Computer simulations of colloidal fluids in confinement

Computer-Simulationen von Kolloidalen Fluiden in Beschränkten Geometrien Kolloidale Suspensionen, die einen Phasenübergang aufweisen, zeigen eine Vielfalt an interessanten Effekten, sobald sie auf eine bestimmte Geometrie beschränkt werden, wie zum Beispiel auf zylindrische Poren, sphärische Hohlräume oder auf einen Spalt mit ebenen Wänden. Der Einfluss dieser verschiedenen Geometrietypen sowohl auf das Phasenverhalten als auch auf die Dynamik von Kolloid-Polymer-Mischungen wird mit Hilfe von Computer-Simulationen unter Verwendung des Asakura-Oosawa- Modells, für welches auf Grund der “Depletion”-Kräfte ein Phasenübergang existiert, untersucht. Im Fall von zylindrischen Poren sieht man ein interessantes Phasenverhalten, welches vom eindimensionalen Charakter des Systems hervorgerufen wird. In einer kurzen Pore findet man im Bereich des Phasendiagramms, in dem das System typischerweise entmischt, entweder eine polymerreiche oder eine kolloidreiche Phase vor. Sobald aber die Länge der zylindrischen Pore die typische Korrelationslänge entlang der Zylinderachse überschreitet, bilden sich mehrere quasi-eindimensionale Bereiche der polymerreichen und der kolloidreichen Phase, welche von nun an koexistieren. Diese Untersuchungen helfen das Verhalten von Adsorptionshysteresekurven in entsprechenden Experimenten zu erklären. Wenn das Kolloid-Polymer-Modellsystem auf einen sphärischen Hohlraum eingeschränkt wird, verschiebt sich der Punkt des Phasenübergangs von der polymerreichen zur kolloidreichen Phase. Es wird gezeigt, dass diese Verschiebung direkt von den Benetzungseigenschaften des Systems abhängt, was die Beobachtung von zwei verschiedenen Morphologien bei Phasenkoexistenz ermöglicht – Schalenstrukturen und Strukturen des Janustyps. Im Rahmen der Untersuchung von heterogener Keimbildung von Kristallen innerhalb einer Flüssigkeit wird eine neue Simulationsmethode zur Berechnung von Freien Energien der Grenzfläche zwischen Kristall- bzw. Flüssigkeitsphase undWand präsentiert. Die Resultate für ein System von harten Kugeln und ein System einer Kolloid- Polymer-Mischung werden anschließend zur Bestimmung von Kontaktwinkeln von Kristallkeimen an Wänden verwendet. Die Dynamik der Phasenseparation eines quasi-zweidimensionalen Systems, welche sich nach einem Quench des Systems aus dem homogenen Zustand in den entmischten Zustand ausbildet, wird mit Hilfe von einer mesoskaligen Simulationsmethode (“Multi Particle Collision Dynamics”) untersucht, die sich für eine detaillierte Untersuchung des Einflusses der hydrodynamischen Wechselwirkung eignet. Die Exponenten universeller Potenzgesetze, die das Wachstum der mittleren Domänengröße beschreiben, welche für rein zwei- bzw. dreidimensionale Systeme bekannt sind, können für bestimmte Parameterbereiche nachgewiesen werden. Die unterschiedliche Dynamik senkrecht bzw. parallel zu den Wänden sowie der Einfluss der Randbedingungen für das Lösungsmittel werden untersucht. Es wird gezeigt, dass die daraus resultierende Abschirmung der hydrodynamischen Wechselwirkungsreichweite starke Auswirkungen auf das Wachstum der mittleren Domänengröße hat.

How different is water crystallization from polymer crystallization under confinement?

