Aquinas, Kant and eclipse of practical reason

The article examines the nature and scope of practical reason with regard to Saint Thomas Aquinas' work offering materials for defending a substantive view of practical rationality. Topics include the differences between procedural and substantive views of practical rationality, philosopher Christine M. Korsgaard's interpretation of philosopher Immanuel Kant's views on practical reason, and modern versions of the natural law theory.

Using digital projection to evoke aesthetic ideas in performance

This practice-led research project investigated the use of digital projection as a compositional tool in live performance. The project was carried out through the creation of a new Australian theatre work called Genesis that poetically integrated digital projection and live performance. The investigation produced a framework for creating powerful theatrical sequences where the themes and ideas of the show were embedded inside particular performance gestures prompting an expanded aesthetic perception of the content.

Encounters with the Virtual : The Experience of Art In Gilles Deleuze's Philosophy

My thesis concerns the notion of existence as an encounter, as developed in the philosophy of Gilles Deleuze (1925 1995). What this denotes is a critical stance towards a major current in Western philosophical tradition which Deleuze nominates as representational thinking. Such thinking strives to provide a stable ground for identities by appealing to transcendent structures behind the apparent reality and explaining the manifest diversity of the given by such notions as essence, idea, God, or totality of the world. In contrast to this, Deleuze states that abstractions such as these do not explain anything, but rather that they need to be explained. Yet, Deleuze does not appeal merely to the given. He sees that one must posit a genetic element that accounts for experience, and this element must not be naïvely traced from the empirical. Deleuze nominates his philosophy as transcendental empiricism and he seeks to bring together the approaches of both empiricism and transcendental philosophy. In chapter one I look into the motivations of Deleuze s transcendental empiricism and analyse it as an encounter between Deleuze s readings of David Hume and Immanuel Kant. This encounter regards, first of all, the question of subjectivity and results in a conception of identity as non-essential process. A pre-given concept of identity does not explain the nature of things, but the concept itself must be explained. From this point of view, the process of individualisation must become the central concern. In chapter two I discuss Deleuze s concept of the affect as the basis of identity and his affiliation with the theories of Gilbert Simondon and Jakob von Uexküll. From this basis develops a morphogenetic theory of individuation-as-process. In analysing such a process of individuation, the modal category of the virtual becomes of great value, being an open, indeterminate charge of potentiality. As the virtual concerns becoming or the continuous process of actualisation, then time, rather than space, will be the privileged field of consideration. Chapter three is devoted to the discussion of the temporal aspect of the virtual and difference-without-identity. The essentially temporal process of subjectification results in a conception of the subject as composition: an assemblage of heterogeneous elements. Therefore art and aesthetic experience is valued by Deleuze because they disclose the construct-like nature of subjectivity in the sensations they produce. Through the domain of the aesthetic the subject is immersed in the network of affectivity that is the material diversity of the world. Chapter four addresses a phenomenon displaying this diversified indentity: the simulacrum an identity that is not grounded in an essence. Developed on the basis of the simulacrum, a theory of identity as assemblage emerges in chapter five. As the problematic of simulacra concerns perhaps foremost the artistic presentation, I shall look into the identity of a work of art as assemblage. To take an example of a concrete artistic practice and to remain within the problematic of the simulacrum, I shall finally address the question of reproduction particularly in the case recorded music and its identity regarding the work of art. In conclusion, I propose that by overturning its initial representational schema, phonographic music addresses its own medium and turns it into an inscription of difference, exposing the listener to an encounter with the virtual.

Logic as the Universal Science : Bertrand Russell's Early Conception of Logic and Its Philosophical Context

