Datorstödda studier i hälso- och socialvård : MuPSiNet-projektet

The aim of the study was to explore why the MuPSiNet project - a computer and network supported learning environment for the field of health care and social work - did not develop as expected. To grasp the problem some hypotheses were formulated. The hypotheses regarded the teachers' skills in and attitudes towards computing and their attitudes towards constructivist study methods. An online survey containing 48 items was performed. The survey targeted all the teachers within the field of health care and social work in the country, and it produced 461 responses that were analysed against the hypotheses. The reliability of the variables was tested using the Cronbach alpha coefficient and t-tests. Poor basic computing skills among the teachers combined with a vulnerable technical solution, and inadequate project management combined with lack of administrative models for transforming economic resources into manpower were the factors that turned out to play a decisive role in the project. Other important findings were that the teachers had rather poor skills and knowledge in computing, computer safety and computer supported instruction, and that these skills were significantly poorer among female teachers who were in majority in the sample. The fraction of teachers who were familiar with software for electronic patient records (EPR) was low. The attitudes towards constructivist teaching methods were positive, and further education seemed to utterly increase the teachers' readiness to use alternative teaching methods. The most important conclusions were the following: In order to integrate EPR software as a natural tool in teaching planning and documenting health care, it is crucial that the teachers have sufficient basic skills in computing and that more teachers have personal experience of using EPR software. In order for computer supported teaching to become accepted it is necessary to arrange with extensive further education for the teachers presently working, and for that further education to succeed it should be backed up locally among other things by sufficient support in matters concerning computer supported teaching. The attitudes towards computing showed significant gender differences. Based on the findings it is suggested that basic skills in computing should also include an awareness of data safety in relation to work in different kinds of computer networks, and that projects of this kind should be built up around a proper project organisation with sufficient resources. Suggestions concerning curricular development and further education are also presented. Conclusions concerning the research method were that reminders have a better effect, and that respondents tend to answer open-ended questions more verbosely in electronically distributed online surveys compared to traditional surveys. A method of utilising randomized passwords to guarantee respondent anonymity while maintaining sample control is presented. Keywords: computer-assisted learning, computer-assisted instruction, health care, social work, vocational education, computerized patient record, online survey

Study of strontium compounds and minerals by X-ray absorption spectroscopy. I. K-edge shifts

The chemical shifts in the X-ray K-absorption edge of strontium in various compounds and in six minerals are measured using a single crystal X-ray spectrometer. Besides valence, the shifts are found to be governed by ionic charges on the absorbing ions, which are calculated employing Pauling's method. For the minerals the plot of chemical shift against the theoretically calculated ionic charges is used to determine the charges on the strontium ions.

Functional dynamics of the nitrogen balance of sorghum: I. N demand of vegetative plant parts.

Stay-green, an important trait for grain yield of sorghum grown under water limitation, has been associated with a high leaf nitrogen content at the start of grain filling. This study quantifies the N demand of leaves and stems and explores effects of N stress on the N balance of vegetative plant parts of three sorghum hybrids differing in potential crop height. The hybrids were grown under well-watered conditions at three levels of N supply. Vertical profiles of biomass and N% of leaves and stems, together with leaf size and number, and specific leaf nitrogen (SLN), were measured at regular intervals. The hybrids had similar minimum but different critical and maximum SLN, associated with differences in leaf size and N partitioning, the latter associated with differences in plant height. N demand of expanding new leaves was represented by critical SLN, and structural stem N demand by minimum stem N%. The fraction of N partitioned to leaf blades increased under N stress. A framework for N dynamics of leaves and stems is developed that captures effects of N stress and genotype on N partitioning and on critical and maximum SLN.

