Persuasive technology and users acceptance of e-commerce: users perceptions of website persuasiveness

Persuasive technologies have been extensively applied in the context of e-commerce for the purpose of marketing, enhancing system credibility, and motivating users to adopt the systems. Recognising that persuasion impacts on consumer behaviour to purchase online have not been investigated previously. This study reviews theories of technology acceptance, and identifies their limitation in not considering the effect of persuasive technologies when determining user online technology acceptance. The study proposes a theoretical model that considers the effect of persuasive technologies on consumer acceptance of e-commerce websites; with consideration of other related variables, i.e. trust and technological attributes. Moreover the paper proposes a model based on the UTAUT2, which contains relevant contributing factors; including the concept of perceived persuasiveness.

Demand and supply: price elasticities and corporate performance in the UK

This paper investigates the relationship between consumer demand and corporate performance in several consumer industries in the UK, using two independent datasets. It uses data on consumer expenditures and the retail price index to estimate Almost Ideal Demand Systems on micro-data and compute timevarying price elasticities of demand for disaggregated commodity groups. Then, it matches the product definitions to the Standard Industry Classification and uses the estimated elasticities to investigate the impact of consumer behaviour on firm-level profitability equations. The time-varying household characteristics are ideal instruments for the demand effects in the firms' supply equation. The paper concludes that demand elasticities have a significant and tangible impact on the profitability of UK firms and that this impact can shed some light on the relationship between market structure and economic performance.

An investigation about Brazilian mango and grape exports

Purpose - The objective of this paper is to characterise the transactions between European buyers and Brazilian mango and grape producers. Design/methodology/approach - The method selected for this paper was multiple case studies. The Brazilian mango and grape supply chains' export activities to Europe were investigated. The field research was undertaken in Brazil, Germany, The Netherlands and the UK. In total, 41 face-to-face interviews were carried out. Findings - The supermarkets' literature tends to generalise the strategies of retailers focusing on differentiation and preferred suppliers. However, in empirical research conducted in the UK, Germany and The Netherlands it is possible to conclude that the procurement strategies of supermarkets can vary sharply. The results reveal the presence of different agents who demand different quality standards. The level of intensity depends on consumer behaviour, the features of product commercialised and the characteristics of the production segment in each country. Research limitations/implications - First, in relation to the empirical method there is a limitation because the case study does not allow statistical generalisation. Consequently, it will be interesting to undertake quantitative research in order to quantify the variables presented and their impact on the structure of value chains. Second, the research focuses only on two stages of the supply chain, producers and buyers. Practical implications - The differences between UK and German supermarkets challenge the supermarket literature, which tends to generalise the strategies of retailers focusing on differentiation and preferred suppliers. Originality/value - The study shows that the issue of influence and activities of retail agents along the value chain can be analysed taking several variables into consideration: the products commercialised; the distribution segment; and the consumer market. This result opens the way for analysing different structures of the value chain and the impact of these differences on the entry of producers for developing countries into the global market.

Entwicklung eines ��kotouristischen Nutzungskonzeptes f��r den ehemaligen Milit��rstandort Hjerkinn Skytefelt im Nationalpark Dovrefjell-Sunndalsfjella in Mittel-Norwegen

