"Miksi lehmät pitää tappaa?" : Etnografinen tutkimus 2000-luvun alun huumemarkkinoista Helsingissä

The present study focuses on the drug market in Helsinki in the early 2000s, mainly on the dealing in and use of amphetamines, cannabis and the pharmaceutical Subutex. The drug market is usually analysed into upper, middle and lower level markets. These levels are very different in terms of their operating practices, although there may be some mingling. The present study is mainly concerned with drug dealers and users in the lower and middle level markets. Operations also differ depending on whether the dealing involves just one drug or several. Dealing in and using Subutex is a very different business from dealing and using home grown cannabis, for instance: both the customers and the dealers are mostly quite different. The study material was mostly collected through ethnographical field work, including observations and interviews. Interviews with officials and minutes of pre-trial investigations concerning aggravated drug crimes are also included. The study discusses the roles of dealers on the various levels of the drug market in Helsinki and traces activities at various levels. Ethnographical methods are employed to observe day-to-day drug dealing and use and leisure pursuits in private homes and in public premises. The study takes note of the risks inherent in drug dealing and estimates what kind of drug dealers can last the longest on the market without the authorities intervening. At the same time, the study discusses how small groups on the middle and lower levels of the drug market avoid control measures undertaken by the authorities and how the authorities address these groups. Moreover, the study discusses what the drug market is like in prison from the perspective of a drug dealer sent to prison, what their everyday lives are like after release, and how much money dealers on various levels of the drug market make. The study demonstrates that drug dealing in Helsinki, whether we consider the very top or the very bottom of the pyramid, is a far from rational pursuit. The undertakings are not very systematic; they are more a reaction to intoxicant addiction( s) and other problems caused by other dealers, the dealers own actions and the actions of the police. The everyday lives of drug dealers are often chaos only alleviated by drug use in the company of buyers or alone. If a drug dealer uses drugs himself/herself, things become even more complicated and a vicious circle develops. At the same time, everyday life is certainly exciting, and a drug dealer often has a highly eventful if brief life. Drug dealing is a very masculine pursuit, and there is a sort of macho code governing it, although this does not nearly always work as it should. This macho code, typically for illegal activities, involves the threat of violence as a control measure. Hence the untranslatable slang expression Kill the cows : the Finnish word for calf has the slang meaning snitch or police informant . No more cows, no more calves. But informing on others to the authorities is a fact of life in the drug-dealing world. Contributing factors to being reported to the authorities are the dealer s own mistakes and the actions of other dealers and the police. A determined drug dealer will not be deterred from drug dealing by a prison sentence. However, following time in prison only few dealers manage to gain an income from drug dealing commensurate with its risks.

Antioxidants, weight change and risk of type 2 diabetes

The incidence of type 2 diabetes has increased rapidly worldwide. Obesity is one of the most important modifiable risk factors of type 2 diabetes: weight gain increases and weight loss decreases the risk. However, the effects of weight fluctuation are unclear. Reactive oxygen species are presumably part of the complicated mechanism for the development of insulin resistance and beta-cell destruction in the pancreas. The association of antioxidants with the risk of incident type 2 diabetes has been studied in longitudinal prospective human studies, but so far there is no clear conclusion about protective effect of dietary or of supplementary antioxidants on diabetes risk. The present study examined 1) weight change and fluctuation as risk factors for incident type 2 diabetes; 2) the association of baseline serum alpha-tocopherol or beta-carotene concentration and dietary intake of antioxidants with the risk of type 2 diabetes; 3) the effect of supplementation with alpha-tocopherol or beta-carotene on the risk of incident type 2 diabetes; and on macrovascular complications and mortality among type 2 diabetics. This investigation was part of the Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta-Carotene Cancer Prevention (ATBC) Study, a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled prevention trial, which has undertaken to examine the effect of alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene supplementation on the development of lung cancer, other cancers, and cardiovascular diseases in male smokers aged 50-69 years at baseline. Participants were assigned to receive either 50 mg alpha-tocopherol, 20mg beta-carotene, both, or placebo daily in a 2 x 2 factorial design experiment during 1985-1993. Cases of incident diabetes were identified through a nationwide register of drug reimbursements of the Social Insurance Institution. At baseline 1700 men had a history of diabetes. Among those (n = 27 379) with no diabetes at baseline 305 new cases of type 2 diabetes were recognized during the intervention period and 705 during the whole follow-up to 12.5 years. Weight gain and weight fluctuation measured over a three year period were independent risk factors for subsequent incident type 2 diabetes. Relative risk (RR) was 1.77 (95% confidence interval [CI] 1.44-2.17) for weight gain of at least 4 kg compared to those with a weight change of less than 4 kg. The RR in the highest weight fluctuation quintile compared to the lowest was 1.64 (95% CI 1.24-2.17). Dietary tocopherols and tocotrienols as well as dietary carotenoids, flavonols, flavones and vitamin C were not associated with the risk of type 2 diabetes. Baseline serum alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene concentrations were not associated with the risk of incident diabetes. Neither alpha-tocopherol nor beta-carotene supplementation affected the risk of diabetes. The relative risks for participants who received alpha-tocopherol compared with nonrecipients and for participants who received beta-carotene compared with nonrecipients were 0.92 (95% CI 0.79-1.07) and 0.99 (95% CI 0.85-1.15), respectively. Furthermore, alpha-tocopherol or beta-carotene supplementation did not affect the risk of macrovascular complications or mortality of diabetic subjects during the 19 years follow-up time. In conclusion, in this study of older middle-aged male smokers, weight gain and weight fluctuation were independent risk factors for type 2 diabetes. Intake of antioxidants or serum alpha-tocopherol or beta-carotene concentrations were not associated with the risk of type 2 diabetes. Supplementation with of alpha-tocopherol or beta-carotene did not prevent type 2 diabetes. Neither did they prevent macrovascular complications, or mortality among diabetic subjects.