Bertrand Russell (1872 1970) introduced the English-speaking philosophical world to modern, mathematical logic and foundational study of mathematics. The present study concerns the conception of logic that underlies his early logicist philosophy of mathematics, formulated in The Principles of Mathematics (1903). In 1967, Jean van Heijenoort published a paper, Logic as Language and Logic as Calculus, in which he argued that the early development of modern logic (roughly the period 1879 1930) can be understood, when considered in the light of a distinction between two essentially different perspectives on logic. According to the view of logic as language, logic constitutes the general framework for all rational discourse, or meaningful use of language, whereas the conception of logic as calculus regards logic more as a symbolism which is subject to reinterpretation. The calculus-view paves the way for systematic metatheory, where logic itself becomes a subject of mathematical study (model-theory). Several scholars have interpreted Russell s views on logic with the help of the interpretative tool introduced by van Heijenoort,. They have commonly argued that Russell s is a clear-cut case of the view of logic as language. In the present study a detailed reconstruction of the view and its implications is provided, and it is argued that the interpretation is seriously misleading as to what he really thought about logic. I argue that Russell s conception is best understood by setting it in its proper philosophical context. This is constituted by Immanuel Kant s theory of mathematics. Kant had argued that purely conceptual thought basically, the logical forms recognised in Aristotelian logic cannot capture the content of mathematical judgments and reasonings. Mathematical cognition is not grounded in logic but in space and time as the pure forms of intuition. As against this view, Russell argued that once logic is developed into a proper tool which can be applied to mathematical theories, Kant s views turn out to be completely wrong. In the present work the view is defended that Russell s logicist philosophy of mathematics, or the view that mathematics is really only logic, is based on what I term the Bolzanian account of logic . According to this conception, (i) the distinction between form and content is not explanatory in logic; (ii) the propositions of logic have genuine content; (iii) this content is conferred upon them by special entities, logical constants . The Bolzanian account, it is argued, is both historically important and throws genuine light on Russell s conception of logic.

Liberty

In terms of critical discourse, Liberty contributes to the ongoing aesthetic debate on ‘the sublime.’ Philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) defined the sublime as a failure of rationality in response to sensory overload: a state where the imagination is suspended, without definitive reference points—a state beyond unequivocal ‘knowing.’ I believe the events of September 11, 2001 eluded our understanding in much the same way, leaving us in a moment of suspension between awe and horror. It was an event that couldn’t be understood in terms of scope or scale. It was a moment of overload, which is so difficult to capture in art. With my work I attempt to rekindle that moment of suspension. Like the events of 9/11, Liberty defies definition. Its form is constantly changing; it is always presenting us with new layers of meaning. Nobody quite had a handle on the events that followed 9/11, because the implications were constantly shifting. In the same way, Liberty cannot be contained or defined at any moment in time. Like the events of 9/11, the full story cannot be told in a snapshot. One of the dictionary definitions for the word ‘sublime’ is the conversion of ‘a solid substance directly into a gas, without there being an intermediate liquid phase’. With this in mind, I would like to present Liberty as a work that is literally ‘sublime.’ But what’s really interesting to me about Liberty is that it presents the sublime on all levels: in its medium, in its subject matter (that moment of suspension), and in its formal (formless) presentation. On every level Liberty is sublime—subverting all tangible reference points and eluding capture entirely. Liberty is based on the Statue of Liberty in New York. However, unlike that statue which has stood in New York since 1886 and can be reasonably expected to stand for millennia, this work takes on diminishing proportions, carved as it is in carbon dioxide, a mysterious, previously unexplored medium—one which smokes, snows and dramatically vanishes into a harmless gas. Like the material this work is carved from, the civil liberties of the free world are diminishing fast, since 9/11 and before. This was my thought when I first conceived this work. Now it’s become evident that Liberty expresses a lot more than just this: it demonstrates the erosion of civil liberties, yes. However, it also presents the intangible, indefinable moments in the days and months that followed 9/11. The sculptural work will last for only a short time, and thereafter will exist only in documentation. During this time, the form is continually changing and self-refining, until it disappears entirely, to be inhaled, metabolised and literally taken to heart by viewers.