Erityistä tukea tarvitsevan taaperon päiväkotiryhmään sopeutuminen : Monitapaustutkimus vuorovaikutussuhteista ja niiden rakentumisesta

How toddlers with special needs adjust to the daycare setting A multiple case study of how the relationships with adults and children are built The aim in this study is to describe how toddlers with special needs adjust to daycare. The emotional well-being and involvement in daycare activities of toddlers are especially investigated in this study. The relationship and how it is built between an adult and a child, a child and a child is examined. The daycare is examined through the socio-cultural theory as a pedagogical institution, where the child adapts by participating in social and cultural activities with the others. The development of the child is the result of the experiences that are gained through the constant relationship between the child, the family and social context. By the attachment theory the inner self-regulation, that allows the child safely adapt to new situations, develops most in the relationship between the child under 3years of age and the attending adult. The relationships between toddlers in daycare are usually built by the coincidental encounters in play and daily activities. In these relationships, the toddler gets the information of themselves and the other children. The complexity of the rules in the setting that organize the social action is challenging for the children and they need constant support from the adults. The participants of the study were five toddlers with special needs. When applying to daycare they were less than three years old and they got the specialist statement for their special needs, and the reference for daycare. The children were observed by recording their attending in the daycare once in the 3-4 months from the first day in daycare. Approximately 15 hours of material that was analysed with the Transana-program. The qualitative material was analysed by first collecting a descriptive model that explains and theorises the phenomenon. By the summery of the narrative it is placed a hypothesis that is tested by quantitative methods using correlations and variance analyses and general linear modeling that is used to count the differences between repeated measures and connections between different variables. The results of the study are built theoretically for the consistent conception between the theory and the findings in research. The toddlers in the study were all dependent on the support given by the adults in all the situations in the daycare. They could not associate with the other children without the support of the adults and their involvement in activities was low. The engagement of an adult in interaction was necessary for the children’s involvement in activities, and the co-operation with the other children. The engagement of teachers was statistically significantly higher than the engagement of other professions.

Neulemallien muodikkuus : Näkyvätkö kansainväliset muotitrendit suomalaisten käsityölehtien neulemalleissa?

The aim of this work was to study, whether international fashion trends show in knit designs in Finnish craft magazines and how trends are modified. Women s knitted clothes and accessories in autumn winter season 2005 2006 were analyzed. Future research, trends, fashion, designing and knitting provides theoretical basis for this study. The trend material of this study came from Carlin Women s knitwear winter 2005 2006, which is fashion forecast for Women s knitwear. In addition to the trend book, I selected two international fashion magazines to reinforce this study. Fashion magazines were L´Officiel, 1000 models, Milan New York winter 05/06, No 52, April 2005 and Collezioni Donna, Prêt-à-porter autumn-winter 2005 2006, No 107. Finnish craft magazines in this study were MODA s issues 4/2005, 5/2005, 6/2005 and Novita s issues autumn 2005, winter 2005 and Suuri Käsityölehti s issues 8/2005, 9/2005, 10/2005. For the base of the analyze I took themes from the trend book. From fashion magazines I searched knitwear designs and these designs were sorted out by themes of trend book. To this trend and fashion material I compared knit designs from craft magazines. I analyzed how fashion trends show in knit designs and how they are modified. I also studied what features of trends were shown and which did not appear in knit designs of the craft magazines. For analyzing trend pictures and knit designs in craft magazines I applied qualitative content analysis and image analysis. According to the results of this research, effects of trend can be recognized in knit designs of craft maga-zines, although the fashion trends have been applied very discreetly. Knit designs were very similar re-gardless of magazine. The craft magazine data included approximately as many designs from Novita and MODA. In Suuri Käsityölehti provided only fifth of the designs data. There were also designs in MODA and Suuri Käsityölehti, which were made of Novita s yarns. This research material includes yarns of 15 different yarn manufacturers. Although half of all knit designs were knitted from Novita s yarn. There were 10 different yarns from Novita. Nevertheless Novita s yarn called Aino was the most popular. Finnish craft magazines have not respond to popularity of knitting. Magazines do not provide any novelty designs for knitters. Knit designs in Finnish craft magazines are usually practical basic designs without any innovativeness.

