Language universals and linguistic complexity : Three case studies in core argument marking

In this dissertation I study language complexity from a typological perspective. Since the structuralist era, it has been assumed that local complexity differences in languages are balanced out in cross-linguistic comparisons and that complexity is not affected by the geopolitical or sociocultural aspects of the speech community. However, these assumptions have seldom been studied systematically from a typological point of view. My objective is to define complexity so that it is possible to compare it across languages and to approach its variation with the methods of quantitative typology. My main empirical research questions are: i) does language complexity vary in any systematic way in local domains, and ii) can language complexity be affected by the geographical or social environment? These questions are studied in three articles, whose findings are summarized in the introduction to the dissertation. In order to enable cross-language comparison, I measure complexity as the description length of the regularities in an entity; I separate it from difficulty, focus on local instead of global complexity, and break it up into different types. This approach helps avoid the problems that plagued earlier metrics of language complexity. My approach to grammar is functional-typological in nature, and the theoretical framework is basic linguistic theory. I delimit the empirical research functionally to the marking of core arguments (the basic participants in the sentence). I assess the distributions of complexity in this domain with multifactorial statistical methods and use different sampling strategies, implementing, for instance, the Greenbergian view of universals as diachronic laws of type preference. My data come from large and balanced samples (up to approximately 850 languages), drawn mainly from reference grammars. The results suggest that various significant trends occur in the marking of core arguments in regard to complexity and that complexity in this domain correlates with population size. These results provide evidence that linguistic patterns interact among themselves in terms of complexity, that language structure adapts to the social environment, and that there may be cognitive mechanisms that limit complexity locally. My approach to complexity and language universals can therefore be successfully applied to empirical data and may serve as a model for further research in these areas.

Texts "Con and Pro" : The Early Modern Medical Controversy over Tobacco

The habit of "drinking smoke" , meaning tobacco smoking, caused a true controversy in early modern England. The new substance was used both for its alleged therapeutic properties as well as its narcotic effects. The dispute over tobacco continues the line of written controversies which were an important means of communication in the sixteenth and seventeenth century Europe. The tobacco controversy is special among medical controversies because the recreational use of tobacco soon spread and outweighed its medicinal use, ultimately causing a social and cultural crisis in England. This study examines how language is used in polemic discourse and argumentation. The material consists of medical texts arguing for and against tobacco in early modern England. The texts were compiled into an electronic corpus of tobacco texts (1577 1670) representing different genres and styles of writing. With the help of the corpus, the tobacco controversy is described and analyzed in the context of early modern medicine. A variety of methods suitable for the study of conflict discourse were used to assess internal and external text variation. The linguistic features examined include personal pronouns, intertextuality, structural components, and statistically derived keywords. A common thread in the work is persuasive language use manifested, for example, in the form of emotive adjectives and the generic use of pronouns; the latter is especially pronounced in the dichotomy between us and them. Controversies have not been studied in this manner before but the methods applied have supplemented each other and proven their suitability in the study of conflictive discourse. These methods can also be applied to present-day materials.