Kantin käsitys ystävyydestä ja rakkaudesta

Tässä tutkielmassa tarkastellaan Immanuel Kantin käsitystä ideaalista ystävyydestä. Tarkoituksena oli ratkaista sen olemassa olo rakkauden vastavuoroisuuden perusteella. Ystävyys on ollut antiikista lähtien filosofialle merkittävä ongelma. Immanuel Kant käsittelee ystävyyttä kahdessa teoksessaan The Metaphysics of Morals ja Lectures on Ethics. Kantin ystävyyskäsitys sisältää neljä erilaista ystävyyden lajia. Ne ovat tarveystävyys, esteettinen ystävyys, intiimiystävyys ja ideaali ystävyys. Tarveystävyys perustuu hyödyn tavoittelulle. Esteettisellä ystävyydellä tarkoitetaan nautintoja hakevaa ystävyyttä. Intiimiystävyys on luonteen ystävyyttä. Ideaali ystävyys on Kantin käsitys täydellisestä ystävyydestä. Ideaalissa ystävyydessä niin kuin intiimiystävyydessä tärkeintä on keskusteleminen. Rakkauden tasapainon selvittämiseksi tutustuttiin Kantin käsityksiin rakkaudesta. Rakkauden lajeja Kantilta esittelin viisi. Niiden lisäksi onnellisuus oli tunne, joka vaikutti ystävyyden muodostumiseen. Rakkauden lajeja ovat itserakkaus, eros, agape, philia ja amor benevolentiae. Itserakkaus on itsensä rakastamista. Eros on intohimoa korostava rakkauden laji. Se kuuluu avioliittoon, ei ystävyyteen. Agape tunnetaan lähimmäisenrakkautena. Philia eroaa agapesta siten, että se on kiinnostunut joistain rakastettavista piirteistä toisessa yksilössä. Amor benevolentiae on hyväntahtoisuuden osoittamista. Rakkaus, joka ystävien välillä ilmeni vastavuoroisena, vahvistui lajiltaan philiaksi. Vastavuoroisuus ystävien kesken vaatii ajan ja paikan. Vastavuoroisuutta vaikeuttaa epävarmuus siitä. Vastavuoroisuudesta on saatava runsaasti todisteita. Todisteita saadaan tavoilla, jotka ystävät ymmärtävät. Ymmärtäminen edellyttää yhteisiä viestintäkeinoja. Kun tarpeeksi toisiinsa luottavat ystävät keskustelevat keskenään, he myös muovaavat toistensa persoonia. Silloin he tekevät toisistaan rakastettavampia. Tutkimukseni perusteella ideaali ystävyys on mahdollinen. Vastavuoroisuus rakkaudessa onnistuu, jos ystävät muokkaavat toisiaan. Ideaali ystävyys on molemminpuolisen kehittymisen tulos, jolloin ystävät tekevät toisistaan itsensä kaltaisia ja pystyvät rakastamaan toista kuin itseään.

Kantin käsitys ystävyydestä ja rakkaudesta

Tässä tutkielmassa tarkastellaan Immanuel Kantin käsitystä ideaalista ystävyydestä. Tarkoituksena oli ratkaista sen olemassa olo rakkauden vastavuoroisuuden perusteella. Ystävyys on ollut antiikista lähtien filosofialle merkittävä ongelma. Immanuel Kant käsittelee ystävyyttä kahdessa teoksessaan The Metaphysics of Morals ja Lectures on Ethics. Kantin ystävyyskäsitys sisältää neljä erilaista ystävyyden lajia. Ne ovat tarveystävyys, esteettinen ystävyys, intiimiystävyys ja ideaali ystävyys. Tarveystävyys perustuu hyödyn tavoittelulle. Esteettisellä ystävyydellä tarkoitetaan nautintoja hakevaa ystävyyttä. Intiimiystävyys on luonteen ystävyyttä. Ideaali ystävyys on Kantin käsitys täydellisestä ystävyydestä. Ideaalissa ystävyydessä niin kuin intiimiystävyydessä tärkeintä on keskusteleminen. Rakkauden tasapainon selvittämiseksi tutustuttiin Kantin käsityksiin rakkaudesta. Rakkauden lajeja Kantilta esittelin viisi. Niiden lisäksi onnellisuus oli tunne, joka vaikutti ystävyyden muodostumiseen. Rakkauden lajeja ovat itserakkaus, eros, agape, philia ja amor benevolentiae. Itserakkaus on itsensä rakastamista. Eros on intohimoa korostava rakkauden laji. Se kuuluu avioliittoon, ei ystävyyteen. Agape tunnetaan lähimmäisenrakkautena. Philia eroaa agapesta siten, että se on kiinnostunut joistain rakastettavista piirteistä toisessa yksilössä. Amor benevolentiae on hyväntahtoisuuden osoittamista. Rakkaus, joka ystävien välillä ilmeni vastavuoroisena, vahvistui lajiltaan philiaksi. Vastavuoroisuus ystävien kesken vaatii ajan ja paikan. Vastavuoroisuutta vaikeuttaa epävarmuus siitä. Vastavuoroisuudesta on saatava runsaasti todisteita. Todisteita saadaan tavoilla, jotka ystävät ymmärtävät. Ymmärtäminen edellyttää yhteisiä viestintäkeinoja. Kun tarpeeksi toisiinsa luottavat ystävät keskustelevat keskenään, he myös muovaavat toistensa persoonia. Silloin he tekevät toisistaan rakastettavampia. Tutkimukseni perusteella ideaali ystävyys on mahdollinen. Vastavuoroisuus rakkaudessa onnistuu, jos ystävät muokkaavat toisiaan. Ideaali ystävyys on molemminpuolisen kehittymisen tulos, jolloin ystävät tekevät toisistaan itsensä kaltaisia ja pystyvät rakastamaan toista kuin itseään.