PERFECT Stroke : PERFormance, Effectiveness, and Costs of treatment episodes in Stroke

Stroke is a major cause of death and disability, incurs significant costs to healthcare systems, and inflicts severe burden to the whole society. Stroke care in Finland has been described in several population-based studies between 1967 and 1998, but not since. In the PERFECT Stroke study presented here, a system for monitoring the Performance, Effectiveness, and Costs of Treatment episodes in Stroke was developed in Finland. Existing nationwide administrative registries were linked at individual patient level with personal identification numbers to depict whole episodes of care, from acute stroke, through rehabilitation, until the patients went home, were admitted to permanent institutional care, or died. For comparisons in time and between providers, patient case-mix was adjusted for. The PERFECT Stroke database includes 104 899 first-ever stroke patients over the years 1999 to 2008, of whom 79% had ischemic stroke (IS), 14% intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), and 7% subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). A 18% decrease in the age and sex adjusted incidence of stroke was observed over the study period, 1.8% improvement annually. All-cause 1-year case-fatality rate improved from 28.6% to 24.6%, or 0.5% annually. The expected median lifetime after stroke increased by 2 years for IS patients, to 7 years and 7 months, and by 1 year for ICH patients, to 4 years 5 months. No change could be seen in median SAH patient survival, >10 years. Stroke prevalence was 82 000, 1.5% of total population of Finland, in 2008. Modern stroke center care was shown to be associated with a decrease in both death and risk of institutional care of stroke patients. Number needed to treat to prevent these poor outcomes at one year from stroke was 32 (95% confidence intervals 26 to 42). Despite improvements over the study period, more than a third of Finnish stroke patients did not have access to stroke center care. The mean first-year healthcare cost of a stroke patient was ~20 000 , and among survivors ~10 000 annually thereafter. Only part of this cost was incurred by stroke, as the same patients cost ~5000 over the year prior to stroke. Total lifetime costs after first-ever stroke were ~85 000 . A total of 1.1 Billion , 7% of all healthcare expenditure, is used in the treatment of stroke patients annually. Despite a rapidly aging population, the number of new stroke patients is decreasing, and the patients are more likely to survive. This is explained in part by stroke center care, which is effective, and should be made available for all stroke patients. It is possible, in a suitable setting with high-quality administrative registries and a common identifier, to avoid the huge workload and associated costs of setting up a conventional stroke registry, and still acquire a fairly comprehensive dataset on stroke care and outcome.

Process of burnout: structure, antecedents, and consequences

The major changes that have been witnessed in today's workplaces are challenging the mental well-being of employed people. Stress and burnout are considered to be modern epidemics, and their importance to physical health and work ability has been acknowledged world-wide. The aim of the thesis was to study the concept of burnout as a process proceeding from its antecedents, through the development of the syndrome, and to its outcomes. Several work-related factors considered antecedents of burnout were studied in different occupational groups. The syndrome of burnout is seen as consisting of three dimensions - exhaustion, cynicism and lack of professional efficacy - and different alternatives for the sequential development of these dimensions were tested. Furthermore, several indicators of the severely detrimental health and work ability outcomes of burnout were investigated in a longitudinal study design. The research questions were as follows. 1) Is burnout, as measured with the Maslach Burnout Inventory - General Survey (MBI-GS), a three-dimensional construct and how invariant is the factorial structure across occupations (Finnish) and national samples (Finnish, Swedish and Dutch)? How persistent is exhaustion over time? 2) What is the sequential process of burnout? Is it similar across occupations? How do work stressors relate to the process? 3) How does burnout relate to severe health consequences as well as temporary and chronic work disability according to hospitalization periods, sick-leave episodes and receiving disability pensions? The data were collected between 1986 and 2005. The population of the study consisted of respondents to a company-wide questionnaire survey carried out in 1996-1997 (N=9705, response rate 63%). The participants comprised 6025 blue-collar workers and 3680 white-collar workers. The majority were men (N=7494) and the average age was 43.7 years. In addition, a sample from the population had responded to a questionnaire survey in 1988, which was combined with the 1996 data to form panel data on 713 respondents. The register-based data were collected between 1986 and 2005 from 1) the company's occupational health services' records for a sample of respondents from the 1996 questionnaire survey (sick-leave data), 2) hospitalization records from the Hospital discharge register, and 3) disability pension records from the Finnish Centre for Pensions. These data were combined person by person with the 1996 questionnaire survey data with the help of personal identification numbers which were saved with the study numbers by the researchers. The results showed that burnout consists of three separate but correlating symptoms: exhaustion, cynicism and lack of professional efficacy. As a syndrome, burnout was strongly related to job stressors at work, and seemed to develop from exhaustion through cynicism to lack of professional efficacy in a similar manner among white-collar and blue-collar employees. The results also showed that exhaustion persisted even after eight years of follow-up but did not predict cynicism or lack of professional efficacy after that amount of time. Nor were job stressors longitudinally related to burnout. Longitudinal results were obtained for the severe health-related consequences of burnout. The investigated outcomes represented different phases of health deterioration ranging from sick-leaves and hospitalization periods to receiving work disability pensions. The results showed that burnout syndrome, and its elements of exhaustion and cynicism, were related to future mental and cardiovascular disorders as indicated by hospitalization periods. Burnout was also related to future sick-leave periods due to mental, cardiovascular and musculoskeletal disorders. Of the separate elements, exhaustion was related to the same three categories of disorder, cynicism to mental, musculoskeletal and digestive disorders, and lack of professional efficacy to mental and musculoskeletal disorders. Burnout also predicted receiving disability pensions due to mental and musculoskeletal disorders among initially healthy subjects. Exhaustion was related to receiving disability pensions even when self-reported chronic illness was taken into account. The results suggest that burnout is a multidimensional, chronic, work-related syndrome, which may have serious consequences for health and work ability.