Ziel der vorliegenden Dissertation war es, Einblicke in das Kristallisationsverhalten weicher Materie („soft matter“), wie verschiedener Polymere oder Wasser, unter räumlicher Einschränkung („confinement“) zu erlangen. Dabei sollte untersucht werden, wie, weshalb und wann die Kristallisation in nanoporösen Strukturen eintritt. Desweiteren ist Kristallisation weicher Materie in nanoporösen Strukturen nicht nur aus Aspekten der Grundlagenforschung von großem Interesse, sondern es ergeben sich zahlreiche praktische Anwendungen. Durch die gezielte Steuerung der Kristallinität von Polymeren könnten somit Materialien mit verschiendenen mechanischen und optischen Eigenschaften erhalten werden. Desweiteren wurde auch räumlich eingeschränktes Wasser untersucht. Dieses spielt eine wichtige Rolle in der Molekularbiologie, z.B. für das globuläre Protein, und als Wolkenkondensationskeime in der Atmosphärenchemie und Physik. Auch im interstellaren Raum ist eingeschränktes Wasser in Form von Eispartikeln anzutreffen. Die Kristallisation von eingeschränktem Wasser zu verstehen und zu beeinflussen ist letztlich auch für die Haltbarkeit von Baumaterialien wie etwa Zement von großem Interesse.rnUm dies zu untersuchen wird Wasser in der Regel stark abgekühlt und das Kristallisationsverhalten in Abhängigkeit des Volumens untersucht. Dabei wurde beobachtet, dass Mikro- bzw. Nanometer große Volumina erst ab -38 °C bzw. -70 °C kristallisieren. Wasser unterliegt dabei in der Regel dem Prozess der homogenen Nukleation. In der Regel gefriert Wasser aber bei höheren Temperaturen, da durch Verunreinigungen eine vorzeitige, heterogene Nukleation eintritt.rnDie vorliegende Arbeit untersucht die sachdienlichen Phasendiagramme von kristallisierbaren Polymeren und Wasser unter räumlich eingeschränkten Bedingungen. Selbst ausgerichtetes Aluminiumoxid (AAO) mit Porengrößen im Bereich von 25 bis 400 nm wurden als räumliche Einschränkung sowohl für Polymere als auch für Wasser gewählt. Die AAO Nanoporen sind zylindrisch und parallel ausgerichtet. Außerdem besitzen sie eine gleichmäßige Porenlänge und einen gleichmäßigen Durchmesser. Daher eignen sie sich als Modelsystem um Kristallisationsprozesse unter wohldefinierter räumlicher Einschränkung zu untersuchen.rnEs wurden verschiedene halbkristalline Polymere verwendet, darunter Poly(ethylenoxid), Poly(ɛ-Caprolacton) und Diblockcopolymere aus PEO-b-PCL. Der Einfluss der Porengröße auf die Nukleation wurde aus verschiedenen Gesichtspunkten untersucht: (i) Einfluss auf den Nukleationmechanismus (heterogene gegenüber homogener Nukleation), (ii) Kristallorientierung und Kristallinitätsgrad und (iii) Zusammenhang zwischen Kristallisationstemperatur bei homogener Kristallisation und Glasübergangstemperatur.rnEs konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Kristallisation von Polymeren in Bulk durch heterogene Nukleation induziert wird und das die Kristallisation in kleinen Poren hauptsächlich über homogene Nukleation mit reduzierter und einstellbarer Kristallinität verläuft und eine hohe Kristallorientierung aufweist. Durch die AAOs konnte außerdem die kritische Keimgröße für die Kristallisation der Polymere abgeschätzt werden. Schließlich wurde der Einfluss der Polydispersität, von Oligomeren und anderen Zusatzstoffen auf den Nukleationsmechanismus untersucht.rn4rnDie Nukleation von Eis wurde in den selben AAOs untersucht und ein direkter Zusammenhang zwischen dem Nukleationstyp (heterogen bzw. homogen) und der gebildeten Eisphase konnte beobachtet werden. In größeren Poren verlief die Nukleation heterogen, wohingegen sie in kleineren Poren homogen verlief. Außerdem wurde eine Phasenumwandlung des Eises beobachtet. In den größeren Poren wurde hexagonales Eis nachgewiesen und unter einer Porengröße von 35 nm trat hauptsächlich kubisches Eis auf. Nennenswerter Weise handelte es sich bei dem kubischem Eis nicht um eine metastabile sondern eine stabile Phase. Abschließend wird ein Phasendiagramm für räumlich eingeschränktes Wasser vorgeschlagen. Dieses Phasendiagramm kann für technische Anwendungen von Bedeutung sein, so z.B. für Baumaterial wie Zement. Als weiteres Beispiel könnten AAOs, die die heterogene Nukleation unterdrücken (Porendurchmesser ≤ 35 nm) als Filter für Reinstwasser zum Einsatz kommen.rnNun zur Anfangs gestellten Frage: Wie unterschiedlich sind Wasser und Polymerkristallisation voneinander unter räumlicher Einschränkung? Durch Vergleich der beiden Phasendiagramme kommen wir zu dem Schluss, dass beide nicht fundamental verschieden sind. Dies ist zunächst verwunderlich, da Wasser ein kleines Molekül ist und wesentlich kleiner als die kleinste Porengröße ist. Wasser verfügt allerdings über starke Wasserstoffbrückenbindungen und verhält sich daher wie ein Polymer. Daher auch der Name „Polywasser“.