Valistus suomalaisessa kirjakulttuurissa 1700-luvulla

The dissertation discusses the history of the book and the Enlightenment in Finland by studying the reception and diffusion of eighteenth-century books and by approaching the discourse on the Enlightenment in Finnish source material. The methods used relate to historian Robert Darnton s studies on eighteenth-century print culture and his analyses of the relations between print culture and society. The study is based on diverse eighteenth-century sources: books, pamphlets and dissertations, bibliographies, book auction protocols, parliamentary documents, estate inventory deeds, newspapers, letters, lectures, memoirs and commonplace books. By the end of the eighteenth century, book production had increased and secular literature had begun to challenge the dominance of religious literature. The books of the Enlightenment belonged to the new literature that found its way into Finnish book collections previously dominated by religious literature. Enlightenment literature is not a set selection of books but rather diverse works from different genres. Thus the study introduces a variety of printed material, from philosophical tracts and textbooks to novels and pornography. In the case of books of the Enlightenment, the works of French Voltaire and German Christian Wolff were among the most widely read and circulated books in Finland. First and foremost, the Enlightenment was an era of intellectual debate. These debates carried strong criticism of the prevailing systems of thought. Enlightenment ideas challenged the Lutheran society of Sweden and especially its sense of conformity. Contemporaries saw many of the books of the Enlightenment as vessels of new ideas and criticism. Furthermore, this kind of print material was interpreted as being dangerous for uneducated readers. Belonging to a certain estate and social class had a major impact on individuals reading habits and their acquisition of books. One specific social group stands out in the Finnish source material: the officers at the Sveaborg naval fortress possessed and distributed Enlightenment books more than the members of any other social class. Other essential social groups were scholars, the nobility and the clergy, who took part in debates concerning the ideas and benefits of the Enlightenment. In the Finnish debates at the time, the concept of Enlightenment involved three primary notions. Firstly, it referred to the French philosophers, les philosophes, and to their works as well as to the social changes that took place during the French revolution. It also carried the idea of philosophical light or the light of reason, in a sense similar to Immanuel Kant s writings. Most importantly, it referred to a belief in progress and to a trust in true knowledge that would supercede ignorance and fanaticism. Hence, it is impossible to speak about the Enlightenment era in the Swedish realm without such concepts as reason, benefit or progress. These concepts likewise marked the books of the Enlightenment in eighteenth-century Finland.

An Analysis of the Concept of Citizenship: Legal, Political and Social Dimensions

The thesis aims at analyzing concept of citizenship in political philosophy. The concept of citizenship is a complex one: it does not have a definitive explication, but it nevertheless is a very important category in contemporary world. Citizenship is a powerful ideal, and often the way a person is treated depends on whether he or she has the status of a citizen. Citizenship includes protection of a person’s rights both at home and abroad. It entails legal, political and social dimension: the legal status as a full member of society, the recognition of that status by fellow citizens and acting as a member of society. The thesis discusses these three dimensions. Its objective is to show how all of them, despite being insufficient in some aspects, reach something important about the concept. The main sources of the thesis are Civic Republicanism by Iseult Honohan (Routledge 2002), Republicanism by Philip Pettit (Clarendon Press 1997), and Taking Rights Seriously by Ronald Dworkin (1997). In addition, the historical part of the thesis relies mainly on the works of Aristotle, Immanuel Kant, Adam Smith, Quentin Skinner, James Pocock and James Tully. The writings of Will Kymlicka, John Rawls, Chantal Mouffe, and Shane Phelan are referred to in the presentation and critique of the liberal tradition of thought. Hannah Arendt and Seyla Benhabib’s analysis of Arendt’s philosophy both address the problematic relations between human rights and nation-states as the main guarantors of rights. The chapter on group rights relies on Peter Jones’ account of corporate and collective rights, after which I continue to Seumas Miller’s essay on the (liberal) account of group rights and their relation to the concept of citizenship. Republicanism and Political Theory (2002) edited by Cécile Laborde and John Maynor is also references. David Miller and Maurizio Viroli represent the more “rooted” version of republicanism. The thesis argues that the full concept of citizenship should be seen as containing legal, political and social dimensions. The concept can be viewed from all of these three angles. The first means that citizenship is connected with certain rights, like the right to vote or stand for election, the right to property and so on. In most societies, the law guarantees these rights to every citizen. Then there is also the social dimension, which can be said to be as important as the legal one: the recognition of equality and identities of others. Finally, there is the political dimension, meaning the importance of citizens’ participation in the society, which is discussed in connection with the contemporary account of republicanism. All these issues are discussed from the point of view of groups demanding for group-specific rights and equal recognition. The challenge with these three aspects of citizenship is, however, that they are difficult to discuss under one heading. Different theories or discourses of citizenship each approach the subject from different starting points, which make reconciling them sometimes hard. The fundamental questions theories try to answer may differ radically depending on the theory. Nevertheless, in order to get the whole image of what the citizenship discourses are about all the aspects deserve to be taken into account.