Der ��kotourismus hat sich in den letzten Jahren zu einer Tourismussparte entwickelt, die nicht nur immer mehr Interessenten unter den Nutzern findet, sondern auch vielf��ltige Forschungsm��glichkeiten er��ffnet.rnAus interdisziplin��rer Betrachtungsweise kann man sowohl in den Gebieten der Biologie, der Wirtschaft, der Geographie, aber auch der Politik forschend t��tig werden. rnDa der Tourismus in den letzten Jahren eine immer gr����ere Bedeutung gerade f��r L��nder mit weitestgehend intakten Naturressourcen erlangt hat, stellt sich die Frage inwieweit die Wirtschaft eines Landes auf diese Einnahmequelle angewiesen ist und ob nicht die ��kologischen Belange immer weiter in den Hintergrund treten.rnAus diesem Ansatz heraus erfolgte zun��chst eine qualitative und quantitative Bestandsaufnahme, die ein klares Bild vom derzeitigen Zustand in der Region erm��glicht. Dar��ber hinaus werden im Rahmen der Untersuchungen Zukunftsperspektiven aufgezeigt. Diese sollen verdeutlichen, inwieweit man steuernd in solche dynamischen Entwicklungsprozesse eingreifen kann oder soll.rnDie Schwerpunkte dieser Arbeit liegen in dem Bereich der Befragung von Touristen und in der Ausarbeitung eines digitalen Gel��ndemodells zur sp��teren Nutzung in einem aufzubauenden Nationalpark-Infozentrum. Auf der Grundlage dieser Untersuchungen wurde ein touristisches Nutzungskonzept entwickelt und auf seine ��kologischen Umsetzungschancen hin untersucht. Der Aspekt des ��kotourismus wird einleitend er��rtert und definiert. Anschlie��end werden die Potenziale der norwegischen Tourismuswirtschaft untersucht. Die Befragungsergebnisse sowohl der norwegischen Besucher als auch der ausl��ndischen Touristen werden in verschiedenen Korrelationen n��her untersucht.rnEin gesonderter Bereich der Untersuchungen gilt dem Problemfeld des Wildcampings in Norwegen. Die dramatischen Entwicklungen der letzten Jahre rufen immer mehr Aktivisten auf den Plan. Da die Deutschen die gr����te Besuchergruppe darstellen, wurden innerhalb der Jahre 2003 bis 2006 Einzelinterviews gef��hrt, um einen ��berblick ��ber das ��bernachtungsverhalten der Deutschen in Norwegen gewinnen zu k��nnen. In den vergangenen 10 Jahren sind die deutschen Besucherzahlen in Norwegen leicht r��ckl��ufig, w��hrend die der Niederl��nder kontinuierlich steigen.rnAuf diesen Ergebnissen basierend wurden problemzentrierte Interviews mit Wohnmobilreisenden, der gr����ten Gruppe der Individualreisenden, durchgef��hrt. rnMehr als 600.000 N��chte pro Jahr verbrachten die deutschen Wohnmobilreisenden au��erhalb der Campingpl��tze, was ��kologische und ��konomische Auswirkungen hat und nicht mehr mit dem in Norwegen geltenden ���Allemansrett���, dem Jedermannsrecht, vereinbar ist. rnGerade die Touristen, die mit dem Wohnmobil reisen, k��nnen nur schwer mit anderen Reisenden verglichen werden, da sie mit einer v��llig anderen Reiseauffassung mehr oder weniger autark unterwegs sind. Dabei legen sie besonders gro��e Distanzen zur��ck und haben sich zum Ziel gesetzt, m��glichst viel in kurzer Zeit zu sehen und zu erleben. F��r alle Touristengruppen wurde untersucht, auf welchem Weg die Informationen f��r die geplante Reise beschafft wurden. Der Reisef��hrer ist der haupts��chliche Informationslieferant und ist teilweise f��r das Verhalten der Urlauber mitverantwortlich. Es konnte festgestellt werden, dass das Image des Landes und die Reisemotive das Reiseverhalten und die Wahrnehmung determinieren. Eine Untersuchung der so genannten Pull- und Push-Faktoren ergab, dass die nahezu noch unber��hrte Natur, die raue Landschaft sowie Ruhe und Erholung die entscheidenden Pull-Faktoren f��r Norwegenreisende sind. Dabei ��berpr��gt das Image Norwegens als ���wildes Naturland��� die Wahrnehmung f��r verschiedene Problembereiche, die in Norwegen, wie auch in vielen anderen L��ndern Europas, durchaus vorhanden sind. rnProblemfelder, wie Landschaftsausbeutung, Wildcamping, reduziertes Konsumverhalten und damit einhergehende r��ckl��ufige Besucherzahlen, k��nnen aber durch innovative Tourismuskonzepte und neue Reiseformen abgebaut werden. Hierbei sind Medien, wie Reisef��hrer, Internet und Reisemagazine, in die Pflicht zu nehmen.

Responsabilita' sociale d'impresa e abitudini alimentari: contributo di Coop nella creazione di valore per i cittadini, per il territorio e i prodotti tipici di qualit��

I cambiamenti e le innovazioni sociali, che hanno caratterizzato il secolo scorso, hanno generato mutamenti significativi nella struttura dei consumi, legati in particolare a una maggiore consapevolezza dei consumatori e allo scoppio della crisi economica. Assume sempre maggiore importanza, all���interno delle politiche di brand management, il ruolo della Responsabilit�� Sociale d���Impresa, che spinge la Grande Distribuzione Organizzata a proporre prodotti con pi�� alti standard qualitativi e di sicurezza. Il caso analizzato �� quello della linea biologica ViviVerde Coop, la cui offerta di prodotti biologici a private label ha avuto un impatto molto positivo sul mercato. L���analisi dell���elasticit�� della curva di domanda di alcuni di questi prodotti nel periodo gennaio 2010-maggio 2012 rivela diversi valori positivi e maggiori di 1, indice del fatto che il prezzo non abbia avuto effetti negativi sulle vendite dei prodotti considerati. Tale evidenza risulta rilevante proprio in un periodo di profonda crisi economica che ha interessato, in modo significativo, anche i consumi alimentari.