Itsekorjaus huumorin keinona verkkokeskustelussa

Tutkielmassa tarkastellaan itsekorjausta huumorin ja vitsailun keinona kahdenkeskisess�� verkkokeskustelussa. Keskustelut k��yd����n Messenger-pikaviestinohjelmassa, jossa keskustelijat voivat l��hett���� toisilleen kirjoitettuja viestej�� ja olla reaaliaikaisesti vuorovaikutuksessa kesken����n. Aineisto on vuosilta 2004 - 2010; kooltaan se on 25088 kilotavua (noin 2531,5 sivua tekstink��sittelyohjelmalla kirjoitettua teksti��). Informantteja on viisi, ja he ovat yst��vi�� kesken����n, jolloin keskustelu on hyvin reaaliaikaista, spontaania ja vitsailevaa. Aineisto sis��lt���� 71 tapausta, joissa itsekorjausta k��ytet����n huumorin keinona. Tutkimusaihetta l��hestyt����n keskustelunanalyyttisen metodin avulla. Vaikka se on puhutun kielen tutkimukseen kehitetty analyysiv��line, sit�� voidaan soveltaa my��s verkkokeskustelun tarkastelemiseen. Keskustelunanalyyttisin keinoin pystyt����n selvitt��m����n, mill�� keinoin keskustelijat korjaavat tahattomia kirjoitusvirheit�� ja tarkoituksella v����rin kirjoitettuja muotoja tai vuoroja, kun ne osallistuvat huumorin luomiseen. Tutkimus osoittaa, kuinka jo tahattoman kirjoitusvirheen tekeminen huvittaa keskustelijoita etenkin silloin, kun sanasta tulee suomen kieless�� tuntematon, jolloin sen humoristisuus ei voi perustua sen merkitykseen. Ly��ntivirheen seurauksena syntynyt sana voi my��s olla kontekstiinsa sopimaton, mink�� vuoksi se huvittaa keskustelijoita. Kirjoitusvirheellist�� muotoa saatetaan k��ytt���� lis��ksi tarkoituksella my��hemmin keskustelussa huumorin keinona. Sormen lipsahdukset korjataan usein l��hett��m��ll�� korvaava muoto keskusteluun ilman puhutussa keskustelussa korjausta ennakoivaa ainesta (esim. sanan katkaisu, tauko tai partikkeli eiku, tai ja siis), mink�� mahdollistaa verkkokeskustelun kirjoitettu muoto: korjauksen kohde voidaan havaita aikaisemmasta n��kyviss�� olevasta keskustelusta. Mahdollinen korjausta implikoiva partikkeli sijoittuu esiintyess����n usein vasta korjaavan aineksen j��lkeen. Toisin kuin tahattomia virheit�� korjattaessa, tarkoituksella v����rin kirjoitettujen vitsailevien muotojen korjaus voidaan ennakoida partikkeleilla eiku tai tai, jotka osoittavat korjattavan sanan tai rakenteen sopimattomuuden kontekstiin. Humoristisuus perustuu v����r��n ja korjaavan muodon rinnastamiseen, ja usein ne ovatkin esimerkiksi samassa sijamuodossa tai saman verbin eri persoonamuotoja, ja niill�� voidaan viitata leikkis��sti samaan tarkoitteeseen. Tahallisella v����rinkirjoituksella saatetaan vitsailla niin keskustelun alussa kuin miss�� kohtaa keskustelua ja mink��laisessa toiminnassa tahansa (esim. ehdotuksessa, kannanotossa ja ymm��rrysehdokkaassa) lukuun ottamatta keskustelun lopetuksia. Keskustelija voi kumota ja osoittaa edelt��v��n vuoronsa olleen vitsi my��s kiteytyneell�� ilmauksella noei, joka on aineistossa eniten k��ytetty korjauskeino: se esiintyy 39 kertaa kaikista 71 tapauksesta. Ilmaus n��ytt���� olevan erityisen k��ytt��kelpoinen korjaustapa lyhyen muotonsa vuoksi, sill�� se on nopea kirjoittaa humoristiseksi tarkoitetun viestin j��lkeen vaikkakin keskustelija haluaa ensin tarkoituksella esitt���� olevansa jossain m����rin vakavissaan korjattavassa viestiss����n. Noei tekee korjauksen yksin eik�� tarvitse seurakseen korjaavaa ainesta, mutta toisen lausuman kanssa esiintyess����n ilmaus voi kumota laajemmankin jakson edelt��v��st�� keskustelusta. Noei:ll�� tehty korjaus voi kohdistua my��s keskustelun moodiin, jonka ilmaus saattaa siirt���� humoristiseksi tai vakavaksi.

