A comparative risk assessment of burden of disease and injury attributable to 67 risk factors and risk factor clusters in 21 regions, 1990–2010: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010

BACKGROUND Quantification of the disease burden caused by different risks informs prevention by providing an account of health loss different to that provided by a disease-by-disease analysis. No complete revision of global disease burden caused by risk factors has been done since a comparative risk assessment in 2000, and no previous analysis has assessed changes in burden attributable to risk factors over time. METHODS We estimated deaths and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs; sum of years lived with disability [YLD] and years of life lost [YLL]) attributable to the independent effects of 67 risk factors and clusters of risk factors for 21 regions in 1990 and 2010. We estimated exposure distributions for each year, region, sex, and age group, and relative risks per unit of exposure by systematically reviewing and synthesising published and unpublished data. We used these estimates, together with estimates of cause-specific deaths and DALYs from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010, to calculate the burden attributable to each risk factor exposure compared with the theoretical-minimum-risk exposure. We incorporated uncertainty in disease burden, relative risks, and exposures into our estimates of attributable burden. FINDINGS In 2010, the three leading risk factors for global disease burden were high blood pressure (7·0% [95% uncertainty interval 6·2-7·7] of global DALYs), tobacco smoking including second-hand smoke (6·3% [5·5-7·0]), and alcohol use (5·5% [5·0-5·9]). In 1990, the leading risks were childhood underweight (7·9% [6·8-9·4]), household air pollution from solid fuels (HAP; 7·0% [5·6-8·3]), and tobacco smoking including second-hand smoke (6·1% [5·4-6·8]). Dietary risk factors and physical inactivity collectively accounted for 10·0% (95% UI 9·2-10·8) of global DALYs in 2010, with the most prominent dietary risks being diets low in fruits and those high in sodium. Several risks that primarily affect childhood communicable diseases, including unimproved water and sanitation and childhood micronutrient deficiencies, fell in rank between 1990 and 2010, with unimproved water and sanitation accounting for 0·9% (0·4-1·6) of global DALYs in 2010. However, in most of sub-Saharan Africa childhood underweight, HAP, and non-exclusive and discontinued breastfeeding were the leading risks in 2010, while HAP was the leading risk in south Asia. The leading risk factor in Eastern Europe, most of Latin America, and southern sub-Saharan Africa in 2010 was alcohol use; in most of Asia, North Africa and Middle East, and central Europe it was high blood pressure. Despite declines, tobacco smoking including second-hand smoke remained the leading risk in high-income north America and western Europe. High body-mass index has increased globally and it is the leading risk in Australasia and southern Latin America, and also ranks high in other high-income regions, North Africa and Middle East, and Oceania. INTERPRETATION Worldwide, the contribution of different risk factors to disease burden has changed substantially, with a shift away from risks for communicable diseases in children towards those for non-communicable diseases in adults. These changes are related to the ageing population, decreased mortality among children younger than 5 years, changes in cause-of-death composition, and changes in risk factor exposures. New evidence has led to changes in the magnitude of key risks including unimproved water and sanitation, vitamin A and zinc deficiencies, and ambient particulate matter pollution. The extent to which the epidemiological shift has occurred and what the leading risks currently are varies greatly across regions. In much of sub-Saharan Africa, the leading risks are still those associated with poverty and those that affect children.

Antioxidant responses to an acute ultra-endurance exercise: Impact on DNA stability and indications for an increased need for nutritive antioxidants in the early recovery phase