The Permanent Income Hypothesis: A Test on Czech Privatisation

Since the late eighties, economists have been regarding the transition from command to market economies in Central and Eastern Europe with intense interest. In addition to studying the transition per se, they have begun using the region as a testing ground on which to investigate the validity of certain classic economic propositions. In his research, comprising three articles written in English and totalling 40 pages, Mr. Hanousek uses the so-called "Czech national experiment" (voucher privatisation scheme) to test the permanent income hypothesis (PIH). He took as his inspiration Kreinin's recommendation: "Since data concerning the behaviour of windfall income recipients is relatively scanty, and since such data can constitute an important test of the permanent income hypothesis, it is of interest to bring to bear on the hypothesis whatever information is available". Mr. Hanousek argues that, since the transfer of property to Czech citizens from 1992 to 1994 through the voucher scheme was not anticipated, it can be regarded as windfall income. The average size of the windfall was more than three month's salary and over 60 percent of the Czech population received this unexpected income. Furthermore, there are other reasons for conducting such an analysis in the Czech Republic. Firstly, the privatisation process took place quickly. Secondly, both the economy and consumer behaviour have been very stable. Thirdly, out of a total population of 10 million Czech citizens, an astonishing 6 million, that is, virtually every household, participated in the scheme. Thus Czech voucher privatisation provides a sample for testing the PIH almost equivalent to a full population, thus avoiding problems with the distribution of windfalls. Compare this, for instance with the fact that only 4% of the Israeli urban population received personal restitution from Germany, while the number of veterans who received the National Service Life Insurance Dividends amounted to less than 9% of the US population and were concentrated in certain age groups. But to begin with, Mr. Hanousek considers the question of whether the public percieves the transfer from the state to individual as an increase in net wealth. It can be argued that the state is only divesting itself of assets that would otherwise provide a future source of transfers. According to this argument, assigning these assets to individuals creates an offsetting change in the present value of potential future transfers so that individuals are no better off after the transfer. Mr. Hanousek disagrees with this approach. He points out that a change in the ownership of inefficient state-owned enterprises should lead to higher efficiency, which alone increases the value of enterprises and creates a windfall increase in citizens' portfolios. More importantly, the state and individuals had very different preferences during the transition. Despite government propaganda, it is doubtful that citizens of former communist countries viewed government-owned enterprises as being operated in the citizens' best interest. Moreover, it is unlikely that the public fully comprehended the sophisticated links between the state budget, state-owned enterprises, and transfers to individuals. Finally, the transfers were not equal across the population. Mr. Hanousek conducted a survey on 1263 individuals, dividing them into four monthly earnings categories. After determining whether the respondent had participated in the voucher process, he asked those who had how much of what they received from voucher privatisation had been (a) spent on goods and services, (b) invested elsewhere, (c) transferred to newly emerging pension funds, (d) given to a family member, and (e) retained in their original form as an investment. Both the mean and the variance of the windfall rise with income. He obtained similar results with respect to education, where the mean (median) windfall for those with a basic school education was 13,600 Czech Crowns (CZK), a figure that increased to 15,000 CZK for those with a high school education without exams, 19,900 CZK for high school graduates with exams, and 24,600 CZK for university graduates. Mr. Hanousek concludes that it can be argued that higher income (and better educated) groups allocated their vouchers or timed the disposition of their shares better. He turns next to an analysis of how respondents reported using their windfalls. The key result is that only a relatively small number of individuals reported spending on goods. Overall, the results provide strong support for the permanent income hypothesis, the only apparent deviation being the fact that both men and women aged 26 to 35 apparently consume more than they should if the windfall were annuitised. This finding is still fully consistent with the PIH, however, if this group is at a stage in their life-cycle where, without the windfall, they would be borrowing to finance consumption associated with family formation etc. Indeed, the PIH predicts that individuals who would otherwise borrow to finance consumption would consume the windfall up to the level equal to the annuitised fraction of the increase in lifetime income plus the full amount of the previously planned borrowing for consumption. Greater consumption would then be financed, not from investing the windfall, but from avoidance of future repayment obligations for debts that would have been incurred without the windfall.

The Nature of Sustainable Consumption and How to Achieve it. Results from the Focal Topic "From Knowledge to Action ��� New Paths towards Sustainable Consumption"

Is the online trade with second-hand products changing individual consumer behaviour? What is the sustainability potential of this activity? How can daily energy-consuming routines at the workplace be changed? Do major changes in the course of people's lives represent opportunities to modify their consumer behaviour towards greater sustainability? These are only some of the research questions studied in the focal topic "From Knowledge to Action - New Paths towards Sustainable Consumption" which is funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) as part of the "Social-ecological Research Programme" (S��F). This book gives an insight into the research results of the ten project groups. Their diversity highlights that there is much more to "sustainable consumption" than the simple purchase of organic or fair trade products.In addition, overarching conceptual and normative issues were treated across the project groups of the focal topic. Developed collaboratively and moderated by the accompanying research project, the results of the synthesis process are also presented here, as for example how the sustainability of individual consumer behaviour can be evaluated,or which theories of action are particularly useful for specific consumer behaviour phenomena.