Erityisopetus muutoksen kynnyksellä - tilastollinen kuvaus erityisopetusjärjestelmästä ja sen määrällisestä kehityksestä 1970-luvun lopulta vuoteen 2008

The number of Finnish pupils attending special education has increased for more than a decade (Tilastokeskus 1999, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2004, 2005a, 2006b, 2007b, 2008b, 2008e, 2009b; Virtanen ja Ratilainen 1996). In the year 2007 nearly third of Finnish comprehensive school pupils took part in special needs education. According to the latest statistics, in the autumn of 2008 approximately 47 000 pupils have been admitted or transferred to special education and approximately 126 000 pupils received part-time special education during the 2007 - 2008 academic year. (Tilastokeskus 2008b, 2009b.) The Finnish special education system is currently under review. The Reform, both in legislation and in practice, began nationwide in the year 2008 (e.g. Special education strategy document, November 2007 and the development project Kelpo). The aim of the study was the statistical description of the Finnish special education system and on the other hand to gain a deeper understanding about the Finnish special education system and its quantitative increase, by analysis based on the nationwide statistical information. Earlier studies have shown that the growth in special education is affected by multiple independent variables and cannot be solely explained by the pupil characteristics. The statistical overview and analysis have been carried out in two parts. In the first part, the description and analysis were based on statistical time series from the academic year 1979 -1980 until 2008. While, in the second, more detailed description and analysis, based on comparable time series from 1995 to 2008 and from 2001-2002 to 2007-2008, is presented. Historical perspective was one part of this study. There was an attempt to find reasons explaining the observed growth in the special needs education from late 1960s to 2008. The majority of the research was based on the nationwide statistics information. In addition to this, materials including educational legislation literature, different kind of records of special education and preceding studies were also used to support the research. The main results of the study, are two statistical descriptions and time series analysis of the quantitative increase of the special needs education. Further, a summary of the plausible factors behind the special education system change and its quantitative increase, is presented. The conclusions coming from the study can be summarised as follows: the comparable statistical time series analysis suggests that the growth in special education after the year 1999 could be a consequence of the changes in the structure of special education and that new group of pupils have been directed to special needs education. Keywords: Special education, comprehensive school, description, statistics, change

Unidentified nurses and injured World War I soldiers celebrating with champagne and flowers Portraits Groups

Handwritten correspondence on verso covered over with pasted black paper

Development of a synthetic plant volatile-based attracticide for female noctuid moths. I. Potential sources of volatiles attractive to Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae).

This paper is the first of a series which will describe the development of a synthetic plant volatile-based attracticide for noctuid moths. It discusses potential sources of volatiles attractive to the cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner), and an approach to the combination of these volatiles in synthetic blends. We screened a number of known host and non-host (for larval development) plants for attractiveness to unmated male and female moths of this species, using a two-choice olfactometer system. Out of 38 plants tested, 33 were significantly attractive to both sexes. There was a strong correlation between attractiveness of plants to males and females. The Australian natives, Angophora floribunda and several Eucalyptus species were the most attractive plants. These plants have not been recorded either as larval or oviposition hosts of Helicoverpa spp., suggesting that attraction in the olfactometer might have been as nectar foraging rather than as oviposition sources. To identify potential compounds that might be useful in developing moth attractants, especially for females, collections of volatiles were made from plants that were attractive to moths in the olfactometer. Green leaf volatiles, floral volatiles, aromatic compounds, monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes were found. We propose an approach to developing synthetic attractants, here termed 'super-blending', in which compounds from all these classes, which are in common between attractive plants, might be combined in blends which do not mimic any particular attractive plant.

Classical Biological Control for the Protection of Natural Ecosystems.

Of the 70 cases of classical biological control for the protection of nature found in our review, there were fewer projects against insect targets (21) than against invasive plants (49), in part, because many insect biological control projects were carried out against agricultural pests, while nearly all projects against plants targeted invasive plants in natural ecosystems. Of 21 insect projects, 81% (17) provided benefits to protection of biodiversity, while 48% (10) protected products harvested from natural systems, and 5% (1) preserved ecosystem services, with many projects contributing to more than one goal. In contrast, of the 49 projects against invasive plants, 98% (48) provided benefits to protection of biodiversity, while 47% (23) protected products, and 25% (12) preserved ecosystem services, again with many projects contributing to several goals. We classified projects into complete control (pest generally no longer important), partial control (control in some areas but not others), and "in progress," for projects in development for which outcomes do not yet exist. For insects, of the 21 projects discussed, 59% (13) achieved complete control of the target pest, 18% (4) provided partial control, and 41% (9) are still in progress. By comparison, of the 49 invasive plant projects considered, 27% (13) achieved complete control, while 33% (16) provided partial control, and 47% (24) are still in progress. For both categories of pests, some projects' success ratings were scored twice when results varied by region. We found approximately twice as many projects directed against invasive plants than insects and that protection of biodiversity was the most frequent benefit of both insect and plant projects. Ecosystem service protection was provided in the fewest cases by either insect or plant biological control agents, but was more likely to be provided by projects directed against invasive plants, likely because of the strong effects plants exert on landscapes. Rates of complete success appeared to be higher for insect than plant targets (59% vs 27%), perhaps because most often herbivores gradually weaken, rather than outright kill, their hosts, which is not the case for natural enemies directed against pest insects. For both insect and plant biological control, nearly half of all projects reviewed were listed as currently in progress, suggesting that the use of biological control for the protection of wildlands is currently very active.