Coil-ring-coil block copolymers as building blocks of supramolecular hollow cylindrical brushes

This work describes the synthesis of a new class of rod-coil block copolymers, oligosubstituted shape persistent macrocycles, (coil-ring-coil block copolymers), and their behavior in solution and in the solid state.The coil-ring-coil block copolymers are formed by nanometer sized shape persistent macrocycles based on the phenyl-ethynyl backbone as rigid block and oligomers of polystyrene or polydimethylsiloxane as flexible blocks. The strategy that has been followed is to synthesize the macrocycles with an alcoholic functionality and the polymer carboxylic acids independently, and then bind them together by esterification. The ester bond is stable and relatively easy to form.The synthesis of the shape persistent macrocycles is based on two separate steps. In the first step the building blocks of the macrocycles are connected by Hagiara-Sogonaschira coupling to form an 'half-ring' as precursor, that contains two free acetylenes. In the second step the half-ring is cyclized by forming two sp-sp bonds via a copper-catalyzed Glaser coupling under pseudo-high-dilution conditions. The polystyrene carboxylic acid was prepared directly by siphoning the living anionic polymer chain into a THF solution, saturated with CO2, while the polydimethylsiloxane carboxylic acid was obtained by hydrosilylating an unsaturated benzylester with an Si-H terminated polydimethylsiloxane, and cleavage of the ester. The carbodiimide coupling was found to be the best way to connect macrocycles and polymers in high yield and high purity.The polystyrene-ring-polystyrene block copolymers are, depending on the molecular weight of the polystyrene, lyotropic liquid crystals in cyclohexane. The aggregation behavior of the copolymers in solution was investigated in more detail using several technique. As a result it can be concluded that the polystyrene-ring-polystyrene block copolymers can aggregate into hollow cylinder-like objects with an average length of 700 nm by a combination of shape complementary and demixing of rigid and flexible polymer parts. The resulting structure can be described as supramolecular hollow cylindrical brush.If the lyotropic solution of the polystyrene-ring-polystyrene block copolymers are dried, they remain birefringent indicating that the solid state has an ordered structure. The polydimethylsiloxane-ring-polydimethylsiloxane block copolymers are more or less fluid at room temperature, and are all birefringent (termotropic liquid crystals) as well. This is a prove that the copolymers are ordered in the fluid state. By a careful investigation using electron diffraction and wide-angle X-ray scattering, it has been possible to derive a model for the 3D-order of the copolymers. The data indicate a lamella structure for both type of copolymers. The macrocycles are arranged in a layer of columns. These crystalline layers are separated by amorphous layers which contain the polymers substituents.