O status ontológico e moral do embrião humano

A presente dissertação é fruto de uma investigação filosófica, inserida na linha de pesquisa de Ética. Esse trabalho aprofunda uma discussão polêmica no contexto da Bioética, a saber: a manipulação de células embrionárias. Contudo, o autor não envereda seus esforços nas conse-quências éticas advindas das novas tecnologias produzidas pela Engenharia Genética, mas adentra na causa do problema, isto é, pretende antes saber se o embrião humano é ser vivo, ser humano e, principalmente, pessoa. Assim, o autor tem como objetivo principal investigar o status ontológico e moral do embrião humano. Nesse contexto, investiga o conceito de identidade pessoal, examinando-o - brevemente - à luz de duas teorias da Filosofia da Mente: internalista, que defende a construção do eu por bases internas; e a externalista, que advoga a construção do eu por bases externas. Elenca e analisa os atributos essenciais que concebe uma pessoa. Também pesquisa o conceito de dignidade humana e sua vinculação ao conceito de pessoa, tendo como base a filosofia moral de Immanuel Kant, através de sua obra Fundamentação da Metafísica dos Costumes. Além desta e da bibliografia utilizada sobre o tema, a fonte principal dessa discussão é a obra Ética Prática, do filósofo Peter Singer. Vale destacar que existem três posições dominantes dentro dessa temática: a) Teoria Concepcionalista, a qual argumenta que o embrião é pessoa desde a concepção e, por isso, desautoriza qualquer manipulação; b) Teoria Genético-Desenvolvimentista, a qual defende a pessoalidade do embrião a partir de diferentes etapas do seu desenvolvimento biológico e, desse modo, defende as pesquisas biomédicas; c) Teoria da Potencialidade da Pessoa, a qual advoga que o embrião ainda não tem a pessoalidade, no entanto, é um potencial ser humano e pessoa, e, por essa razão, sua integridade deve ser preservada. Ao final, o autor enumera as principais implicações éticas, psicológicas, sociais e jurídicas, uma vez determinados os estatutos ontológico e moral do embrião humano.