Lineaarisesta regressiomallista monitasoiseen rakenneyhtälömalliin – Menetelmien toimivuustarkasteluja skitsofreniaperheaineistossa

Opinnäytetyössä perehdytään erilaisiin tilastollisiin menetelmiin, joilla voidaan analysoida lääkityksen vaikutusta skitsofreniapotilaiden kognitiiviseen suoriutumiseen. Analysoitava aineisto on osa laajaa perheaineistoa, joka kerättiin alun perin Terveyden ja hyvinvoinnin laitoksen tutkimusprojektia varten. Projektin tarkoituksena on selvittäävakavien mielenterveyshäiriöiden geneettistä epidemiologiaa. Keskeiset työssä käsiteltävät menetelmät ovat lineaarinen regressioanalyysi, faktorianalyysi ja rakenneyhtälömallinnus. Potilaiden kognitiivista suoriutumista on mitattu neuropsykologisella testipatteristolla, joka koostuu useasta eri testistä. Lääkityksen ja kognition välisiä yhteyksiä tutkitaan aluksi lineaaristen regressiomallien avulla, joissa lääkityksen vaikutusta jokaiseen kognitiotestiin arvioidaan erikseen. Testit kuitenkin korreloivat keskenään kohtalaisen voimakkaasti muodostaen erilaisia alaryhmiä. Analyyseissa sovelletaan täten myös rakenneyhtälömallia, jossa yksittäisten testimuuttujien sijaan tarkastellaan eräänlaisia laajempia kognitiota edustavia ulottuvuuksia. Toisaalta aineistossa voidaan ajatella olevan riippuvuutta myös havaintojen tasolla. Tutkimusaineisto on kerätty hyödyntäen perhetason otantaa, joten otoksessa saattaa olla useampi samaan perheeseen kuuluva henkilö. Tällaista monitasoista aineistoa ei suoraviivaisesti voida analysoida kaikkein yleisimmin käytetyillä tilastollisilla menetelmillä, jotka yleensä on tarkoitettu satunnaisotannalla kerätyn riippumattoman aineiston analyysiin. Monitasoisuus tullaan huomioimaan analyyseissa käyttäen ns. satunnaistekijä- ja marginaalimallinnusta. Tarkastelujen tavoitteena on ennen kaikkea kokeilla erilaisten menetelmien sovellettavuutta tässä aineistossa. Huomionarvoiset seikat liittyvät toisaalta yksittäisten regressiomallien ja rakenneyhtälömallin välisiin eroihin ja toisaalta siihen, mitä merkitystä aineiston monitasoisuuden huomioimisella on. Aluksi mallinnukset suoritetaan siten, että perherakennetta ei lainkaan huomioida. Työn myöhemmässä vaiheessa samoja menetelmiä käytetään uudelleen, tällä kertaa kuitenkin olettamatta havaintoja riippumattomiksi. Otanta-asetelman huomioiminen estimoinnissa ja toisaalta erilaiset monimuuttujamenetelmät ovat tunnettuja ja yleisesti sovellettuja. Kuitenkin menetelmät, jotka yhdistävät nämä kaksi aluetta, ovat vasta melko hiljattain vakiinnuttamassa asemaansa tutkimuksessa. Työn loppuosassa perehdytään jo melko monimutkaiseen analyysitapaan, kun sovelletaan monitasoista rakenneyhtälömallia. Eri menetelmillä saadut tulokset ovat hyvin samankaltaisia, eikä monitasoisuuden huomioiminen merkittävästi muuta analyysien tuloksia ja tulkintoja tässä aineistossa. Kokeilut antavat kuitenkin hyvän ja perusteellisen kuvan lääkityksen ja kognition välisistä suhteista ja auttavat ymmärtämään eri menetelmien välisiä suhteita.

Substance misuse problems during pregnancy with special emphasis on buprenorphine

Maternal drug abuse during pregnancy endangers the future health and wellbeing of the infant and growing child. On the other hand, via maternal abstinence, these problems would never occur; so the problems would be totally preventable. Buprenorphine is widely used in opioid maintenance treatment as a substitute medication. In Finland, during 2000 s buprenorphine misuse has steadily increased. In 2009 almost one third of clientele of substance treatment units were in treatment because of buprenorphine dependence. At Helsinki Women s Clinic the first child with prenatal buprenorphine exposure was born in 2001. During 1992-2001 in the three capital area maternity hospitals (Women s clinic, Maternity hospital, Jorvi hospital) 524 women were followed at special antenatal clinics due to substance abuse problems. Three control women were drawn from birth register to each case woman and matched for parity and same place and date of the index birth. According to register data mortality rate was 38-fold higher among cases than controls within 6-15 years after index birth. Especially, the risk for violent or accidental death was increased. The women with substance misuse problems had also elevated risk for viral hepatitis and psychiatric morbidity. They were more often reimbursed for psychopharmaceuticals. Disability pensions and rehabilitation allowances were more often granted to cases than controls. In total 626 children were born from these pregnancies. According to register data 38% of these children were placed in out-of-home care as part of child protection services by the age of two years, and half of them by the age of 12 years, the median follow-up time was 5.8 years. The risk for out-of-home care was associated with factors identifiable during the pre- and perinatal period. In 2002-2005 67 pregnant women with buprenorphine dependence were followed up at the Helsinki University Hospital, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology. Their pregnancies were uneventful. The prematurity rate was similar and there were no more major anomalies compared to the national statistics. The neonates were lighter compared to the national statistics. They were also born in good condition, with no perinatal hypoxia as defined by standard clinical parameters or certain biochemical markers in the cord blood: erythropoietin, S100 and cardiac troponin-t. Almost 80% of newborns developed neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS) and two third of them needed morphine medication for it. Maternal smoking over ten cigarettes per day aggravated and benzodiazepine use attenuated NAS. An infant s highest urinary norbuprenorphine concentration during their first 3 days of life correlated with the duration of morphine treatment. The average length of infant s hospital stay was 25 days.