Morality and Gender in Jeff Lindsay's Dexter Novels

Tutkimuksessa analysoin nelj���� Jeff Lindsayn Dexter -dekkaria kahdesta eri n��k��kulmasta. Ensimm��inen osa keskittyy p����henkil��n sosiopaattisen persoonan aiheuttamiin moraalisiin ristiriitoihin, sill�� h��n on sek�� sarjamurhaaja ett�� ty��skentelee poliisin laboratoriossa silti noudattaen eritt��in tiukkaa moraalista ohjenuoraa, joka m����ritt���� kenet h��n saa tappaa. Tutkimuksen toinen osa tarkastelee kirjojen naishahmoja ja heid��n ongelmiaan. K��sittelen lyhyesti my��s kirjasarjan ja niiden pohjalta tehdyn televisiosarjan eroja. Metodeina k��yt��n l��hiluentaa, eettist�� analyysi�� sek�� rikoskirjallisuuden alalajien vertailua. Vaikkei rikoskirjallisuudessa olekaan yleist��, ett�� poliisi tai tutkija olisi siviiliss�� rikollinen, on Dexter hyvin tyypillinen fiktiivinen sosiopaatti ja sarjamurhaaja. Lindsayn kirjojen juonet ja Dexter p����henkil��n�� noudattavat paikoin l��hes kirjaimellisesti Thomas Harrisin Hannibal Lecterille luomaa kaavaa. Kirjojen moraaliset ristiriidat taas aiheutuvat sek�� Dexterin roolista lainvartijana ja -rikkojana ett�� h��nen noudattamastaan tiukasta moraalisesta ohjenuorasta, joka m����ritt���� kenet saa tappaa. Sosiopaattina h��nen pit��isi olla kaikkien yhteiskunnan asettamien lakien ja rajoitusten tavoittamattomissa, mutta silti h��nen p����t��ksentekonsa perustuu t��ysin kasvatti-is��ns�� laatimiin ohjeisiin. T��m�� on yksi Dexterin hahmon suurimmista ristiriitaisuuksista, joka vahvistaa Heta Pyrh��sen esitt��m��n ajatuksen siit��, ettei rikoskirjallisuus tule toimeen ilman vahvaa moraalista selk��rankaa. Dexterin tiukka moraalinen ohjenuora ja lukijoiden samaistuminen p����henkil����n ovat kuitenkin todenn��k��isin syy h��nen selviytymiseens�� kirjasta toiseen, ja sarjan my��t�� Dexter muuttuukin inhimillisemm��ksi kuin alussa. Toisaalta naishahmojen ongelmien havaitseminen on vaikeaa, sill�� ensivaikutelman perusteella voisi kuvitella, ett�� Lindsayn kuvaama yhteiskunta on jo ratkaissut kaikki tasa-arvo-ongelmansa. Sukupuolten ja kansanryhmien v��lisest�� tasa-arvosta ei kirjoissa keskustella, mutta merkitt��vi�� naishahmoja on silti huomattavan v��h��n, eik�� heist��k����n ole rakennettu yht�� johdonmukaisia ja mielenkiintoisia kuin p����henkil��st�� esimerkiksi. He j����v��t pitk��lti Dexterin varjoon. Edes Dexterin sisko Deborah ei pysty s��ilytt��m����n osaansa kirjojen naisp����henkil��n��, sill�� h��nen ammattitaitoaan poliisina ja olemustaan naisena kuvataan jatkuvan ristiriitaisesti. Kaksi seuraavaksi t��rkeint�� naishahmoa ovat Dexterin tytt��yst��v�� Rita, joka toimii ��itiyden ruumiillistumana, sek�� h��nen tytt��rens�� Astor, joka on veljens�� ohella samanlainen sosiopaatti kuin Dexter. Naissarjamurhaajien puute ja naishahmojen ep��johdonmukainen kuvaus ovat yksi Lindsayn kirjojen suurimmista ongelmista. Analyysin keskeisimm��t johtop����t��kset paljastavat, miten omaper��isyydest����n huolimatta Dexter muistuttaa huomattavasti muita tunnettuja fiktiivisi�� sarjamurhaajia, ja miten Lindsay pohjaa tekstins�� amerikkalaiseen arvomaailmaan ja rikoskirjallisuuden alalajien konventioihin. Vaikka suurin osa lukijoista pystyykin k��sittelem����n Dexterin tekojen moraalisia ristiriitoja, voi sarjamurhaajan ihannointi aiheuttaa toisille ongelmia. Toisaalta luomalla monipuolisia ja johdonmukaisia naishahmoja, jotka pystyisiv��t s��ilytt��m����n itsen��isyytens�� kaikissa tilanteissa, Lindsayn kirjat olisivat sek�� ajankohtaisempia ett�� omaper��isempi�� kuin nyt.

Publishing for the Masses : Early Modern English Witchcraft Pamphlets

This study is a pragmatic description of the evolution of the genre of English witchcraft pamphlets from the mid-sixteenth century to the end of the seventeenth century. Witchcraft pamphlets were produced for a new kind of readership semi-literate, uneducated masses and the central hypothesis of this study is that publishing for the masses entailed rethinking the ways of writing and printing texts. Analysis of the use of typographical variation and illustrations indicates how printers and publishers catered to the tastes and expectations of this new audience. Analysis of the language of witchcraft pamphlets shows how pamphlet writers took into account the new readership by transforming formal written source materials trial proceedings into more immediate ways of writing. The material for this study comes from the Corpus of Early Modern English Witchcraft Pamphlets, which has been compiled by the author. The multidisciplinary analysis incorporates both visual and linguistic aspects of the texts, with methodologies and theoretical insights adopted eclectically from historical pragmatics, genre studies, book history, corpus linguistics, systemic functional linguistics and cognitive psychology. The findings are anchored in the socio-historical context of early modern publishing, reading, literacy and witchcraft beliefs. The study shows not only how consideration of a new audience by both authors and printers influenced the development of a genre, but also the value of combining visual and linguistic features in pragmatic analyses of texts.

Mets��hallituksen luontopalveluyksik��iden nimitykset ja ammattinimikkeet : suomalais-ven��l��inen sanastoty��

Pro gradu -tutkielmani tavoitteena on selvitt���� Mets��hallituksen luonnonsuojeluorganisaation yksik��iden nimitysten ja t��rkeimpien ammattinimikkeiden ven��j��nkieliset vastineet. Yleens�� terminologiset pro gradu -tutkielmat k��sittelev��t yleisk��sitteit�� ja niit�� vastaavia termej��. Omassa ty��ss��ni painotus on poikkeuksellisesti sellaisissa k��sitteiss��, jotka eiv��t ole puhtaita yleisk��sitteit�� vaan joilla on rajatumpi, tiettyyn organisaatioon rajoittuva sis��lt�� ja joita kielellisell�� tasolla vastaavat termien sijasta joko erisnimet (luontopalvelujen yksik��iden nimitykset) tai nimikkeet (eri ty��teht��vien nimitykset, ammattinimikkeet). Terminologisen sanastoty��n l��ht��kohtana on k��site ja k��siteanalyysi. Tutkielmani perustuu Mets��hallituksen luonnonsuojeluorganisaation k��sitteisiin ja niihin viittaaviin suomenkielisiin nimityksiin. K��siteanalyysi tehd����n tutkittavan aineiston l��hde- ja vastinekielell��. Se perustuu k��sitepiirteisiin ja k��sitteiden v��lisiin suhteisiin sek�� n��iden suhteiden perusteella muodostuviin k��sitej��rjestelmiin, jotka jaetaan kolmeen perusmalliin: geneerinen, koostumussuhteinen ja funktiosuhteinen k��sitej��rjestelm��. M����ritelm�� on k��sitteen kielellinen kuvaus. Se rajaa k��sitteen antamalla tietoa sen sis��ll��st�� ja alasta sek�� suhteista muihin k��sitteisiin. Viestint���� varten tarvitaan k��sitett�� vastaava kielellinen ilmaus, nimitys. Nimitys voi olla termi, nimike tai erisnimi. Sanastot��iss�� nimikkeit�� on k��sitelty vain v��h��n, sill�� terminologian asiantuntijatkaan eiv��t ole yht�� mielt�� nimikkeen asemasta suhteessa termiin ja erisnimeen. Tutkielmassani k��sittelen termi��, nimikett�� ja erisnime�� nimityksen alalajina. Sanastoty��ss�� nimikkeelle ei anneta m����ritelm���� kuten termille, vaan ainoastaan kuvaus suhteessa ylemp����n k��sitteeseen. Sanastoty��ss�� vastineet jaetaan luontaisiin ja keinotekoisiin vastineisiin. Luontaisia vastineita ovat t��ydet vastineet ja l��hivastineet eli osittaiset vastineet. Keinotekoista vastinetta tarvitaan, kun vastinekieless�� ei ole l��hdekielen k��sitett�� vastaavaa k��sitett��. Keinotekoinen vastine voidaan muodostaa k����nt��m��ll��, lainaamalla, selitt��m��ll�� tai liitt��m��ll�� selitys suoraan k����nn��kseen. Mets��hallituksen luontopalveluyksik��iden ja ammattinimikkeiden ven��j��nkielisten vastineiden l��yt��mist�� hankaloitti se, ett�� Suomen ja Ven��j��n luonnonsuojeluorganisaatiot poikkeavat toisistaan huomattavasti ja k��sitteiden vastaavuus vaihtelee. Nimikkeille on vaikea l��yt���� t��ysi�� vastineita, koska nimikkeen kuvaus sis��lt���� viittauksia piirteisiin, jotka ovat eri maissa erilaisia. Eri maiden nimikkeist�� puhuttaessa kyse on analogeista ja usein vain n��enn��isist�� vastineista. Siksi tutkielmassa esitt��m��ni vastineet ovat p����asiassa l��hivastineita tai suoria k����nn��ksi��. Mets��hallituksella on paljon luonnonsuojeluyhteisty��t�� Ven��j��n kanssa. Tiedon v��litt��miseksi mahdollisimman tarkasti ja tarkoituksenmukaisesti tarvitaan nimityksi��, jotka viittaavat kyseisen alan k��sitteisiin systemaattisesti. Tutkielmaani toivat haasteita k��sitej��rjestelmien laatiminen, k��sitteiden analysointi ja niiden v��listen suhteiden selvitt��minen sek�� vastine-ehdokkaiden ker����minen ja karsiminen. Ty��n tuloksena syntyi k��siteanalyysin avulla koottu sanasto Mets��hallituksen luontopalvelujen k��ytt����n.

���And now to the rest of the trash������ Representations of begging Roma and an ideal society in two Nordic newspapers

Since begging East European Roma became a common view in the streets of larger Nordic cities, vivid discussions about their presence and activities have been carried out in the mass media. This thesis examines the public debates in Finland and Norway through a discursive analysis and comparison of press content from the two countries. The aim of the study is firstly to identify the prominent discourses which construct certain images of the beggars, as well as the elements and internal logics that these discourses are constructed around. But in addition to scrutinizing representations of the Roma, also an opposite perspective is applied. In accordance with the theoretical concept of ���othering���, debates about ���them��� are assumed to simultaneously reveal something significant about ���us���. The second research question is thus what kind of images of the ideal Finnish and Norwegian societies are reflected in the data, and which societal values are salient in these images. The analysis comprises 79 texts printed in the main Finnish and Norwegian quality newspapers; Helsingin Sanomat and Aftenposten. The data consists of news articles, editorials, columns and letters to the editor from a three-month period in the summer of 2010. The analysis was carried out within the theoretical and methodological framework of critical discourse analysis as outlined by Norman Fairclough. A customized nine-step coding scheme was developed in order to reach the most central dimensions of the texts. Seven main discourses were identified; the Deprivation-solidarity, Human rights, Order, Crime, Space and majority reactions, Authority control, and Authority critique discourse. These were grouped into two competing normative stances on what an ideal society looks like; the exclusionary and the inclusionary stance. While the exclusionary stance places the begging Roma within a frame of crime, illegitimate use of public space and threat to the social order, the other advocates an attitude of solidarity and humanitarian values. The analysis points to a dominance of the former, although it is challenged by the latter. The Roma are ���individualized��� by quoting and/or presenting them by name in a fair part of the Finnish news articles. In Norway, the opposite is true; there the beggars are dominantly presented as anonymous and passive. Overall, the begging Roma are subjected to a double bind as they are faced with simultaneous expectations of activity and passivity. Theories relating to moral panics and ���the good enemy��� provide for a deepened understanding of the intensity of the debates. Keywords: East European Roma, begging, media, newspapers, Helsingin Sanomat, Aftenposten, critical discourse analysis, Norman Fairclough, othering, ideal society, moral panics, good enemy, double bind, Finland, Norway