Thémis desnudada: a questão da justiça em Hans Kelsen

Embora Hans Kelsen tenha desenvolvido suas ideias sobre a justiça em diversos artigos e capítulos de livros, o jusfilósofo nunca edificou uma obra mais profunda, monográfica ou sistemática sobre a questão do justo. Suas considerações, o mais das vezes proferidas incidentalmente quando da análise e crítica das teorias do direito natural, se encontram, a bem dizer, dispersas por diversas produções. A leitura integral e conjunta de seus estudos, entretanto, permite a identificação da mesma e coerente concepção de filosofia moral que perpassa todos os seus escritos, concepção esta que sugere a relatividade, subjetividade e irracionalidade da questão do justo. Sem o propósito de ser uma biografia intelectual ou uma psicanálise do conhecimento das conclusões kelsenianas sobre o problema da justiça, o objetivo da presente dissertação, além da tentativa de realizar uma exposição sistemática da própria teoria da justiça de Kelsen  dispersa por uma multiplicidade de trabalhos, nem todos disponíveis ou publicados em língua portuguesa , consiste na análise dos pressupostos e justificativas teórico-filosóficos que, utilizados pelo jusfilósofo como embasamento de suas inferências sobre o tema, o conduzem a afirmar a incognoscibilidade de qualquer conceito absoluto, objetivo e universal de justiça, ou a viabilidade de uma razão prática. A meta maior desta dissertação, portanto, é o estabelecimento e elucidação das premissas extraídas por Kelsen do pensamento teórico-filosófico de Max Weber, Immanuel Kant (além dos neokantismos de Marburgo e Baden), Wittgenstein, e dos neopositivistas do Círculo de Viena, para rejeitar lógico-gnosiologicamente as concepções absolutistas do justo, bem como a possibilidade de discutir ou definir racionalmente a justiça e as normas morais dela decorrentes. A partir de elementos colhidos dessas diferentes correntes intelectuais, Kelsen desacredita, com base na distinção entre enunciados sobre fatos (racionais e verificáveis) e proposições relativas a valores (irracionais e não verificáveis), a capacidade humana de cognição dos valores em geral e, mais ainda, a existência e cognoscibilidade de valores absolutos  em sua ótica, requisitos imprescindíveis para a exequibilidade de qualquer sistema objetivo de moralidade ou para especulações racionais sobre a justiça.

Educação infantil como direito fundamental à formação da criança: contornos do conteúdo do direito exigível

Este trabalho objetiva apreender os sentidos contidos nos artigos da Constituição Federal de 1988 que tratam da Educação Nacional e em particular da Educação Infantil. Procura relacioná-los ao modo como o sistema brasileiro, por meio das legislações educacionais: Plano Nacional de Ensino PNE; Diretrizes Curriculares Nacionais para o Ensino Fundamental; Diretrizes Nacionais de Qualidade à Educação Infantil, Lei de Diretrizes e Bases da Educação Nacional Lei 9394/96 e outros; executa as políticas direcionadas à Educação Infantil. Do mesmo modo na discussão acerca do referido documento busca-se a tradução do pleno desenvolvimento da pessoa humana nos textos sobre a qualidade na Educação. Para isso analisa o tratamento da criança, sob a perspectiva dos direitos fundamentais, fixando-se no Direito à Educação Infantil como um Direito à formação Integral da Criança e os contornos do conteúdo do direito exigível para tal fim. Para se alcançar tal objetivo parte da ideia, principalmente de Immanuel Kant, sobre a importância de o processo educativo acompanhar a experiência da criança. Assim, a educação por esse viés não pode ser meramente mecânica e nem se fundamentar no raciocínio puro, tendo em vista que nesta linha o sujeito passa a ser alheio à sua realidade. Logo, a educação por esse parâmetro não contribuirá para a superação das condições de heteronomia; por isso, deve se apoiar em princípios empíricos correlacionados à categoria do sensível para atingir o inteligível que as leis e/ou normas predispõem à área educacional. Neste aporte tratamos sobre a condição e os aspectos da condição humana em busca da autonomia. Nessa perspectiva encontram-se as defesas de Kant e de Paulo Freire, Edgard Morin, Vicente Zatti, Hannah Arendt e outros, pois para ambos a autonomia se dá justamente quando o cidadão segue a lei universal que sua própria razão determina, respeitando a liberdade de cada um. Prossegue analisando as disposições legais pertinentes à Educação Infantil e como o Direito articula e estrutura os fundamentos educacionais para atingir as metas qualitativas, de defesa da cidadania, do desenvolvimento pleno da pessoa humana. Por fim, ainda pela perspectiva do Direito como se dão os contornos e conteúdos voltados à Educação Infantil à formação da criança e os modos como exigi-los para a concretização efetiva dessa modalidade de ensino.