Lunch eating patterns during working hours and their social and work-related determinants : Study of Finnish employees

Work has a central role in the lives of big share of adult Finns and meals they eat during the workday comprise an important factor in their nutrition, health, and well-being. On workdays, lunch is mainly eaten at worksite canteens or, especially among women, as a packed meal in the workplace s break room. No national-level data is available on the nutritional quality of the meals served by canteens, although the Finnish Institute of Occupational Health laid out the first nutrition recommendations for worksite canteens in 1971. The aim of this study was to examine the contribution of various socio-demographic, socioeconomic, and work-related factors to the lunch eating patterns of Finnish employees during the working day and how lunch eating patterns influence dietary intake. Four different population-based cross-sectional datasets were used in this thesis. Three of the datasets were collected by the National Institute for Health and Welfare (Health Behaviour and Health among the Finnish Adult Population survey from 1979 to 2001, n=24746, and 2005 to 2007, n=5585, the National Findiet 2002 Study, n=261), and one of them by the Finnish Institute of Occupational Health (Work and Health in Finland survey from 1997, 2000, and 2003, n=6369). The Health Behaviour and Health among the Finnish Adult Population survey and the Work and Health in Finland survey are nationally representative studies that are conducted repeatedly. Survey information was collected by self-administered questionnaires, dietary recalls, and telephone interviews. The frequency of worksite canteen use has been quite stable for over two decades in Finland. A small decreasing trend can be seen in all socioeconomic groups. During the whole period studied, those with more years of education ate at worksite canteens more often than the others. The size of the workplace was the most important work-related determinant associated with the use of a worksite canteen. At small workplaces, other work-related determinants, like occupation, physical strain at work, and job control, were also associated with canteen use, whereas at bigger workplaces the associations were almost nonexistent. The major social determinants of worksite canteen availability were the education and occupational status of employees and the only work-related determinant was the size of the workplace. A worksite canteen was more commonly available to employees at larger workplaces and to those with the higher education and the higher occupational status. Even when the canteen was equally available to all employees, its use was nevertheless determined by occupational class and the place of residence, especially among female employees. Those with higher occupational status and those living in the Helsinki capital area ate in canteens more frequently than the others. Employees who ate at a worksite canteen consumed more vegetables and vegetable and fish dishes at lunch than did those who ate packed lunches. Also, the daily consumption of vegetables and the proportion of the daily users of vegetables were higher among those male employees who ate at a canteen. In conclusion, life possibilities, i.e. the availability of a canteen, education, occupational status, and work-related factors, played an important role in the choice of where to eat lunch among Finnish employees. The most basic prerequisite for eating in a canteen was availability, but there were also a number of underlying social determinants. Occupational status and the place of residence were the major structural factors behind individuals choices in their lunch eating patterns. To ensure the nutrition, health, and well-being of employees, employers should provide them with the option to have good quality meals during working hours. The availability of worksite canteens should be especially supported in lower socioeconomic groups. In addition, employees should be encouraged to have lunch at a worksite canteen when one is available by removing structural barriers to its use.

Precarious Pregnancies : Alcohol, drugs and the regulation of risks

Since the 1970s alcohol and drug use by pregnant women has become a target of political, professional and personal concern. The present study focuses on prenatal substance use and the regulation of risks by examining different kinds of societal responses to prenatal alcohol and drug use. The study analyses face-to-face encounters between professionals and service users at a specialised maternity clinic for pregnant women with substance abuse problems, medical and political discourses on the compulsory treatment of pregnant women as a means of FAS prevention and official recommendations on alcohol intake during pregnancy. Moreover, the study addresses the women s perspective by asking how women who have used illicit drugs during pregnancy perceive and rank the dangers linked to drug use. The study consists of five empirical sub-studies and a summary article. Sub-study I was written in collaboration with Dorte Hecksher and Sub-study IV with Riikka Perälä. Theoretically the study builds on the one hand, on the socio-cultural approach to the selection and perception of risks and on the other on governmentality studies which focus on the use of power in contemporary Western societies. The study is based on an ethnographic approach and makes use of the principles of multi-sited ethnography. The empirical sub-studies are based on three different types of qualitative data: ethnographic field notes from a maternity clinic from a period of 7 months, documentary material (medical journals, political documents, health education materials, government reports) and 3) interviews from maternity clinics with clients and members of staff. The study demonstrates that the logic of the regulation of prenatal alcohol use in Finland is characterised by the rise of the foetus , a process in which the urgency of protecting the foetus has gradually gained a more prominent role in the discourses on alcohol-related foetal damage. An increasing unwillingness to accept any kinds of risks when foetal health is at stake is manifested in the public debate on the compulsory treatment of pregnant women with alcohol problems and in the health authorities decision to advise pregnant women to refrain from alcohol use during pregnancy (Sub-studies I and II). Secondly, the study suggests that maternity care professionals have an ambivalent role in their mundane encounters with their pregnant clients: on the one hand professionals focus on the well-being of the foetus, but on the other, they need to take into account the women s needs and agency. The professionals daily encounters with their clients are thus characterised by hybridisation: the simultaneous use of technologies of domination and technologies of agency (Sub-studies III and IV). Finally, the study draws attention to the women s understanding of the risks of illicit drug during pregnancy, and shows that the women s understanding of risk differs from the bio-medical view. The study suggests that when drug-using pregnant women seek professional help they can feel that their moral worth is threatened by professionals negative attitudes which can make service-use challenging.