An��lisis de los factores de adopci��n de comercio electr��nico en segmentos de consumidores finales. Aplicaci��n al caso espa��ol

El comercio electr��nico ha experimentado un fuerte crecimiento en los ��ltimos a��os, favorecido especialmente por el aumento de las tasas de penetraci��n de Internet en todo el mundo. Sin embargo, no todos los pa��ses est��n evolucionando de la misma manera, con un espectro que va desde las naciones pioneras en desarrollo de tecnolog��as de la informaci��n y comunicaciones, que cuentan con una elevado porcentaje de internautas y de compradores online, hasta las rezagadas de r��pida adopci��n en las que, pese a contar con una menor penetraci��n de acceso, presentan una alta tasa de internautas compradores. Entre ambos extremos se encuentran pa��ses como Espa��a que, aunque alcanz�� hace a��os una tasa considerable de penetraci��n de usuarios de Internet, no ha conseguido una buena tasa de transformaci��n de internautas en compradores. Pese a que el comercio electr��nico ha experimentado importantes aumentos en los ��ltimos a��os, sus tasas de crecimiento siguen estando por debajo de pa��ses con caracter��sticas socio-econ��micas similares. Para intentar conocer las razones que afectan a la adopci��n del comercio por parte de los compradores, la investigaci��n cient��fica del fen��meno ha empleado diferentes enfoques te��ricos. De entre todos ellos ha destacado el uso de los modelos de adopci��n, proveniente de la literatura de adopci��n de sistemas de informaci��n en entornos organizativos. Estos modelos se basan en las percepciones de los compradores para determinar qu�� factores pueden predecir mejor la intenci��n de compra y, en consecuencia, la conducta real de compra de los usuarios. Pese a que en los ��ltimos a��os han proliferado los trabajos de investigaci��n que aplican los modelos de adopci��n al comercio electr��nico, casi todos tratan de validar sus hip��tesis mediante el an��lisis de muestras de consumidores tratadas como un ��nico conjunto, y del que se obtienen conclusiones generales. Sin embargo, desde el origen del marketing, y en especial a partir de la segunda mitad del siglo XIX, se considera que existen diferencias en el comportamiento de los consumidores, que pueden ser debidas a caracter��sticas demogr��ficas, sociol��gicas o psicol��gicas. Estas diferencias se traducen en necesidades distintas, que s��lo podr��n ser satisfechas con una oferta adaptada por parte de los vendedores. Adem��s, por contar el comercio electr��nico con unas caracter��sticas particulares que lo diferencian del comercio tradicional ���especialmente por la falta de contacto f��sico entre el comprador y el producto��� a las diferencias en la adopci��n para cada consumidor se le a��aden las diferencias derivadas del tipo de producto adquirido, que si bien hab��an sido consideradas en el canal f��sico, en el comercio electr��nico cobran especial relevancia. A la vista de todo ello, el presente trabajo pretende abordar el estudio de los factores determinantes de la intenci��n de compra y la conducta real de compra en comercio electr��nico por parte del consumidor final espa��ol, teniendo en cuenta el tipo de segmento al que pertenezca dicho comprador y el tipo de producto considerado. Para ello, el trabajo contiene ocho apartados entre los que se encuentran cuatro bloques te��ricos y tres bloques emp��ricos, adem��s de las conclusiones. Estos bloques dan lugar a los siguientes ocho cap��tulos por orden de aparici��n en el trabajo: introducci��n, situaci��n del comercio electr��nico, modelos de adopci��n de tecnolog��a, segmentaci��n en comercio electr��nico, dise��o previo del trabajo emp��rico, dise��o de la investigaci��n, an��lisis de los resultados y conclusiones. El cap��tulo introductorio justifica la relevancia de la investigaci��n, adem��s de fijar los objetivos, la metodolog��a y las fases seguidas para el desarrollo del trabajo. La justificaci��n se complementa con el segundo cap��tulo, que cuenta con dos elementos principales: en primer lugar se define el concepto de comercio electr��nico y se hace una breve retrospectiva desde sus or��genes hasta la situaci��n actual en un contexto global; en segundo lugar, el an��lisis estudia la evoluci��n del comercio electr��nico en Espa��a, mostrando su desarrollo y situaci��n presente a partir de sus principales indicadores. Este apartado no s��lo permite conocer el contexto de la investigaci��n, sino que adem��s permite contrastar la relevancia de la muestra utilizada en el presente estudio con el perfil espa��ol respecto al comercio electr��nico. Los cap��tulos tercero ���modelos de adopci��n de tecnolog��as��� y cuarto ���segmentaci��n en comercio electr��nico��� sientan las bases te��ricas necesarias para abordar el estudio. En el cap��tulo tres se hace una revisi��n general de la literatura de modelos de adopci��n de tecnolog��a y, en particular, de los modelos de adopci��n empleados en el ��mbito del comercio electr��nico. El resultado de dicha revisi��n deriva en la construcci��n de un modelo adaptado basado en los modelos UTAUT (Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology, Teor��a unificada de la aceptaci��n y el uso de la tecnolog��a) y UTAUT2, combinado con dos factores espec��ficos de adopci��n del comercio electr��nico: el riesgo percibido y la confianza percibida. Por su parte, en el cap��tulo cuatro se revisan las metodolog��as de segmentaci��n de clientes y productos empleadas en la literatura. De dicha revisi��n se obtienen un amplio conjunto de variables de las que finalmente se escogen nueve variables de clasificaci��n que se consideran adecuadas tanto por su adaptaci��n al contexto del comercio electr��nico como por su adecuaci��n a las caracter��sticas de la muestra empleada para validar el modelo. Las nueve variables se agrupan en tres conjuntos: variables de tipo socio-demogr��fico ���g��nero, edad, nivel de estudios, nivel de ingresos, tama��o de la unidad familiar y estado civil���, de comportamiento de compra ��� experiencia de compra por Internet y frecuencia de compra por Internet��� y de tipo psicogr��fico ���motivaciones de compra por Internet. La segunda parte del cap��tulo cuatro se dedica a la revisi��n de los criterios empleados en la literatura para la clasificaci��n de los productos en el contexto del comercio electr��nico. De dicha revisi��n se obtienen quince grupos de variables que pueden tomar un total de treinta y cuatro valores, lo que deriva en un elevado n��mero de combinaciones posibles. Sin embargo, pese a haber sido utilizados en el contexto del comercio electr��nico, no en todos los casos se ha comprobado la influencia de dichas variables