Reproduction of portrait of field chaplain Rabbi Dr. Sali Levi Military; World War I; Portraits

Feldrabbiner Dr. Sali Lewi, Breslau

Now that I have had this experience I am looking at studying…

The Community Aspirations Program in Education (CAP-ED) was started by CQUniversity’s Office of Indigenous Engagement in 2013. CAP-ED’s aim was to focus on building aspirations through small manageable learning projects, and to increase Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students’ participation in higher education. Initially the scope of the project was to develop and deliver an accredited certificate-level program to help Indigenous students transition into tertiary education by a) improving pathways and b) addressing their current knowledge gaps. However, the initial investigatory process and community consultation found that a more localised, targeted and intimate approach would work more effectively. In addition, a free or affordable certificate course that would meet community needs was beyond the financial scope of the project. From here, the Office of Indigenous Engagement began to explore other possibilities.

Expression of cytochrome P450 enzymes and metabolism of timolol in human ocular tissue

Glaucoma is a group of progressive optic neuropathies causing irreversible blindness if not diagnosed and treated in the early state of progression. Disease is often, but not always, associated with increased intraocular pressure (IOP), which is also the most important risk factor for glaucoma. Ophthlamic timolol preparations have been used for decades to lower increased intraocular pressure (IOP). Timolol is locally well tolerated but may cause e.g. cardiovascular and pulmonary adverse effects due to systemic absorption. It has been reported that approximately 80% of a topically administered eye drop is systemically absorbed. However, only limited information is available on timolol metabolism in the liver or especially in the human eye. The aim of this work was to investigate metabolism of timolol in human liver and human ocular tissues. The expression of drug metabolizing cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes in the human ciliary epithelial cells was studied. The metabolism of timolol and the interaction potential of timolol with other commercially available medicines were investigated in vitro using different liver preparations. The absorption of timolol to the aqueous humor from two commercially available products: 0.1% eye gel and 0.5% eye drops and the presence of timolol metabolites in the aqueous humor were investigated in a clinical trial. Timolol was confirmed to be metabolized mainly by CYP2D6 as previously suggested. Potent CYP2D6 inhibitors especially fluoxetine, paroxetine and quinidine inhibited the metabolism of timolol. The inhibition may be of clinical significance in patients using ophthalmic timolol products. CYP1A1 and CYP1B1 mRNAs were expressed in the human ciliary epithelial cells. CYP1B1 was also expressed at protein level and the expression was strongly induced by a known potent CYP1B1 inducer 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD). The CYP1B1 induction is suggested to be mediated by aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR). Low levels of CYP2D6 mRNA splice variants were expressed in the human ciliary epithelial cells and very low levels of timolol metabolites were detected in the human aqueous humor. It seems that negligible amount of CYP2D6 protein is expressed in the human ocular tissues. Timolol 0.1% eye gel leads to aqueous humor concentration high enough to achieve therapeutic effect. Inter-individual variation in concentrations is low and intraocular as well as systemic safety can be increased when using this product with lower timolol concentration instead of timolol 0.5% eye drops.