”Et mul on virkaa täs maailmas” – Yli Hyvä Juttu luo toivoa syrjäytyneille nuorille

Tämän laadullisen tutkimuksen tarkoituksena oli selvittää, onko viranomaisten ja palokuntanuorisotyötä tekevien näkökulmasta sopimuspalokunnan nuorisotoiminnalla myönteisiä vaikutuksia syrjäytymisuhan alla oleviin lapsiin ja nuoriin. Samalla tutkittiin, millaisia käsityksiä viranomaistoimijoilla ja avainhenkilöillä on harrastustoiminnasta elämänhallinnan edistäjänä. Tutkimusta taustoittaa ajatus osallisuuden tuottamasta hyvinvoinnista sekä teoria Toivosta. Tutkimuksen teoreettinen viitekehys perustuu C.R. Snyderin Theory of Hope –ajattelumallille. Tutkimusaineisto kerättiin kyselylomakkeella, strukturoiduilla haastatteluilla, avaininformanttihaastatteluilla sekä ryhmähaastatteluilla. Tutkimukseen osallistuneet ovat suomalaisia sopimuspalokuntien nuoriso-osastojen vastuuhenkilöitä tai sosiaali- ja pelastusviranomaisia. Aineisto analysoitiin laadullisin menetelmin aineistolähtöistä sisällönanalyysiä käyttäen. Tutkimus on Terveyden ja Hyvinvoinnin laitoksen (THL) Yli Hyvä Juttu -hankkeen (YHJ) arviointitutkimuksen osatutkimus. Se liittyy lasten ja nuorten syrjäytymisen ehkäisyyn kehitetyn sosiaalisen vahvistamisen toimintamallin juurruttamiseen ja kehittämiseen. Toimintamallissa sosiaaliviranomaiset ja muut syrjäytymisuhan alla olevien nuorien kanssa toimivat ohjaavat aktiivisesti heitä sopimuspalokuntien palokuntanuorisotoimintaan. Tulokset viittaavat siihen, että palokuntanuorisotyön ja toimintamallin voi katsoa tukevan nuoren minäpystyvyyden kehittymistä, optimistista ajattelua itsestään ja tulevaisuudestaan. Se ohjaa valitsemaan terveitä päämääriä tulevaisuuteen ja tukee niissä sekä antaa nuorelle erilaisia vahvistavia kokemuksia toimijuudesta. Aineiston perusteella voidaan myös todeta, että sosiaalinen vahvistaminen on merkityksellinen asia palokuntanuorisotyössä ja YHJ -toimintamallissa, joka ohjaa nuoria harrastuksen pariin. Yhteiskunnallisesta näkökulmasta palokuntaharrastus tukee nuoren yhdenvertaisuutta ja toiminnassa mukana ollessa opitaan kansalaistaitoja. Sosiaalisesta näkökulmasta katsoessa tulokset osoittavat, että yhteistoimintaan osalliseksi pääseminen tukee nuoren päämäärätietoisuutta. Emootioiden tasolla voidaan katsoa turvallisuuden tunteen lisääntyvän palokuntatoiminnan autoritäärisen toimintakulttuurin vuoksi.

Kansanterveysongelman synty : Tuberkuloosi ja terveyden hallinta Suomessa ennen toista maailmansotaa

The study focuses on the emergence of tuberculosis as a public health problem and the development of the various methods to counteract it in Finland before the introduction of efficient methods of treatment in the 1940s and 50s. It covers a time period from year 1882 when the tuberculosis bacterium was identified to the 1930s when the early formation of tuberculosis work became established in Finland. During this time there occurred important changes in medicine, public health thinking and methods of personal health care that have been referred to as the bacteriological revolution. The study places tuberculosis prevention in this context and shows how the tuberculosis problem affected the government of health on all these three dimensions. The study is based on foucauldian analytics of government, which is supplemented with perspectives from contemporary science and technology studies. In addition, it utilises a broad array of work in medical history. The central research materials consist of medical journals, official programs and documents on tuberculosis policy, and health education texts. The general conclusions of the study are twofold. Firstly, the ensemble of tuberculosis work was formed from historically diverse and often conflicting elements. The identification of the pathogen was only the first step in the establishment of tuberculosis as a major public health problem. Important were also the attention of the science of hygiene and statistical reasoning that dominated public health thinking in the late 19th century. Furthermore, the adoption of the bacteriological tuberculosis doctrine in medicine, public health work and health education was profoundly influenced by previous understanding of the nature of the illness, of medical work, of the prevention of contagious diseases, and of personal health care. Also the two central institutions of tuberculosis work, sanatorium and dispensary, have heterogeneous origins and multifarious functions. Secondly, bacteriology represented in this study by tuberculosis remodelled medical knowledge and practices, the targets and methods of public health policy, and the doctrine of personal health care. Tuberculosis provided a strong argument for specific causes (if not cures) as well as laboratory methods in medicine. Tuberculosis prevention contributed substantially to the development whereby a comprehensive responsibility for the health of the population and public health work was added to the agenda of the state. Health advice on tuberculosis and other contagious diseases used dangerous bacteria to motivate personal health care and redefined it as protecting oneself from the attacks of external pathogens and strengthening oneself against their effects. Thus, tuberculosis work is one important root for the contemporary public concern for the health of the population and the imperative of personal health care.