respecto a la intenci��n de compra o la conducta real de compra por Internet; por este motivo, y con el objetivo de definir una clasificaci��n robusta y abordable de tipos de productos, en el capitulo cinco se lleva a cabo una validaci��n de las variables de clasificaci��n de productos mediante un experimento previo con 207 muestras. Seleccionando s��lo aquellas variables objetivas que no dependan de la interpretaci��n personal del consumidores y que determinen grupos significativamente distintos respecto a la intenci��n y conducta de compra de los consumidores, se obtiene un modelo de dos variables que combinadas dan lugar a cuatro tipos de productos: bien digital, bien no digital, servicio digital y servicio no digital. Definidos el modelo de adopci��n y los criterios de segmentaci��n de consumidores y productos, en el sexto cap��tulo se desarrolla el modelo completo de investigaci��n formado por un conjunto de hip��tesis obtenidas de la revisi��n de la literatura de los cap��tulos anteriores, en las que se definen las hip��tesis de investigaci��n con respecto a las influencias esperadas de las variables de segmentaci��n sobre las relaciones del modelo de adopci��n. Este modelo confiere a la investigaci��n un car��cter social y de tipo fundamentalmente exploratorio, en el que en muchos casos ni siquiera se han encontrado evidencias emp��ricas previas que permitan el enunciado de hip��tesis sobre la influencia de determinadas variables de segmentaci��n. El cap��tulo seis contiene adem��s la descripci��n del instrumento de medida empleado en la investigaci��n, conformado por un total de 125 preguntas y sus correspondientes escalas de medida, as�� como la descripci��n de la muestra representativa empleada en la validaci��n del modelo, compuesta por un grupo de 817 personas espa��olas o residentes en Espa��a. El cap��tulo siete constituye el n��cleo del an��lisis emp��rico del trabajo de investigaci��n, que se compone de dos elementos fundamentales. Primeramente se describen las t��cnicas estad��sticas aplicadas para el estudio de los datos que, dada la complejidad del an��lisis, se dividen en tres grupos fundamentales: ������M��todo de m��nimos cuadrados parciales (PLS, Partial Least Squares): herramienta estad��stica de an��lisis multivariante con capacidad de an��lisis predictivo que se emplea en la determinaci��n de las relaciones estructurales de los modelos propuestos. ������An��lisis multigrupo: conjunto de t��cnicas que permiten comparar los resultados obtenidos con el m��todo PLS entre dos o m��s grupos derivados del uso de una o m��s variables de segmentaci��n. En este caso se emplean cinco m��todos de comparaci��n, lo que permite asimismo comparar los rendimientos de cada uno de los m��todos. ������Determinaci��n de segmentos no identificados a priori: en el caso de algunas de las variables de segmentaci��n no existe un criterio de clasificaci��n definido a priori, sino que se obtiene a partir de la aplicaci��n de t��cnicas estad��sticas de clasificaci��n. En este caso se emplean dos t��cnicas fundamentales: an��lisis de componentes principales ���dado el elevado n��mero de variables empleadas para la clasificaci��n��� y an��lisis cl��ster ���del que se combina una t��cnica jer��rquica que calcula el n��mero ��ptimo de segmentos, con una t��cnica por etapas que es m��s eficiente en la clasificaci��n, pero exige conocer el n��mero de cl��steres a priori. La aplicaci��n de dichas t��cnicas estad��sticas sobre los modelos resultantes de considerar los distintos criterios de segmentaci��n, tanto de clientes como de productos, da lugar al an��lisis de un total de 128 modelos de adopci��n de comercio electr��nico y 65 comparaciones multigrupo, cuyos resultados y principales consideraciones son elaboradas a lo largo del cap��tulo. Para concluir, el cap��tulo ocho recoge las conclusiones del trabajo divididas en cuatro partes diferenciadas. En primer lugar se examina el grado de alcance de los objetivos planteados al inicio de la investigaci��n; despu��s se desarrollan las principales contribuciones que este trabajo aporta tanto desde el punto de vista metodol��gico, como desde los punto de vista te��rico y pr��ctico; en tercer lugar, se profundiza en las conclusiones derivadas del estudio emp��rico, que se clasifican seg��n los criterios de segmentaci��n empleados, y que combinan resultados confirmatorios y exploratorios; por ��ltimo, el trabajo recopila las principales limitaciones de la investigaci��n, tanto de car��cter te��rico como emp��rico, as�� como aquellos aspectos que no habiendo podido plantearse dentro del contexto de este estudio, o como consecuencia de los resultados alcanzados, se presentan como l��neas futuras de investigaci��n. ABSTRACT Favoured by an increase of Internet penetration rates across the globe, electronic commerce has experienced a rapid growth over the last few years. Nevertheless, adoption of electronic commerce has differed from one country to another. On one hand, it has been observed that countries leading e-commerce adoption have a large percentage of Internet users as well as of online purchasers; on the other hand, other markets, despite having a low percentage of Internet users, show a high percentage of online buyers. Halfway between those two ends of the spectrum, we find countries such as Spain which, despite having moderately high Internet penetration rates and similar socio-economic characteristics as some of the leading countries, have failed to turn Internet users into active online buyers. Several theoretical approaches have been taken in an attempt to define the factors that influence the use of electronic commerce systems by customers. One of the betterknown frameworks to characterize adoption factors is the acceptance modelling theory, which is derived from the information systems adoption in organizational environments. These models are based on individual perceptions on which factors determine purchase intention, as a mean to explain users��� actual purchasing behaviour. Even though research on electronic commerce adoption models has increased in terms of volume and scope over the last years, the majority of studies validate their hypothesis by using a single sample of consumers from which they obtain general conclusions. Nevertheless, since the birth of marketing, and more specifically from the second half of the 19th century, differences in consumer behaviour owing to demographic, sociologic and psychological characteristics have also been taken into account. And such differences are generally translated into different needs that can only be satisfied when sellers adapt their offer to their target market. Electronic