The role of catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) and the effects of COMT inhibition in brain and in cardiovascular and renal pathophysiology

Catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) metabolizes catecholamines such as dopamine (DA), noradrenaline (NA) and adrenaline, which are vital neurotransmitters and hormones that play important roles in the regulation of physiological processes. COMT enzyme has a functional Val158Met polymorphism in humans, which affects the subjects COMT activity. Increasing evidence suggests that this functional polymorphism may play a role in the etiology of various diseases from schizophrenia to cancers. The aim of this project was to provide novel biochemical information on the physiological and especially pathophysiological roles of COMT enzyme as well as the effects of COMT inhibition in the brain and in the cardiovascular and renal system. To assess the roles of COMT and COMT inhibition in pathophysiology, we used four different study designs. The possible beneficial effects of COMT inhibition were studied in double-transgenic rats (dTGRs) harbouring human angiotensinogen and renin genes. Due to angiotensin II (Ang II) overexpression, these animals exhibit severe hypetension, cardiovascular and renal end-organ damage and mortality of approximately 25-40% at the age of 7-weeks. The dTGRs and their Sprague-Dawley controls tissue samples were assessed with light microscopy, immunohistochemistry, reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) to evaluate the tissue damages and the possible protective effects pharmacological intervention with COMT inhibitors. In a second study, the consequence of genetic and pharmacological COMT blockade in blood pressure regulation during normal and high-sodium was elucidated using COMT-deficient mice. The blood pressure and the heart rate were measured using direct radiotelemetric blood pressure surveillance. In a third study, the effects of acute and subchronic COMT inhibition during combined levodopa (L-DOPA) + dopa decarboxylase inhibitor treatment in homocysteine formation was evaluated. Finally, we assessed the COMT enzyme expression, activity and cellular localization in the CNS during inflammation-induced neurodegeneration using Western blotting, HPLC and various enzymatic assays. The effects of pharmacological COMT inhibition on neurodegeneration were also studied. The COMT inhibitor entacapone protected against the Ang II-induced perivascular inflammation, renal damage and cardiovascular mortality in dTGRs. COMT inhibitors reduced the albuminuria by 85% and prevented the cardiovascular mortality completely. Entacapone treatment was shown to ameliorate oxidative stress and inflammation. Furthermore, we established that the genetic and pharmacological COMT enzyme blockade protects against the blood pressure-elevating effects of high sodium intake in mice. These effects were mediated via enhanced renal dopaminergic tone and suggest an important role of COMT enzyme, especially in salt-sensitive hypertension. Entacapone also ameliorated the L-DOPA-induced hyperhomocysteinemia in rats. This is important, since decreased homocysteine levels may decrease the risk of cardiovascular diseases in Parkinson´s disease (PD) patients using L-DOPA. The Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation and subsequent delayed dopaminergic neurodegeneration were accompanied by up-regulation of COMT expression and activity in microglial cells as well as in perivascular cells. Interestingly, similar perivascular up-regulation of COMT expression in inflamed renal tissue was previously noted in dTGRs. These results suggest that inflammation reactions may up-regulate COMT expression. Furthermore, this increased glial and perivascular COMT activity in the central nervous system (CNS) may decrease the bioavailability of L-DOPA and be related to the motor fluctuation noted during L-DOPA therapy in PD patients.

Wood properties and knot occlusion of plantation grown Eucalyptus dunnii and Corymbia citriodora subsp. variegata in a pruning and thinning experiment.

A 2 × 2 factorial combination of thinned or unthinned, and pruned or unpruned 11-year-old Eucalyptus dunnii (DWG) and 12-year-old Corymbia citriodora subsp. variegata (CCV) was destructively sampled to provide 60 trees in total per species. Two 1.4 m long billets were cut from each tree and were rotary veneered in a spindleless lathe down to a 45 mm diameter core to expose knots which were classified as either alive, partially occluded or fully occluded. Non-destructive evaluation of a wider range of thinning treatments available in these trials was undertaken with Pilodyn and Fakopp tools. Disc samples were also taken for basic density and modulus of elasticity. Differences between treatments for all wood property assessments were generally small and not significantly different.Thinning and pruning had little effect on the stem diameter growth required to achieve occlusion, therefore occlusion would be more rapid after thinning due to more rapid stem diameter growth. The difference between the treatments of greatest management interest, thinned and pruned (T&P) and unthinned and unpruned (UT&UP) were small. The production of higher value clear wood produced after all knots had occluded, measured as the average stem diameter growth over occlusion of the three outermost knots, was approximately 2 centimetres diameter. Two of the treatments can be ruled out as viable management alternatives: (i) the effect of thinning without pruning (T&UP) is clear, leading to a large inner core of stem wood containing knots (large knotty core diameter) and (ii) pruning without thinning (UT&P) results in a small knotty core diameter, however the tree and therefore log diameters are also small.