Antioxidant requirements have neither been defined for endurance nor been defined for ultra-endurance athletes. To verify whether an acute bout of ultra-endurance exercise modifies the need for nutritive antioxidants, we aimed (1) to investigate the changes of endogenous and exogenous antioxidants in response to an Ironman triathlon; (2) to particularise the relevance of antioxidant responses to the indices of oxidatively damaged blood lipids, blood cell compounds and lymphocyte DNA and (3) to examine whether potential time-points of increased susceptibility to oxidative damage are associated with alterations in the antioxidant status. Blood that was collected from forty-two well-trained male athletes 2 d pre-race, immediately post-race, and 1, 5 and 19 d later was sampled. The key findings of the present study are as follows: (1) Immediately post-race, vitamin C, alpha-tocopherol, and levels of the Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity, the ferric reducing ability of plasma and the oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) assays increased significantly. Exercise-induced changes in the plasma antioxidant capacity were associated with changes in uric acid, bilirubin and vitamin C. (2) Significant inverse correlations between ORAC levels and indices of oxidatively damaged DNA immediately and 1 d post-race suggest a protective role of the acute antioxidant responses in DNA stability. (3) Significant decreases in carotenoids and gamma-tocopherol 1 d post-race indicate that the antioxidant intake during the first 24 h of recovery following an acute ultra-endurance exercise requires specific attention. Furthermore, the present study illustrates the importance of a diversified and well-balanced diet to maintain a physiological antioxidant status in ultra-endurance athletes in reference to recommendations.

Antioxidants in Athlete's Basic Nutrition: Considerations towards a Guideline for the Intake of Vitamin C and Vitamin E

Antioxidants in acute physical exercise and exercise training remain a hot topic in sport nutrition, exercise physiology and biology, in general (Jackson, 2008; Margaritis and Rousseau, 2008; Gomez-Cabrera et al., 2012; Nikolaidis et al., 2012). During the past few decades, antioxidants have received attention predominantly as a nutritional strategy for preventing or minimising detrimental effects of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS), which are generated during and after strenuous exercise (Jackson, 2008, 2009; Powers and Jackson, 2008). Antioxidant supplementation has become a common practice among athletes as a means to (theoretically) reduce oxidative stress, promote recovery and enhance performance (Peternelj and Coombes, 2011). However, until now, requirements of antioxidant micronutrients and antioxidant compounds for athletes training for and competing in different sport events, including marathon running, triathlon races or team sport events involving repeated sprinting, have not been determined sufficiently (Williams et al., 2006; Margaritis and Rousseau, 2008). Crucially, evidence has been emerging that higher dosages of antioxidants may not necessarily be beneficial in this context, but can also elicit detrimental effects by interfering with performance-enhancing (Gomez-Cabrera et al., 2008) and health-promoting training adaptations (Ristow et al., 2009). As originally postulated in a pioneering study on exercise-induced production of RONS by Davies et al. (1982) in the early 1980s, evidence has been increasing in recent years that RONS are not only damaging agents, but also act as signalling molecules for regulating muscle function (Reid, 2001; Jackson, 2008) and for initiating adaptive responses to exercise (Jackson, 2009; Powers et al., 2010). The recognition that antioxidants could, vice versa, interact with the signalling pathways underlying the responses to acute (and repeated) bouts of exercise has contributed important novel aspects to the continued discussion on antioxidant requirements for athletes. In view of the recent advances in this field, it is the aim of this report to examine the current knowledge of antioxidants, in particular of vitamins C and E, in the basic nutrition of athletes. While overviews on related topics including basic mechanisms of exercise-induced oxidative stress, redox biology, antioxidant defence systems and a summary of studies on antioxidant supplementation during exercise training are provided, this does not mean that this report is comprehensive. Several issues of the expanding and multidisciplinary field of antioxidants and exercise are covered elsewhere in this book and/or in the literature. Exemplarily, the reader is referred to reviews on oxidative stress (Konig et al., 2001; Vollaard et al., 2005; Knez et al., 2006; Powers and Jackson, 2008; Nikolaidis et al., 2012), redox-sensitive signalling and muscle function (Reid, 2001; Vollaard et al., 2005; Jackson, 2008; Ji, 2008; Powers and Jackson, 2008; Powers et al., 2010; Radak et al., 2013) and antioxidant supplementation (Williams et al., 2006; Peake et al., 2007; Peternelj and Coombes, 2011) in the context with exercise. Within the scope of the report, we rather aim to address the question regarding requirements of antioxidants, specifically vitamins C and E, during exercise training, draw conclusions and provide practical implications from the recent research.