commerce has a number of features that makes it different when compared to traditional commerce; the best example of this is the lack of physical contact between customers and products, and between customers and vendors. Other than that, some differences that depend on the type of product may also play an important role in electronic commerce. From all the above, the present research aims to address the study of the main factors influencing purchase intention and actual purchase behaviour in electronic commerce by Spanish end-consumers, taking into consideration both the customer group to which they belong and the type of product being purchased. In order to achieve this goal, this Thesis is structured in eight chapters: four theoretical sections, three empirical blocks and a final section summarizing the conclusions derived from the research. The chapters are arranged in sequence as follows: introduction, current state of electronic commerce, technology adoption models, electronic commerce segmentation, preliminary design of the empirical work, research design, data analysis and results, and conclusions. The introductory chapter offers a detailed justification of the relevance of this study in the context of e-commerce adoption research; it also sets out the objectives, methodology and research stages. The second chapter further expands and complements the introductory chapter, focusing on two elements: the concept of electronic commerce and its evolution from a general point of view, and the evolution of electronic commerce in Spain and main indicators of adoption. This section is intended to allow the reader to understand the research context, and also to serve as a basis to justify the relevance and representativeness of the sample used in this study. Chapters three (technology acceptance models) and four (segmentation in electronic commerce) set the theoretical foundations for the study. Chapter 3 presents a thorough literature review of technology adoption modelling, focusing on previous studies on electronic commerce acceptance. As a result of the literature review, the research framework is built upon a model based on UTAUT (Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology) and its evolution, UTAUT2, including two specific electronic commerce adoption factors: perceived risk and perceived trust. Chapter 4 deals with client and product segmentation methodologies used by experts. From the literature review, a wide range of classification variables is studied, and a shortlist of nine classification variables has been selected for inclusion in the research. The criteria for variable selection were their adequacy to electronic commerce characteristics, as well as adequacy to the sample characteristics. The nine variables have been classified in three groups: socio-demographic (gender, age, education level, income, family size and relationship status), behavioural (experience in electronic commerce and frequency of purchase) and psychographic (online purchase motivations) variables. The second half of chapter 4 is devoted to a review of the product classification criteria in electronic commerce. The review has led to the identification of a final set of fifteen groups of variables, whose combination offered a total of thirty-four possible outputs. However, due to the lack of empirical evidence in the context of electronic commerce, further investigation on the validity of this set of product classifications was deemed necessary. For this reason, chapter 5 proposes an empirical study to test the different product classification variables with 207 samples. A selection of product classifications including only those variables that are objective, able to identify distinct groups and not dependent on consumers��� point of view, led to a final classification of products which consisted on two groups of variables for the final empirical study. The combination of these two groups gave rise to four types of products: digital and non-digital goods, and digital and non-digital services. Chapter six characterizes the research ���social, exploratory research��� and presents the final research model and research hypotheses. The exploratory nature of the research becomes patent in instances where no prior empirical evidence on the influence of certain segmentation variables was found. Chapter six also includes the description of the measurement instrument used in the research, consisting of a total of 125 questions ���and the measurement scales associated to each of them��� as well as the description of the sample used for model validation (consisting of 817 Spanish residents). Chapter 7 is the core of the empirical analysis performed to validate the research model, and it is divided into two separate parts: description of the statistical techniques used for data analysis, and actual data analysis and results. The first part is structured in three different blocks: ������Partial Least Squares Method (PLS): the multi-variable analysis is a statistical method used to determine structural relationships of models and their predictive validity; ������Multi-group analysis: a set of techniques that allow comparing the outcomes of PLS analysis between two or more groups, by using one or more segmentation variables. More specifically, five comparison methods were used, which additionally gives the opportunity to assess the efficiency of each method. ������Determination of a priori undefined segments: in some cases, classification criteria did not necessarily exist for some segmentation variables, such as customer motivations. In these cases, the application of statistical classification techniques is required. For this study, two main classification techniques were used sequentially: principal component factor analysis ���in order to reduce the number of variables��� and cluster analysis. The application of the statistical methods to the models derived from the inclusion of the various segmentation criteria ���for both clients and products���, led to the analysis of 128 different electronic commerce adoption models and 65 multi group comparisons. Finally, chapter 8 summarizes the conclusions from the research, divided into four parts: first, an assessment of the degree of achievement of the different research objectives is offered; then, methodological, theoretical and practical implications of the research are drawn; this is followed by a discussion on the results from the empirical study ���based on the segmentation criteria for the research���; fourth, and last, the main limitations of the research ���both empirical and theoretical��� as well as future avenues of research are detailed.