The sublime and its different perspective in the gothic literature

O objetivo da presente dissertação consiste em analisar o sublime, um conceito estético que vem sendo estudado desde os primeiros séculos. Tomamos como base a definição do sublime como algo paradoxal que cria o prazer e o medo ao mesmo tempo. Porém, o sublime apresenta especificidades que variam de acordo com o filósofo analisado. Neste trabalho, três críticos foram estudados: Longinus, Edmund Burke e Immanuel Kant. Assim, o sublime pode ser representado através da imensidão da natureza, do poder de uma criatura sobrenatural ou, até mesmo, através da sexualidade feminina. E, com o intuito de exemplificar essas diferentes perspectivas do sublime, buscamos obras da Literatura Gótica. Sendo esta uma vertente literária que buscava a oposição ao racionalismo trazido pelo movimento iluminista, as características sublimes foram essenciais para enfatizar a emoção. Para tal exemplificação, utilizamos trechos de dois romances góticos dos séculos XVIII e XIX, respectivamente: The Monk escrito por Matthew Lewis e Dracula escrito por Bram Stoker

Krytyka dziewiętnastowiecznego rozumu. Źródła i konteksty Pałuby Karola Irzykowskiego

Wydział Filologii Polskiej i Klasycznej: Instytut Filologii Polskiej

W stronę estetyki egzystencji: Michel Foucault

„Dziś jego postawa zapiera dech. Dać żyjącym exempla...”, powiada Paul Veyne w eseju Ostatni Foucault i jego moralność, i powiada tak o Foucault, ale gdy się nad tym zastanowić, w tradycji filozoficznej można odnaleźć cały ciąg postaci, które w pewnych okresach życia pragnęły jednego - właśnie chciały „dać żyjącym exempla”. Takim przykładem wśród jeszcze nie piszących filozofów mógłby być Sokrates. Tacy byli cynicy, a zwłaszcza bodaj najgłośniejszy z nich, Diogenes. Tacy wreszcie byli i stary Kant, i stary Nietzsche. Ich życie i ostatnie dzieła to często swoiste podręczniki życia, jednak nie tyle zobowiązujące powszechnością i obiektywnością wypowiadanych twierdzeń, co raczej przekonujące subiektywnością i jednostkowością przykładu. Każdy z nich, na swój sposób, dawał przykład jako filozof. Filozofował, dając przykład — swoim życiem, swoim dziełem. Czasami i jednym, i drugim. Istnieje grono filozofów, których życie było niezwykle blisko związane z działalnością filozoficzną, u których często trudno oddzielić filozofię od życia, u których konstytuuje się (Foucaulta) „ethos, filozoficzny sposób życia.” Sokrates, który nie ucieka przed sądem, choć może, i nie unika śmierci, choć może; Diogenes, kochany przez Ateńczyków skandalista, o którym Żywoty i poglądy słynnych filozofów powiadają, że „w byle jakim miejscu załatwiał wszystkie swoje sprawy”; Kant, który przez całe życie wstaje dokładnie o 4:55 na hasło swojego sługi, Lampego, Es ist Zeit, Herr Professor! i którego przechadzki po Królewcu mogą zastępować wskazania zegara; Nietzsche kończący w Turynie Ecce homo, jakby w przewidywaniu zbliżającej się katastrofy; i wreszcie umierający na AIDS i gorączkowo poprawiający na szpitalnym łóżku ostatnie dwa tomy Historii seksualności Michel Foucault (pytanie o splot jego własnego życia z ostatnim fragmentem jego dzieła jest pytaniem niezwykle trudnym, a odpowiedzi nie są jednoznaczne). Można by powiedzieć, iż każdy z nich pragnął wzmocnić swoją filozofię przykładem swojego życia. Asceza Kanta jest przecież nieodłączna od jego etyki, „troska o siebie” Foucaulta jest nieodłączna od jego „estetyki egzystencji”, śmierć Sokratesa i Nietzschego odejście od świadomego życia jedynie wzmacniają moc ich filozoficznych i etycznych wyborów (można by wręcz zastanawiać się, co stałoby się z Sokratesa „przykładem”, gdyby zdecydował się na ucieczkę z Aten, podobnie z myślą Nietzschego, gdyby, jak Hegel pod koniec życia, jedynie grał w karty...). Kant w trzeciej części Sporu fakultetów, Nietzsche w Ecce homo, Foucault w ostatnich częściach Historii seksualności (i pracach ją dopełniających), poza wszystkim innym, dają siebie za przykład: nie tyle od razu i po prostu wart naśladowania, lecz właśnie na początek jedynie wart przemyślenia. Paradoksalnie, to właśnie w ostatniej pracy Kanta i ostatniej pracy Nietzschego ich życie splata się z dziełem w jeden węzeł, to książki pisane własną krwią (jak powiedziałby Bataille, uważny czytelnik Nietzschego), własnym życiem.