Asiakkaan ja asiantuntijan pedagoginen suhde : Fenomenologinen tutkimus fysioterapiatilanteista asiakkaiden ja fysioterapeuttien kokemana

Väitöskirja on fenomenologinen tutkimus koetusta asiakas-asiantuntijasuhteesta. Tutkimuksen tarkoituksena on selvittää ihmisten välisiä asiakas-asiantuntijatilanteiden suhteita ja siten mahdollistaa asiakkaan hyvinvointia. Tutkimuskohteena on fysioterapiasuhde, jota aiemmin on selvitetty fysioterapeutin parantamisena, asiakkaan terveyden edistämisenä tai vuorovaikutussuhteena. Tässä tutkimuksessa mielenkiinto kohdistuu fysioterapiatilanteissa koettuihin asiakkaiden ja asiantuntijoiden välisiin suhteisiin. Tutkimukseen osallistuivat 16 fysioterapiatilanteen kokenutta asiakasta ja 16 saman tilanteen kokenutta fysioterapeuttia, jotka toimivat tutkimusajankohtana erikoissairaanhoidossa, kunnan terveyskeskuksessa tai yksityisessä fysioterapialaitoksessa. Avoimen yksilöhaastattelun tehtävänä oli kuvata mitä osanottaja koki juuri päättyneessä tilanteessa. Tutkimusaineiston analyysi etenee ensimmäisessä vaiheessa fenomenologisen tutkimuksen mukaan, yksilöllisten ihmisten välisten suhteiden koettujen merkitysten ja merkityskokonaisuuksien analyysiin ja merkitysperspektiivin synteesiin. Tutkimuksen ensimmäisen vaiheen yksilöllisten merkitysperspektiivien perusteella fysioterapiasuhde osoittautui muutossuhteeksi, mikä ei ollut erilainen eri organisaatioissa, vaan siinä ilmeni pedagogisen suhteen oppimisen ja ohjauksen piirteitä. Tutkimuksen toisessa vaiheessa vietiin pedagogisen suhteen mukaisesti yhteen ja vertailtiin yksilöllisten merkitysperspektiivien merkityksiä ja merkityskokonaisuuksia asiakkaiden ja fysioterapian asiantuntijoiden näkökulmina sekä saman tilanteen yhteisenä koettuna näkökulmana. Asiakkaiden näkökulmasta suhteen voimavarana oli hänen kokema kehollinen vieraus, mikä ohjasi asiakas-asiantuntijasuhdetta neljänlaiseen asiakkaan muutossuhteeseen. Fysioterapian asiantuntijoiden näkökulmasta asiaosaamisena oli asiakkaan parantaminen liikkeen tai toiminnan avulla, mikä ohjasi asiakas-asiantuntijasuhdetta asiantuntijan näkökulmasta erilaisiin ohjaussuhteisiin. Samassa tilanteessa asiakkaiden ja asiantuntijan yhteisenä kokemat aukeamat etenivät spontaaneista turvallisuuden ja luottavaisuuden aukeamista aktiivisiin yhteisymmärryksen ja yhteissanoituksen aukeamiin. Pedagoginen suhde avautui merkityskokonaisuuksina joko vain asiakkaalle tai asiantuntijalle tai yhteisenä koettuina pedagogisina aukeamina. Edellä mainituista kolmesta (asiakkaan, asiantuntijan, yhteisenä koettu) näkökulmasta asiakas-asiantuntijasuhde osoittautui tässä tutkimuksessa neljäksi erilaiseksi asiakkaan, asiantuntijan ja yhteytenä koetun näkökulmia yhdistäväksi pedagogiseksi prosessiksi. Tutkimuksen tulosten synteesi osoitti, että pedagogisen prosessin suuntaa muuttavat yhteytenä koettujen aukeamien väliset dialogit, joissa spontaani, yhdessä näkyvä ja yhdessä koettua sanoittava dialogihetket osoittautuivat pedagogista prosessia kääntäviksi mahdollisuuksiksi. Tämän tutkimuksen mukaan vasta aktiivinen yhteistä kieltä tuottava pedagoginen suhde mahdollistaa asiakkaan kokeman kehollisen vierauden ymmärtämisen ja yhteissanoittamisen. Sanoittamalla kokemaansa asiakas voi jakaa kokemaansa toimimattomuutta tutulla kielellä myös muiden kun tilanteessa olleiden kanssa ja siten oppia itsenäisesti ohjaamaan omaa hyvinvointiaan. Tämän tutkimusten tulosten mukaan vain yhdessä (Pentin ja Sarin) tilanteessa pedagoginen prosessi eteni yhteiseksi kieleksi. Tutkimustulokset haastavat kehittämään asiakas-asiantuntijasuhdetta siten, että pedagoginen prosessi voisi toteutua kokonaisuudessaan. Avainsanat: asiakas-asiantuntijasuhde, pedagoginen suhde, fenomenologia, kokemus, merkitysanalyysi, dialogi, fysioterapia

Saako terveysuskoja synninpäästön? : Naispappien käsityksiä laihdutus- ja terveyskulttuurista nykyisessä mediayhteiskunnassa