Direct versus indirect channels: Differentiated loss aversion in a high���involvement, non���frequently purchased hedonic product

Purpose ��� This article aims to investigate whether intermediaries reduce loss aversion in the context of a high-involvement non-frequently purchased hedonic product (tourism packages). Design/methodology/approach ��� The study incorporates the reference-dependent model into a multinomial logit model with random parameters, which controls for heterogeneity and allows representation of different correlation patterns between non-independent alternatives. Findings ��� Differentiated loss aversion is found: consumers buying high-involvement non-frequently purchased hedonic products are less loss averse when using an intermediary than when dealing with each provider separately and booking their services independently. This result can be taken as identifying consumer-based added value provided by the intermediaries. Practical implications ��� Knowing the effect of an increase in their prices is crucial for tourism collective brands (e.g. ���sun and sea���, ���inland���, ���green destinations���, ���World Heritage destinations���). This is especially applicable nowadays on account of the fact that many destinations have lowered prices to attract tourists (although, in the future, they will have to put prices back up to their normal levels). The negative effect of raising prices can be absorbed more easily via indirect channels when compared to individual providers, as the influence of loss aversion is lower for the former than the latter. The key implication is that intermediaries can ��� and should ��� add value in competition with direct e-tailing. Originality/value ��� Research on loss aversion in retailing has been prolific, exclusively focused on low-involvement and frequently purchased products without distinguishing the direct or indirect character of the distribution channel. However, less is known about other types of products such as high-involvement non-frequently purchased hedonic products. This article focuses on the latter and analyzes different patterns of loss aversion in direct and indirect channels.