Proofs, Paradoxes, and Probabilities : The Logical Turn of Philosophy in Finland

This monograph describes the emergence of independent research on logic in Finland. The emphasis is placed on three well-known students of Eino Kaila: Georg Henrik von Wright (1916-2003), Erik Stenius (1911-1990), and Oiva Ketonen (1913-2000), and their research between the early 1930s and the early 1950s. The early academic work of these scholars laid the foundations for today's strong tradition in logic in Finland and also became internationally recognized. However, due attention has not been given to these works later, nor have they been comprehensively presented together. Each chapter of the book focuses on the life and work of one of Kaila's aforementioned students, with a fourth chapter discussing works on logic by authors who would later become known within other disciplines. Through an extensive use of correspondence and other archived material, some insight has been gained into the persons behind the academic personae. Unique and unpublished biographical material has been available for this task. The chapter on Oiva Ketonen focuses primarily on his work on what is today known as proof theory, especially on his proof theoretical system with invertible rules that permits a terminating root-���rst proof search. The independency of the parallel postulate is proved as an example of the strength of root-first proof search. Ketonen was to our knowledge Gerhard Gentzen's (the 'father' of proof theory) only student. Correspondence and a hitherto unavailable autobiographic manuscript, in addition to an unpublished article on the relationship between logic and epistemology, is presented. The chapter on Erik Stenius discusses his work on paradoxes and set theory, more specifically on how a rigid theory of definitions is employed to avoid these paradoxes. A presentation by Paul Bernays on Stenius' attempt at a proof of the consistency of arithmetic is reconstructed based on Bernays' lecture notes. Stenius correspondence with Paul Bernays, Evert Beth, and Georg Kreisel is discussed. The chapter on Georg Henrik von Wright presents his early work on probability and epistemology, along with his later work on modal logic that made him internationally famous. Correspondence from various archives (especially with Kaila and Charlie Dunbar Broad) further discusses his academic achievements and his experiences during the challenging circumstances of the 1940s.

Yhteisest�� toiminnasta yhteiseen kieleen : keskustelunanalyyttinen tutkimus toisen kielen oppimisesta kielikylpyp��iv��kodin arkitilanteissa

This dissertation examines how Finnish-speaking children learn Swedish in an immersion kindergarten where the method of Canadian immersion is used. Within the framework of conversation analysis, this study explores how second language learning is situated in interaction and evidenced in the participants�� verbal and non-verbal behavior. The database consists of 40 hours of videotaped data collected in naturally occurring situations in a group of 15 four-year-old children during the first two years of their immersion. Due to the immersion method, all the children share the same L1, in this case Finnish, and the teachers understand Finnish. However, they speak only Swedish to the children in all situations and Swedish is learned in interaction without formal teaching. The aim of the study is to discover how the children��s second language competence gradually increases when they participate in interaction with the Swedish-speaking teachers. The study also sheds light on the methodological question of how second language learning can be analyzed with the method of conversation analysis. The focus is on showing how the second language is learned in interaction, especially on how learning is achieved collaboratively. In this study, the emerging second language competence is explored by investigating how the children show understanding of the teachers�� non-verbal and verbal actions during the first and the second semester of the immersion. The children��s use of Swedish is analyzed by investigating how they recycle lexical items and later even syntactic structures from the teachers�� Swedish turns. The results show that the teachers�� actions are largely understood by the children even at the beginning of the immersion. The analyzes of the children��s responsive turns reveal that they interpret the teachers�� turns on the basis of non-verbal cues at first. Especially at the beginning of the immersion, the participants orient to the progress of interaction and not to problems in understanding. Even in situations where the next actions show that the children do not understand what is said, they tend to display understanding rather than non-understanding. This behavior changes, however, when the children��s competence in their second language increases. At the second semester, the children both show understanding of the teachers�� verbal turns and also display their non-understanding by initiating repair when they do not understand. Understanding of the teachers�� verbal turns, including their syntactic structure, is manifested in the ways the children tie their turns to the teachers�� turns. Recycling, on the other hand, proves to be the way by which the children start to speak the second language. In this study, the children��s common L1 is evidenced to be an important resource in interaction. It allows the children to participate in their individual ways and to share their experiences both with each other and with the teachers. It also enables them to co-construct conversations that lead to collaborative learning. Moreover, the uninhibited use of L1 proves to be an important analytic tool that makes the immersion data especially fruitful for conversation analytic research on second language learning, since the children��s interpretations of the second language are in evidence even when they do not speak the second language.