Background and aims. Fatness and dieting have been the object of interest between many fields for a long time. Home economics as a discipline enables a comprehensive inspection of fatness and dieting reviewing different disciplines. In addition to the aspect where the pursuit of dieting and health is seen from the perspective of medical and health science it is also been reviewd as a social and cultural phenomena. This study contemplates the influence of history, religion, medicalization and media on dieting and health culture. The objective is to find out if the modern dieting and health culture has gathered influences from centuries ago and absorbed religious features. The stress deriving from appereance has been discussed in the public and there are many solutions conserning weight issues. The purpose of this study is to find out what personal experiences and thoughts female pastors have conserning these questions. The media – which is one of the most influential systems nowadays – has undeniably a great effect on the consumer. The goal is furthermore to estimate the effect of the media on the changing of dieting and health culture. The three main research questions are: 1. What kind of conseptions do female pastors have of dieting and health culture and of its religious features? 2. What kind of personal experiences and conseptions do female pastors have of dieting and strivines of health? 3. How do female pastors regard the image the media has supplied of dieting and health culture? Material and methods. The qualitative data was gathered in year 2009 using the halfstructured theme interview -method. The data consists of interviews conducted with specialists of spiritual matters, i.e. ten female pastors who are between 35 and 60 years old and live in the metropolitan area. The analytical procedure used is called a theory based context analysis. Results and conclusions. Results of this study show that the idealization of slimness and healthiness is a matter discussed in the public on a daily basis. The problem faced was that the media provided contradictory information regarding fatness and dieting and the standard of slimness in commercials focused on females. The pursuit of dieting and healthiness was believed to include also religious elements. In the Middle Ages and the era after that the fatness, overeating and the pleasure one gets from eating was still seen as a condemnable matter in our culture. One could say this was like a sin. The respondents believed that healthiness, healthy living, optimal eating and good looks were a matter more or less equal than a religion. This was a derivative from the fact that treasuring health has become a life stearing value for many people. In the priest’s profession dieting and the pursuit of health was seen in the light of problems arising from weight issues. In ones profession for example the unhealthy eating in festive situations was seen as a matter that leads to unnecessary weight. Another aspect was the job circumstances that limited the degree of movement. The belief was that the female pastors would in a decreasing fashion confront stress deriving from appearence in their job. Keywords: dieting, fatness, healthiness, slimness, female pastors, religion, medicalization, media

Näkökulmia eurooppalaiseen sosiaalipolitiikkaan : malli, väestö, resurssit ja kommunikaatio

The study analyses European social policy as a political project that proceeds under the guidance of the European Commission. In the name of modernisation, the project aims to build a new idea for the welfare state. To understand the project, it is necessary to distance oneself from both the juridical competence of the European Union and the traditional national welfare state models. The question is about sharing problems, as well as solutions to them: it is the creation and sharing of common views, concepts and images that play a key role in European integration. Drawing on texts and speeches produced by the European Commission, the study throws light on the development of European social policy during the first years of the 2000s. The study "freeze-frames" the welfare debate having its starting points in the nation states in the name of the entity of Europe. The first article approaches the European social model as a story in itself, a preparatory, persuasive narrative that concerns the management of change. The article shows how the audience can be motivated to work towards a set target by using discursive elements in a persuasive manner: the function of a persuasive story is to convince the target audience of the appropriateness of the chosen direction and to shape their identity so that they are favourably disposed to the desired political targets. This is a kind of "intermediate state" where the story, despite its inner contradictions and inaccuracies, succeeds in appearing as an almost self-evident path towards a modern social policy that Europe is currently seen to be in need of. The second article outlines the European social model as a question of governance. Health as a sector of social policy is detached from the old political order, which was based on the welfare state, and is closely linked to economy. At the same time the population is primarily seen as an economic resource. The Commission is working towards a "Europe of Health" that grapples with the problem of governance with the help of the "healthisation" of society, healthy citizenship and health economics. The way the Commission speaks is guided by the Union's powerful interest to act as "Europe" in the field of welfare policy. At the same time, the traditional separateness of health policy is effaced in order to be able to make health policy reforms a part of the Union's wider modernisation targets. The third article then shows the European social policy as its own area of governance. The article uses an approach based on critical discourse analysis in examining the classification systems and presentation styles adopted by Commission communications, as well as the identities that they help build. In analysing the "new start" of the Lisbon strategy from the perspective of social policy, the article shows how the emphasis has shifted from the persuasive arguments for change with necessary common European targets in the early stages of the strategy towards the implementation of reforms: from a narrative to a vision and from a diagnosis to healing. The phase of global competition represents "the modern" with which European society with its culture and ways of life now has to be matched. The Lisbon strategy is a way to direct this societal change, thus building a modern European social policy. The fourth article describes how the Commission uses its communications policy to build practices and techniques of governance and how it persuades citizens to participate in the creation of a European project of change. This also requires a new kind of agency: agents for whom accountability and responsibilities mean integration into and commitment to European society. Accountability is shaped into a decisive factor in implementing the European Union's strategy of change. As such it will displace hierarchical confrontations and emphasise common action with a view to modernising Europe. However, the Union's discourse cannot be described as being a political language that would genuinely rouse and convince the audience at the level of everyday life. Keywords: European social policy, EU policy, European social model, European Commission, modernisation of welfare, welfare state, communications, discoursiveness.