Molecular characterisation and carotenoid quantification of pro-vitamin A biofortified genetically modified bananas in Uganda

In Uganda, a significant proportion of the population depends on the micronutrient poor East African highland banana as a food staple. Consequently, micronutrient deficiencies such as vitamin A deficiency are an important health concern in the country. To reach most vulnerable rural poor populations, staple crops can be biofortified with essential micronutrients though conventional breeding or genetic engineering. This thesis provided proof of concept that genetically modified East African highland bananas with enhanced provitamin A levels can be generated and fully characterised in Uganda. In addition, provitamin A levels present in popular banana varieties was documented.

Russell D James and Peter J Wosh (eds)

Public Relations and Marketing for Archives: A How-to-do-it Manual, New York, Neal-Schuman Publishers with the Society of American Archivists, 2011. xiv + 273 pp. ISBN 978-1-5557-0733-0. US$80.00 Public Relations and Marketing for Archives – A How-To-Do-It Manual provides a brief, but broad overview of the key elements of marketing, public relations and stakeholder engagement for archives...

Orientations to Critical Literacy for English as an Additional Language or Dialect (EAL/D) learners: A case study of four teachers of senior English

Recently, the debate around critical literacy has dissipated as literacy education agendas and attendant policies shift to embrace more hybrid approaches to the teaching of senior English. This paper reports on orientations towards critical literacy as expressed by four teachers of senior English who teach culturally and linguistically diverse learners. Teachers’ understandings of critical literacy are important given the emphasis on Critical and Creative Thinking as well as Literacy as General Capabilities underpinning the Australian Curriculum. Using critical discourse analysis and Janks' (2010) Synthesis Model of Critical Literacy, interview and classroom data from four teachers of English as an Additional Language or Dialect (EAL/D) learners in two high schools were analysed for the ways these teachers constructed critical literacy in their talk and practice. While all four teachers indicated significant commitment to critical literacy as an approach to English language teaching, their understandings varied. These ranged from providing access to powerful genres, to rationalist approaches to interrogating text, with less emphasis on multimodal design and drawing on learner diversity. This has significant implications for what kind of learning is being offered to EAL/D learners in the name of English teaching, for syllabus design, and for teacher professional development.

A mouse with an N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea (ENU) induced Trp589Arg Galnt3 mutation represents a model for hyperphosphataemic familial tumoural calcinosis

Mutations of UDP-N-acetyl-alpha-D-galactosamine polypeptide N-acetyl galactosaminyl transferase 3 (GALNT3) result in familial tumoural calcinosis (FTC) and the hyperostosis-hyperphosphataemia syndrome (HHS), which are autosomal recessive disorders characterised by soft-tissue calcification and hyperphosphataemia. To facilitate in vivo studies of these heritable disorders of phosphate homeostasis, we embarked on establishing a mouse model by assessing progeny of mice treated with the chemical mutagen N-ethyl-N-nitrosourea (ENU), and identified a mutant mouse, TCAL, with autosomal recessive inheritance of ectopic calcification, which involved multiple tissues, and hyperphosphataemia; the phenotype was designated TCAL and the locus, Tcal. TCAL males were infertile with loss of Sertoli cells and spermatozoa, and increased testicular apoptosis. Genetic mapping localized Tcal to chromosome 2 (62.64-71.11 Mb) which contained the Galnt3. DNA sequence analysis identified a Galnt3 missense mutation (Trp589Arg) in TCAL mice. Transient transfection of wild-type and mutant Galnt3-enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) constructs in COS-7 cells revealed endoplasmic reticulum retention of the Trp589Arg mutant and Western blot analysis of kidney homogenates demonstrated defective glycosylation of Galnt3 in Tcal/Tcal mice. Tcal/Tcal mice had normal plasma calcium and parathyroid hormone concentrations; decreased alkaline phosphatase activity and intact Fgf23 concentrations; and elevation of circulating 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D. Quantitative reverse transcriptase-PCR (qRT-PCR) revealed that Tcal/Tcal mice had increased expression of Galnt3 and Fgf23 in bone, but that renal expression of Klotho, 25-hydroxyvitamin D-1α-hydroxylase (Cyp27b1), and the sodium-phosphate co-transporters type-IIa and -IIc was similar to that in wild-type mice. Thus, TCAL mice have the phenotypic features of FTC and HHS, and provide a model for these disorders of phosphate metabolism. © 2012 Esapa et al.

