader that the totalitarian literature has described. Because the Soviet Union had to spend so much attention on its own bloc-politics, it was not able to concentrate on formulating a policy vis-à-vis the EC. Thus, the Soviet leadership was dependent on its allies in those instances when the socialist countries needed to act as a bloc. This consequently opened up the possibility for the USSR s allies to manoeuvre. This study also argues that when the CMEA did manage to find a united position, it was a force that the EC had to reckon with in its policy-making. This was particularly the case in the implementation of the EC Common Commercial Policy. The other main finding of the study is that, although it has been largely neglected in the previous literature on the history of West European integration, the CMEA did in fact have an effect on EC decision-making. This study shows how for political and ideological reasons the CMEA members did not acknowledge the EC s supranational authority. Therefore the EC had no choice but to refrain from implementing its Common Commercial Policy in full.

Löydöstä muinaispuvuksi : arkeologisten tekstiilien ennallistaminen

From a find to an ancient costume - reconstruction of archaeological textiles Costume tells who we are. It warms and protects us, but also tells about our identity: gender, age, family, social group, work, religion and ethnicity. Textile fabrication, use and trade have been an important part of human civilization for more than 10 000 years. There are plenty of archaeological textile findings, but they are small, fragmentary and their interpretation requires special skills. Finnish textile findings from the younger Iron Age have already been studied for more than hundred years. They have also been used as a base for several reconstructions called muinaispuku , ancient costume. Thesis surveys the ancient costume reconstruction done in Finland and discusses the objectives of the reconstruction projects. The earlier reconstruction projects are seen as a part of the national project of constructing a glorious past for Finnish nationality, and the part women took in this project. Many earlier reconstructions are designed to be festive costumes for wealthy ladies. In the 1980s and 1990s many new ancient costume reconstructions were made, differing from their predecessors at the pattern of the skirt. They were also done following the principles of making a scientific reconstruction more closely. At the same time historical re-enactment and living history as a hobby have raised in popularity, and the use of ancient costumes is widening from festive occasions to re-enactment purposes. A hypothesis of the textile craft methods used in younger Iron Age Finland is introduced. Archaeological findings from Finland and neighboring countries, ethnological knowledge of textile crafts and experimental archaeology have been used as a basis for this proposition. The yarn was spinned with a spindle, the fabrics woven on a warp-weighted loom and dyed with natural colors. Bronze spiral applications and complicated tablet-woven bands have possibly been done by specialist craftswomen or -men. The knowledge of the techniques and results of experimenting and experimental archaeology gives a possibility to review the success of existing ancient costume reconstructions as scientific reconstructions. Only one costume reconstruction project, the Kaarina costume fabricated in Kurala Kylämäki museum, has been done using as authentic methods as possible. The use of ancient craft methods is time-consuming and expensive. This fact can be seen as one research result itself for it demonstrates how valuable the ancient textiles have been also in their time of use. In the costume reconstruction work, the skill of a craftswoman and her knowledge of ancient working methods is strongly underlined. Textile research is seen as a process, where examination of original textiles and reconstruction experiments discuss with each other. Reconstruction projects can give a lot both to the research of Finnish younger Iron Age and the popularization of archaeological knowledge. The reconstruction is never finished, and also the earlier reconstructions should be reviewed in the light of new findings.