Luomu – ja Reilun kaupan kuluttajien käsityksiä eettisestä ruoan kuluttamisesta

Työn tavoitteena oli kuvata ja analysoida eettisen ruoan kuluttamisen käsitettä luomu – ja Reilun kaupan kuluttajien näkökulmasta. Mielenkiintona oli selvittää, mitä eettisessä ruoan kuluttamisessa koetaan merkitykselliseksi ja mitä ovat eettiset ruokavalinnat. Lisäksi haluttiin selvittää, millä tapaa eettisinä juuri luomu – ja Reilun kaupan tuotteet näyttyivät. Aihetta lähestyttiin tutkielman kirjallisuusosiossa etiikan teorioiden kautta sekä luomalla katsaus eettisen kuluttamisen eri osa-alueisiin eli eettisiin ulottuvuuksiin. Tämä jälkeen keskityttiin eettiseen ruoan kuluttamiseen ja luomu ja Reilun kaupan tuotteiden eettisyyteen vertailevasta näkökulmasta. Kirjallisuuskatsauksen perusteella hahmoteltiin teoreettinen viitekehys, jossa kuvattiin eettisen ruoan kuluttamisen sisältöä ja merkitystä, sekä niiden yhteyttä ruokavalintoihin. Empiirinen aineisto kerättiin keväällä 2010 teemahaastatteluina, joissa haastateltiin 12 luomu- ja Reilun kaupan kuluttajaa. Haastatteluaineisto analysoitiin ja luokiteltiin fenomenografisella menetelmällä. Tutkimuksen tulokset, käsitykset eettisestä ruoan kuluttamisesta esitettiin kuvauskategoriasysteeminä. Eettinen ruoan kuluttaminen näyttäytyi, kuten aikaisemmissa tutkimuksissa, altruistisena välittämisenä niin muista ihmisistä, eläimistä kuin ympäristöstä, mutta voimakkaasti myös kuluttajan ja tämän perheen terveydestä ja turvallisuudesta huolehtimisena. Näistä käsityksistä seuranneet ruokavalinnat olivat lähiruoka, luomu – ja Reilun kaupan tuotteet sekä kasvis- tai kasvispainotteinen ruoka. Näistä korostuneimman eettisenä koettiin lähiruoka. Luomutuotteet puolestaan koettiin pääasiallisesti eettisenä terveyden kannalta ja Reilun kaupan tuotteet muiden ihmisten hyvinvoinnin kannalta. Edellä kuvattujen käsitysten ohella merkittäväksi tulokseksi nousi käsitys eettisestä ruoan kuluttamisesta vapaaehtoisena yksinkertaistamisena, tai ainakin pyrkimyksenä siihen. Yksinkertaistaminen näyttäytyi eriasteisena oman ruoan kulutuksen kohtuullistamisena ja jopa luopumisena omasta mielihyvästä eettisten periaatteiden takia.

Hyvinvoinnin ja edistymisen kuvaaminen yhdistelmäindikaattorilla : Suomen kestävän yhteiskunnan indeksin laskenta

Hyvinvointi koostuu paitsi taloudellisista tekijöistä, myös monista muista ulottuvuuksista. Terveyden, koulutuksen, tasa-arvon sekä yhteiskunnan tarjoaman vapauden ja turvan lisäksi pitkän tähtäimen hyvinvointiin vaikuttavat erityisesti ympäristön tila ja se kuinka kestävän kehityksen mukaista on talouden toiminta. Hyvinvoinnin ollessa näinkin moniulotteinen ilmiö on sen mittaaminen hyvin haastavaa ja siksi hyvinvoinnin mittaaminen on ollut pitkään varsin kehittymätöntä. Taloustieteen teoriapohjan kehittyminen, länsimaisten yhteiskuntien uudet haasteet ja politiikan teon painopisteen siirtyminen kansalaisten hyvinvoinnin lisäämiseen ovat nostaneet hyvinvoinnin mittaamisen kehittämisen erääksi lähivuosien tärkeimmäksi painopisteeksi Euroopan unionissa. Tässä tutkimuksessa käsitellään hyvinvoinnin mittaamista erityisesti taloustieteen näkökulmasta. Tutkimuksessa esitellään erilaisia hyvinvoinnin mittaamisen menetelmiä ja syvennytään tarkemmin varsinkin niin sanottuihin yhdistelmäindikaattoreihin. Erityisesti pohditaan yhdistelmäindikaattoreiden taloustieteellistä teoriapohjaa, tutustutaan yhdistelmäindikaattoreiden käytössä ilmeneviin haasteisiin ja testataan yhdistelmäindikaattorin soveltamista käytännössä. Hyvinvoinnin mittarina on käytetty Sustainable Society Index –yhdistelmäindikaattoria (SSI), joka aggregoi yhteen 24 eri ihmisten hyvinvointiin, ympäristön tilaan ja taloudelliseen hyvinvointiin liittyvää muuttujaa. Indikaattori on laskettu tutkimuksessa Suomelle ensimmäistä kertaa vuosille 1975 – 2008. Samaan aikaan tämän tutkimuksen kanssa SSI:n kehittäjät ovat laskeneet SSI:n Hollannille samoille vuosille. Tutkimuksen mukaan yhdistelmäindikaattoreiden teoriapohja on varsin vajavainen. Niiden soveltamisessa suurimmat haasteet liittyvät riittävän ajantasaisen ja luotettavan tilastotiedon saatavuuteen. Toisaalta yhdistelmäindikaattoreiden etuna on, että niihin on monia muita hyvinvoinnin mittareita helpompi sisällyttää laaja kirjo erilaisia hyvinvoinnin osa-alueiden kehitystä kuvaavia muuttujia, kun yhteistä mittayksikköä ei tarvita. Näin ne pystyvät ottamaan muita seurantavälineitä kattavammin huomioon hyvinvoinnin eri osa-alueita. SSI:n mukaan Suomessa hyvinvointi on kaiken kaikkiaan hieman laskenut tarkasteluajanjaksolla. Hyvinvointi kasvoi 1990-luvun alun lamaan asti, jolloin hyvinvoinnissa tapahtui suuri notkahdus. Tämän jälkeen suunta on ollut taas kasvava, joskaan ennen lamaa vallinnutta hyvinvoinnin tasoa ei ole vieläkään saavutettu. Tulosten mukaan Suomessa hyvinvointi on paremmalla tasolla kuin Hollannissa. Kuitenkin hyvinvoinnin kasvu on Hollannissa ollut tarkasteluajanjaksolla nopeampaa ja ero maiden välillä on koko ajan kaventunut. Tutkimuksen lopussa tehdään ehdotuksia kuinka hyvinvoinnin mittareita ja etenkin SSI:ä tulisi jatkossa kehittää, jotta ne soveltuisivat paremmin juuri Suomen hyvinvoinnin mittaamiseen.