Looking-Glass Reflections : Norms in translating Lewis Carroll

This thesis in the field of translation studies focusses on the role of norms in the work of a literary translator. Norms are seen as guidelines for the translator; they also reflect the way the target audience either accepts or rejects the translation. Thus they are of an intersubjective nature. The theoretical background of the study is based on the views on norms of Andrew Chesterman and Gideon Toury. The writer makes use of her own editing and publishing experience, as well as her experience in translating Lewis Carroll, considering these in respect to theoretical views of norms and vice versa. The aim is also to bring to light some of the tacit knowledge related to translating, editing and publishing in Finland. The study has three angles. First, the writer introduces the norms of Finnish literary translation as gathered from her own working experience. The sources from which these norms arise and which affect them are briefly described. Six central translation norms emerge; they are described and exemplified through cases of Carroll translation. Secondly, a small-scale questionnaire study is presented. This was carried out in order to sound the normative views of other translators and to limit the role of subjectivity. The views of the informants largely support the set of norms presented by the writer, although the norms of quotability and harmony between translation and illustration do not arise. Instead, the answers give rise to a seventh, ethical norm, which is labelled the norm of integrity. Thirdly, there is a brief presentation of Lewis Carroll, his Alice books and their translation history in Finland. The retranslation hypothesis and the motives of retranslation are considered in the light of the work of Outi Paloposki and Kaisa Koskinen. The final part of the thesis plunges into actual translation work. It includes one and a half chapters of Through the Looking-Glass (Alicen seikkailut peilintakamaassa) as translated into Finnish by the writer. The translation commentary first discusses a number of recurring and general translation points; the running commentary then analyses 77 individual translation solutions and their justifications. The writer uses introspection as a way of reflecting on her own translation process, its decisive points and the role of norms therein. Keywords: Translation studies, Carroll, norms

Begr��nsat tilltr��de Unga invandrares k��nsla av tillh��righet i en finlandssvensk kontext

Att ha tilltr��de till olika arenor i samh��llet ��r viktigt, speciellt f��r unga ��r k��nslan av tillh��righet v��sentligt f��r v��lbefinnandet. I min pro gradu-avhandling synligg��r jag de ungas beskrivningar av sina liv och sina erfarenheter av vad det inneb��r att vara ���invandrare��� i Helsingforsregionen med svenska som f��rsta fr��mmande språk. Språkkunskaper och f��rm��ga att uttrycka sig samt att anv��nda språket v��l blir allt mer relevant i det m��ngkulturella samh��llet d��r m��nniskor med olika kulturella bakgrunder m��ts. Med hj��lp av språkkunskaper ges tilltr��de till den v��rld som uttrycks och f��ruts��tts via språket. Min teoretiska referensram ��r f��rankrad i finl��ndsk och svensk forskning om invandring, tillh��righet, etnicitet och identitetsom tar fasta p�� ungdomar. Viktiga k��llor ��r bland andra Tuomas Martikainen & Lotta Haikkola (2010) och Karmela Liebkind (2000, 2007 m.fl.) Tore Otterups (2005) avhandling om ungdomars flerspråkighet och identitetskonstruktion ger bakgrundskunskap till min studie. Med hj��lp av kvalitativa temaintervjuer som unders��kningsmetod ger min studie en bild av invandrarungdomarnas uppfattningar, erfarenheter och k��nslor. De unga som ��r intervjuade i min pro gradu-avhandling studerar alla vid en svenskspråkig skolinstans i s��dra Finland. Mina informater ��r alla f��dda utanf��r Finlands gr��nser och ingendera f��r��ldern ��r f��dd finl��ndsk, de har alla l��rt sig svenska som f��rsta fr��mmande språk i Finland. Mitt material best��r av elva temaintervjuer. De unga i min pro gradu-avhandling po��ngterar att deras k��nsla av tillh��righet och tilltr��de till olika kulturella kontexter ��r sammankopplat med språkkunskaper. Forskningsresultaten visar att språkkunskaper ger tilltr��de och ��kade m��jligheter i det m��ngkulturella samh��llet som vi lever i.