Synthesis and luminescent properties of star-burst D-Pi-A compounds based on 1,3,5-triazine core and carbazole end-capped phenylene ethynylene arms

Two new star-burst compounds based on 1,3,5-triazine core and carbazole end-capped phenylene ethynylene arms (1a and 1b) were synthesized and characterized. Their photophysical properties were investigated systematically via spectroscopic and theoretical methods. Both compounds exhibit strong 1π–π⁎ transitions in the UV region and intense 1π–π⁎/intramolecular charge transfer (1ICT) absorption bands in the UV–vis region. Introducing the carbazole end-capped phenylene ethynylene arm on the 1,3,5-triazine core causes a slight bathochromic shift and enhanced molar extinction coefficient of the 1π–π⁎/1ICT transition band. Both compounds are emissive in solution at room temperature and 77 K, which exhibit pronounced positive solvatochromic effect. The emitting state could be ascribed to 1ICT state in more polar solvent, and 1π–π⁎ state in low-polarity solvent. The high emission quantum yields (Φem=0.90~1.0) of 1a and 1b (in hexane and toluene) make them potential candidates as efficient light-emitting materials. The spectroscopic studies and theoretical calculations indicate that the photophysical properties of these compounds can be tuned by the carbazole end-capped phenylene ethynylene arm, which would also be useful for rational design of photofunctional materials.

Changes in lycopene and beta carotene contents in aril and oil of gac fruit during storage

Gac fruits were physically measured and stored under ambient conditions for up to 2 weeks to observe changes in carotenoid contents (lycopene and beta carotene) in its aril. Initial concentrations in the aril of lycopene were from 2.378 mg/g fresh weight (FW) to 3.728 mg/g FW and those of beta carotene were from 0.257 to 0.379 mg/g FW. Carotenoid concentrations in the aril remained stable after 1 week but sharply declined after 2 weeks of storage. Gac oil, pressed from gac aril, has similar concentrations of lycopene and beta carotene (2.436 and 2.592 mg/g, respectively). Oil was treated with 0.02% of butylated hydroxytoluene, or with a stream of nitrogen or untreated then stored in the dark for up to 15 or 19 weeks under different temperatures (5 °C, ambient, 45 and 60 °C). Lycopene and beta carotene in control gac oil degraded following the first-order kinetic model. The degradation rate of lycopene and beta carotene in the treated oil samples were lower than that in the control oil but the first-order kinetic was not always followed. However, both lycopene and beta carotene degraded quickly in gac oil with the first-order kinetic under high temperature conditions (45 and 60 °C) regardless of the treatments used. © 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Tyrosine kinases and calcium dependent activation of endothelial cell phospholipase D by diperoxovanadate

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) mediated modulation of signal transduction pathways represent an important mechanism of cell injury and barrier dysfunction leading to the development of vascular disorders. Towards understanding the role of ROS in vascular dysfunction, we investigated the effect of diperoxovanadate (DPV), derived from mixing hydrogen peroxide and vanadate, on the activation of phospholipase D (PLD) in bovine pulmonary artery endothelial cells (BPAECs). Addition of DPV to BPAECs in the presence of .05% butanol resulted in an accumulation of [P-32] phosphatidylbutanol (PBt) in a dose- and time-dependent manner. DPV also caused an increase in tyrosine phosphorylation of several protein bands (Mr 20-200 kD), as determined by Western blot analysis with antiphosphotyrosine antibodies. The DPV-induced [P-32] PBt-accumulation was inhibited by putative tyrosine kinase inhibitors such as genistein, herbimycin, tyrphostin and by chelation of Ca2+ with either EGTA or BAPTA, however, pretreatment of BPAECs with the inhibitor PKC bisindolylmaleimide showed minimal inhibition. Also down-regulation of PKC alpha and epsilon, the major isotypes of PKC in BPAECs, by TPA (100 nM, 18 h) did not attenuate the DPV-induced PLD activation. The effects of putative tyrosine kinase and PKC inhibitors were specific as determined by comparing [P-32] PBt formation between DPV and TPA. In addition to tyrosine kinase inhibitors, antioxidants such as N-acetylcysteine and pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate also attenuated DPV-induced protein tyrosine phosphorylation and PLD stimulation. These results suggest that oxidation, prevented by reduction with thiol compounds, is involved in DPV-dependent protein tyrosine phosphorylation and PLD activation.