Cholesterol Disturbances in Inherited Neurodegenerative Diseases : Studies on Npc1, Ppt1 and Ctsd deficient mice

The central nervous system (CNS) is the most cholesterol-rich organ in the body. Cholesterol is essential to CNS functions such as synaptogenesis and formation of myelin. Significant differences exist in cholesterol metabolism between the CNS and the peripheral organs. However, the regulation of cholesterol metabolism in the CNS is poorly understood compared to our knowledge of the regulation of cholesterol homeostasis in organs reached by cholesterol-carrying lipoprotein particles in the circulation. Defects in CNS cholesterol homeostasis have been linked to a variety of neurodegenerative diseases, including common diseases with complex pathogenetic mechanisms such as Alzheimer s disease. In spite of intense effort, the mechanisms which link disturbed cholesterol homeostasis to these diseases remain elusive. We used three inherited recessive neurodegenerative disorders as models in the studies included in this thesis: Niemann-Pick type C (NPC), infantile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis and cathepsin D deficiency. Of these three, NPC has previously been linked to disturbed intracellular cholesterol metabolism. Elucidating the mechanisms with which disturbances of cholesterol homeostasis link to neurodegeneration in recessive inherited disorders with known genetic lesions should shed light on how cholesterol is handled in the healthy CNS and help to understand how these and more complex diseases develop. In the first study we analyzed the synthesis of sterols and the assembly and secretion of lipoprotein particles in Npc1 deficient primary astrocytes. We found that both wild type and Npc1 deficient astrocytes retain significant amounts of desmosterol and other cholesterol precursor sterols as membrane constituents. No difference was observed in the synthesis of sterols and the secretion of newly synthesized sterols between Npc1 wild type, heterozygote or knockout astrocytes. We found that the incorporation of newly synthesized sterols into secreted lipoprotein particles was not inhibited by Npc1 mutation, and the lipoprotein particles were similar to those excreted by wild type astrocytes in shape and size. The bulk of cholesterol was found to be secreted independently of secreted NPC2. These observations demonstrate the ability of Npc1 deficient astrocytes to handle de novo sterols, and highlight the unique sterol composition in the developing brain. Infantile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis is caused by the deficiency of a functional Ppt1 enzyme in the cells. In the second study, global gene expression studies of approximately 14000 mouse genes showed significant changes in the expression of 135 genes in Ppt1 deficient neurons compared to wild type. Several genes encoding for enzymes of the mevalonate pathway of cholesterol biosynthesis showed increased expression. As predicted by the expression data, sterol biosynthesis was found to be upregulated in the knockout neurons. These data link Ppt1 deficiency to disturbed cholesterol metabolism in CNS neurons. In the third study we investigated the effect of cathepsin D deficiency on the structure of myelin and lipid homeostasis in the brain. Our proteomics data, immunohistochemistry and western blotting data showed altered levels of the myelin protein components myelin basic protein, proteolipid protein and 2 , 3 -cyclic nucleotide 3 phosphodiesterase in the brains of cathepsin D deficient mice. Electron microscopy revealed altered myelin structure in cathepsin D deficient brains. Additionally, plasmalogen-derived alkenyl chains and 20- and 24-carbon saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids typical for glycosphingolipids were found to be significantly reduced, but polyunsaturated species were significantly increased in the knockout brains, pointing to a decrease in white matter. The levels of ApoE and ABCA1 proteins linked to cholesterol efflux in the CNS were found to be altered in the brains of cathepsin D deficient mice, along with an accumulation of cholesteryl esters and a decrease in triglycerols. Together these data demonstrate altered myelin architecture in cathepsin D deficient mice and link cathepsin D deficiency to aberrant cholesterol metabolism and trafficking. Basic research into rare monogenic diseases sheds light on the underlying biological processes which are perturbed in these conditions and contributes to our understanding of the physiological function of healthy cells. Eventually, understanding gained from the study of disease models may contribute towards establishing treatment for these disorders and further our understanding of the pathogenesis of other, more complex and common diseases.