Sanomattakin selv����? : "Ja", "mutta" ja "ett��" puheenvuoron lopussa

This study describes the use of utterances ending in the conjunctions "ja" (���and���), "mutta" (���but���) or "ett��" (���that���/���so���) in Finnish conversation. It argues that in spoken interaction, these conjunctions are not only used as linking elements but also as final elements in interactional and linguistic units. In contrast to more traditional views, the study shows that final conjunctions do not always indicate incompleteness or project continuation, but that they can also form recognizable points for turn-transition. In these contexts they can be reanalyzed as final particles that leave some aspect of the turn implicit. The data for the study consist of audio-taped telephone conversations and videotaped service encounters. Situated within the framework of conversation analysis and interactional linguistics, the study discusses the interactional uses of conjunction-final turns and their recognizability as possibly complete units in talk-in-interaction. The analysis of conjunction-final utterances focuses on 1) participant orientation, and 2) their recurrent contexts of use. The results show that the recipients of conjunction-final utterances often treat them as sufficient and complete in their contexts by displaying understanding or agreement. When the same speaker continues after a pause, it is not always clear that the continuation was "planned" in advance; it can also be reactive to lack of expected uptake. In these cases, a turn can be analyzed as potentially complete even if the same speaker decides to continue after a pause. In the light of these observations, the study confirms the incremental nature of spoken language. All the final conjunctions under examination have recurrent and recognizable contexts of use. Most typically, a conjunction-final utterance is produced in the service of some earlier claim by the same speaker. The conjunction-final utterance may 1) specify the earlier claim with a detailing list ("ja"), 2) legitimize it by presenting grounds ("ett��") or 3) partly back down from it by making a concession ("mutta"). Together with the earlier claim, conjunction-final utterances form recognizable discourse patterns that are used for argumentative purposes. In these contexts, conjunctions are used to relinquish the floor instead of functioning as turn-holding devices. In conclusion, the study discusses the emergence of conjunctions as final particles ��� how their development can be explained. Conjunction-type final particles emerge from recurring situations in which the future course of the conjunction-final turn-so-far is clear enough to remain unsaid, to be left to inference. More specifically, this ability to leave something to inference often lies in the fixed discourse patterns that are conventionalized and predictable and thus reducible.

Fuzzy Coherence: Making Sense of Continuity in Hypertext Narratives

Hypertexts are digital texts characterized by interactive hyperlinking and a fragmented textual organization. Increasingly prominent since the early 1990s, hypertexts have become a common text type both on the Internet and in a variety of other digital contexts. Although studied widely in disciplines like hypertext theory and media studies, formal linguistic approaches to hypertext continue to be relatively rare. This study examines coherence negotiation in hypertext with particularly reference to hypertext fiction. Coherence, or the quality of making sense, is a fundamental property of textness. Proceeding from the premise that coherence is a subjectively evaluated property rather than an objective quality arising directly from textual cues, the study focuses on the processes through which readers interact with hyperlinks and negotiate continuity between hypertextual fragments. The study begins with a typological discussion of textuality and an overview of the historical and technological precedents of modern hypertexts. Then, making use of text linguistic, discourse analytical, pragmatic, and narratological approaches to textual coherence, the study takes established models developed for analyzing and describing conventional texts, and examines their applicability to hypertext. Primary data derived from a collection of hyperfictions is used throughout to illustrate the mechanisms in practice. Hypertextual coherence negotiation is shown to require the ability to cognitively operate between local and global coherence by means of processing lexical cohesion, discourse topical continuities, inferences and implications, and shifting cognitive frames. The main conclusion of the study is that the style of reading required by hypertextuality fosters a new paradigm of coherence. Defined as fuzzy coherence, this new approach to textual sensemaking is predicated on an acceptance of the coherence challenges readers experience when the act of reading comes to involve repeated encounters with referentially imprecise hyperlinks and discourse topical shifts. A practical application of fuzzy coherence is shown to be in effect in the way coherence is actively manipulated in hypertext narratives.

P��ivikin sadusta Metsolan lapsiin : Aili Somersalon lastenkirjojen nimist�� 1910-luvulta 1950-luvulle