Effect of spatial dispersion of the dielectric on the binding energy of D- ion in Si and Ge

Using a multivalley effective mass theory, we obtain the binding energy of a D- ion in Si and Ge taking into account the spatial variation of the host dielectric function. We find that on comparison with experimental results the effect of spatial dispersion is important in the estimation of binding energy for the D- formed by As in Si and Ge. The effect is less significant for the case of D- formed by P and Sb donors.

Analytical approximation solutions for 3-D optical waveguides: Review

The rectangular dielectric waveguide is the most commonly used structure in integrated optics, especially in semi-conductor diode lasers. Demands for new applications such as high-speed data backplanes in integrated electronics, waveguide filters, optical multiplexers and optical switches are driving technology toward better materials and processing techniques for planar waveguide structures. The infinite slab and circular waveguides that we know are not practical for use on a substrate because the slab waveguide has no lateral confinement and the circular fiber is not compatible with the planar processing technology being used to make planar structures. The rectangular waveguide is the natural structure. In this review, we have discussed several analytical methods for analyzing the mode structure of rectangular structures, beginning with a wave analysis based on the pioneering work of Marcatili. We study three basic techniques with examples to compare their performance levels. These are the analytical approach developed by Marcatili, the perturbation techniques, which improve on the analytical solutions and the effective index method with examples.

The first observation of a Na2TiS2 related structure in a 2-D anionic manganese trimesate intercalated by cationic imidazole

A hydrothermal reaction of Mn(OAc)2·4H2O, trimesic acid, imidazole, KOH and water at 75 °C for 24 h gave rise to a 2-D compound, [HImd][Mn(BTC)(H2O)] (Imd = imidazole; BTC = trimesate), with protonated imidazole molecules occupying the inter-lamellar space, and the structure resembles the classic inorganic compound, the sodium intercalated TiS2 (Na2TiS2).

Interaction of Co, Mn, Mg and AI with d(GCGTACGC): a spectroscopic study

Spectroscopic study on the interactions of trace elements Co, Mn, Mg and Al with d(GCGTACGC) indicated the following: Al and Mg did not alter T-m values. Mn enhanced T-m at lower concentration and decreased it at higher concentrations. Interestingly Co at higher concentration elevated the T-m. These studies also showed lower concentrations of Mn displaced EtBr, whereas Al could displace it at higher ionic strength. Mg and Co displaced EtBr fluorescence at moderate concentrations. The binding constant values and CD spectra clearly indicated strong binding of these elements to DNA.

Structure of the Monosodium Salt of D-Glucose 6-Hydrogenphosphate

Na+.C6HI209 P-, Mr=282.1, monoclinic, e2~, a=5-762(1), b=7.163(2), c=12.313(1)A, fl= 99.97 (1) °, U= 500.5 A 3, Z= 2, D m = 1.86, D x = 1.87 Mg m -s, Cu Ka, 2 = 1.5418 A, /a = 3-3 mm -1, F(000) = 292, T= 300 K, final R for 922 observed reflections is 0-042. The phosphate ester bond, P-O(6), is 1.575 (5)A, slightly shorter than the P~O bond in monopotassium phosphoenolpyruvate [1.612 (6) A] [Hosur & Viswamitra (1981). Acta Cryst. B37, 839-843]. The pyranose sugar ring takes a 4C 1 chair conformation. The conformation about the exocyclic C(5)-C(6) bond is gauche-trans. The endocyclic C-O bonds in the glucose ring are nearly equal with C(5)-O(5) = 1.435 (8) and C(1)-O(5) = 1.436 (9) A. The sodium ion has seven near neighbours within a distance of 2.9 A. The crystal structure is stabilized by hydrogen bonds between the O atoms of symmetryrelated molecules.