The market for preferences

Learning processes are widely held to be the mechanism by which boundedly rational agents adapt to environmental changes. We argue that this same outcome might also be achieved by a different mechanism, namely specialisation and the division of knowledge, which we here extend to the consumer side of the economy. We distinguish between high-level preferences and low-level preferences as nested systems of rules used to solve particular choice problems. We argue that agents, while sovereign in high-level preferences, may often find it expedient to acquire, in a pseudo-market, the low-level preferences in order to make good choices when purchasing complex commodities about which they have little or no experience. A market for preferences arises when environmental complexity overwhelms learning possibilities and leads agents to make use of other people's specialised knowledge and decision rules.

A cross-cultural study of the role of religion in consumers' ethical positions

Purpose - Previous studies have looked at how socio-economic and political factors play a role in consumers' ethical positions, but few have considered the role of religion which is a major driver of ethics. This paper seeks to address this. Design/methodology/approach - From a survey of over 700 consumers this paper explores the similarities and differences between consumers' ethical positions in three different religions namely; Christian (from three countries), Islam, and Buddhism. Findings - It was found that a reduced item scale measuring the two factors of Forsyth's idealism and relativism was applicable in all five religions, but variations were seen because of religious teachings. In particular, Austrian Christians were significantly less idealistic and relativistic than all other religions, even other Christians from the United States and Britain. Research limitations/implications - The results have implications for measuring ethical positions internationally and for developing ethically based marketing messages and products. Originality/value - The paper shows for the first time how ethical positions are affected by religions and should be of interest to marketers involved in ethics research and ethical marketing.

Multidimensional analysis of perceived risk in commercial air travel

This study attempts to assess the role of perceived risk in air passenger behaviour. A survey of 889 respondents is used to investigate a multidimensional concept of perceived risk and to analyse the differences between socio-demographic characteristics regarding passengers' risk assessment. The results indicate that financial risk and temporal risk are the most important in the context of commercial air travel. All perceived risk dimensions differ according gender, age, cultural background, income, previous experience, and reason for travelling. (C) 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Situationally driven consumption

The purpose of this research as a PhD work-in-progress report, is to measure empirically the fundamental attributes that constitute the situationally driven consumer. Previous literature from a wide range of areas does not appear to adequately acknowledge the existence of a consumer who passionately seeks a product from various often unique markets frequently with the aid of an advisor or mentor who is denoted here as a cultural interpreter. Some elements of the desire literature, do acknowledge the existence of the driven consumer, but do not fully differentiate it from other elements of the human psyche.

Using Q-methodology to study the metaphors of consumption for mobile phone users

Even before business has really come to grips with the intricacies of incorporating emarketing and e-commerce into their organisational strategies, they are now being encouraged to make significant investments in developing capabilities for mobile phone marketing. Fuelled once again by huge profit predictions reminiscent of the mid-1990s when speaking of e-commerce (Anckar and D���Incau 2002) marketers are tapping into this mobility. So, instead of having to drive consumers to web sites through the ���sit and search��� context, marketers are now exploring ways to develop strategies to deliver relevant and timely information in a ���roam and receive��� context directly to their potential customers anywhere, anytime, any place (Mort and Drennan 2002).

Customers as spatial and social influencers on other customers in the social-servicescape

In marketing, considerable attention has been devoted both to the understanding of consumer behaviour and the impact of the physical environment on the behaviour of consumers within these settings. Yet surprisingly, little attention has been given to the influence of customers on other customers in such settings. But within the environment it could be argued that social stimuli are likely to receive more attention than non-social or physical stimuli (Guerin, 1993). Psychologists have asserted that the mere presence (or absence) of people will affect the behaviour of others. Thus we argue in this paper that customers impact on other customers within the social servicescape. This paper presents the findings of an observational study of 225 episodes which took place within a selected servicescape - four cafes. We found that the presence of other customers appeared to positively influence duration of the stay (social influence), and that customers appeared to exhibit a desire for the presence of other customers in this social setting in that customers appeared to be drawn spatially to where customers were already seated (spatial influence). We draw from psychology, in particular, social facilitation theory (Platania and Morin, 2001; Zajonc, 1965), affiliative conflict theory (Argyle and Dean 1965; Knowles 1980, 1989) and from psychology and sociology in terms of the basic emotional need for a ���sense of belonging��� (Hagerty, Williams and Oe 2002) in order to develop the conceptual framework for this study. Theoretical and managerial implications of our findings are discussed, as well as directions for further research.