Tutkielmassa selvitet����n, millaiset piirteet ovat tyypillisi�� Aili Somersalon kirjoittamien satuteosten nimist��lle. Tarkasteltavana on 274 nime��, jotka on poimittu kymmenest�� Somersalon vuosina 1918 1951 julkaistusta lastenkirjasta. Nimiaineisto on jaettu kuuteen eri kategoriaan: ihmisten nimiin, el��inten nimiin, kuvitteellisiin nimiin, fantastisten satuolentojen nimiin, paikannimiin ja lainanimiin. Tutkielmassa keskityt����n nimien rakenteellisten piirteiden ja funktioiden erittelyyn. T��m��n lis��ksi pohditaan, kuinka nimet ovat motivoituneet ja muuttuuko kirjailijan nimenanto vuosikymmenten aikana. Tutkielmassa sivutaan my��s nimen ja nimityksen v��list�� rajaa sek�� kyseenalaistetaan iso alkukirjain proprin tunnusmerkkin�� kaunokirjallisessa kontekstissa. Aineiston nimille tyypillisi�� rakenteellisia piirteit�� ovat yksinimisyys, yhdysnimirakenne ja nimien kaksiosaisuus, appellatiivisuus ja adjektiivien esiintyminen nimen�� tai nimenosana, johtimien k��ytt�� sek�� erilaiset ����nteelliset piirteet. Nimen perusteht��v��n, identifioinnin, lis��ksi aineiston nimet pyrkiv��t kuvailemaan, luokittelemaan ja lokalisoimaan tarkoitteitaan. Vuosikymmenten aikana teosten nimim����r�� kasvaa maltillisesti. Teosten sis��lt��miss�� konventionaalisissa nimiss�� n��kyy kulloisenkin vuosikymmenen nimimuoti. Merkillepantavaa on my��s teoksissa esiintyv�� hahmojen samanimisyys. Mielenkiintoisen lis��n analyysiin tuovat aineiston lainanimet, jotka ovat per��isin paitsi universaalista satuperinteest��, my��s suomalaisesta kansanmytologiasta ja Kalevalasta. Kansallisromanttisuus n��kyy my��s teoksiin valikoituneissa konventionaalisissa nimiss��, joista suuri osa on omakielisi��. Kirjailija on lainannut teoksiinsa nimi�� my��s omasta el��m��npiirist����n. Somersalon nimenmuodostus nojaa vahvasti leksikkoon. Aineiston nimien ja nimitysten v��linen raja ei ole yksiselitteinen, ja aineiston voikin luonnehtia koostuvan nimityksen kaltaisista nimist�� ja nimen kaltaisista nimityksist��. Kaiken kaikkiaan aineiston nimet ovat hyvin informatiivisia, tarkoitteen fyysisi�� tai mentaalisia ominaisuuksia kuvailevia, ja toimivat olennaisena osana tarinankerrontaa. Nimet kieliv��t kirjailijan kannattamasta ideologiasta, ja kytkeytyv��t siten my��s reaalimaailmaan. Vaikka kirjailijan nimenanto on osin huolimatonta, on se silti selv��sti harkittua. Aili Somersalon luoma nimimaisema on omalakinen ja tunnistettava.

Toisia todellisuuksia, murtumia kieless�� ja subjektissa : Mielen sairaus ja kirjoittaminen terapiana Maria Vaaran omael��m��kerrallisessa tuotannossa

Tutkielmassa k��sitell����n Maria Vaaran (1931 1992) omael��m��kerrallista teossarjaa sek�� Vaaran kirjoittamisen terapeuttisia funktioita. Teoksissaan Vaara kuvaa parantumistaan skitsofreniaksi luokitellusta psyykkisest�� sairaudesta ja masennuksesta luovan kirjoittamisen sek�� psykoterapian avulla. Vaaran kirjoitus l��hestyy psykoanalyyttisia teorioita kirjoittamisen terapeuttisista vaikutuksista, mutta my��s j��lkistrukturalistisia n��kemyksi�� tekstist�� prosessinalaisena, kumouksellisena k��yt��nt��n��. Tutkielman keskeiset teoriat tulevat psykoanalyytikko, kielitieteilij�� Julia Kristevalta sek�� psykoanalyyttisesta ja j��lkistrukturalistisesta perinteest��, ja n��iden teoreettisten l��hestymistapojen avulla tarkastellaan omael��m��kerrallisen kirjoittamisen, subjektiuden sek�� kielen ja kirjoittamisen toisiinsa limittyvi�� teemoja Vaaran tuotannossa. Vaaran omael��m��kerrallinen kirjoittaminen paljastuu tutkielmassa yht��aikaisesti subjektiutta eheytt��v��ksi ja hajottavaksi toiminnaksi. Vaaran teokset osoittavat, miten minuus rakentuu erilaisten samastumisten ja erottautumisten kautta, psykoottisten kuvitelmien, hallusinaatioiden ja paranoidien kuvitelmien t��ytt��ess�� tekstin. Kirjoittaminen kohtaa ongelman merkityksen ep��yhtenevyydest��: siit��, ettei sanoilla koskaan voida t��ysin tavoittaa omia psykofyysisia kokemuksia tai v��litt���� niit�� toisille ihmisille. Kuitenkin Vaaran teosten Maria kirjoittaa kaiken aikaa ja luo kokemuksellisia suhteita toisiin. Mielikuvitus, kirjallisuus ja kirjoittaminen muodostavat avoimen psyykkisen tilan, jossa minuutta voidaan rakentaa. Kirjoittaminen osoittautuu lopulta k��yt��nn��ksi, jossa esteettinen, terapeuttinen ja eettinen nivoutuvat yhteen. Vaaran teosten Marian harjoittama minuuden analyysi tarjoaa mahdollisuuksia k��sitell�� vierauden ja toiseuden ilmenemist�� omassa itsess�� ilmi��, joka Julia Kristevan mukaan mahdollistaa my��s niiden todellisten toisten ymm��rt��misen, joiden parissa el��mme. Vaaran teokset kyseenalaistavat jaottelun terveisiin ja sairaisiin , ne rikkovat toden ja fiktion v��lisi�� rajoja ja k��sityst�� minuudesta yhten�� ja ehe��n��. Vaaran tuotanto ei olekaan ainoastaan kuvaus skitsofreniasta ja sen kielest��, vaan siit��, miten minuus ja ilmaisu ylip����ns�� rakentuvat suhteessa toisiin ja miten psyykkinen el��m�� on riippuvaista avoimuudesta erilaisille katkoksille ja murtumille.