Dynamik unterkühlter Flüssigkeiten in Filmen und Röhren

GERMAN:Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit soll der Einfluß einerräumlichen Beschränkung auf die Dynamik einer unterkühltenFlüssigkeit charakterisiert werden. Insbesondere sollgeklärt werden, welche Rolle die Kooperativität derTeilchenbewegung bei niedrigen Temperaturen spielt. Hierzuuntersuchen wir mit Hilfe einer Molekulardynamik-Computersimulation die dynamischen Eigenschaften eineseinfachen Modellglasbildners, einer binäre Lennard-Jones-Flüssigkeit, für Systeme mit unterschiedlichen Geometrienund Wandarten. Durch geschickte Wahl der Wandpotentiale konnte erreichtwerden, daß die Struktur der Flüssigkeit mit der im Bulknahezu identisch ist.In Filmen mit glatten Wänden beobachtet man, daß dieDynamik der Flüssigkeit in der Nähe der Wand starkbeschleunigt ist und sich diese veränderte Dynamik bis weitin den Film ausbreitet. Den umgekehrten Effekt erhält man,wenn man eine strukturierte, rauhe Wand verwendet, in derenNähe die Dynamik stark verlangsamt ist.Die kontinuierliche Verlangsamung bzw. Beschleunigung derDynamik vom Verhalten an der Oberfläche zum Bulkverhaltenin genügend großem Abstand zur Wand können wirphänomenologisch beschreiben. Hieraus kann mancharakteristische dynamische Längenskalen ablesen, die mitsinkender Temperatur kontinuierlich anwachsen, d.h. derBereich, in dem die Existenz der Wand einen (indirekten)Einfluß auf die Dynamik eines Flüssigkeitsteilchens hat,breitet sich immer weiter aus. Man kann daher vonBereichen kooperativer Bewegung sprechen, die mit sinkenderTemperatur anwachsen.Unsere Untersuchungen von Röhren zeigen, daß aufgrund desstärkeren Einflusses der Wände die beobachteten Effektegrößer sind als in Filmgeometrie. Bei Reduzierung derSystemgröße zeigen sich immer größere Unterschiede zumBulkverhalten.

Visualization, manipulation and force spectroscopy of cylindrical polymer brushes

The Ph.D. thesis deals with the conformational study of individual cylindrical polymer brush molecules using atomic force microscopy (AFM). Imaging combined with single molecule manipulation has been used to unravel questions concerning conformational changes, desorption behavior and mechanical properties of individual macromolecules and supramolecular structures. In the first part of the thesis (chapter 5) molecular conformations of cylindrical polymer brushes with poly-(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) side chains were studied in various environmental conditions. Also micelle formation of cylindrical brush-coil blockcopolymers with polyacrylic acid side chains and polystyrene coil have been visualized. In chapter 6 the mechanical properties of single cylindrical polymer brushes with (PNIPAM) side chains were investigated. Assuming that the brushes adopt equilibrium conformation on the surface, an average persistence length of lp= (29 ± 3) nm was determined by the end-to-end distance vs. contour length analysis in terms of the wormlike chain (WLC) model. Stretching experiments suggest that an exact determination of the persistence length using force extension curves is impeded by the contribution of the side chains. Modeling the stretching of the bottle brush molecule as extension of a dual spring (side chain and main chain) explains the frequently observed very low persistence length arising from a dominant contribution of the side chain elasticity at small overall contour lengths. It has been shown that it is possible to estimate the “true” persistence length of the bottle brush molecule from the intercept of a linear extrapolation of the inverse square root of the apparent persistence length vs. the inverse contour length plot. By virtue of this procedure a “true” persistence length of 140 nm for the PNIPAM brush molecules is predicted. Chapter 7 and 8 deal with the force-extension behavior of PNIPAM cylindrical brushes studied in poor solvent conditions. The behavior is shown to be qualitatively different from that in a good solvent. Force induced globule-cylinder conformational changes are monitored using “molecule specific force spectroscopy” which is a combined AFM imaging and SMFS technique. An interesting behavior of the unfolding-folding transitions of single collapsed PNIPAM brush molecules has been observed by force spectroscopy using the so called “fly-fishing” mode. A plateau force is observed upon unfolding the collapsed molecule, which is attributed to a phase transition from a collapsed brush to a stretched conformation. Chapter 9 describes the desorption behavior of single cylindrical polyelectrolyte brushes with poly-L-lysine side chains deposited on a mica surface using the “molecule specific force spectroscopy” technique to resolve statistical discrepancies usually observed in SMFS experiments. Imaging of the brushes and inferring the persistence length from a end-to-end distance vs. contour length analysis results in an average persistence length of lp = (25 ± 5) nm assuming that the chains adopt their equilibrium conformation on the surface. Stretching experiments carried out on individual poly-L-lysine brush molecules by force spectroscopy using the “fly-fishing” mode provide a persistence length in the range of 7-23 nm in reasonable accordance with the imaging results. In chapter 10 the conformational behavior of cylindrical poly-L-lysine brush-sodium dodecyl sulfate complexes was studied using AFM imaging. Surfactant induced cylinder to helix like to globule conformational transitions were observed.

Computer simulations of two-dimensional colloidal crystals in confinement

Monte Carlo simulations are used to study the effect of confinement on a crystal of point particles interacting with an inverse power law potential in d=2 dimensions. This system can describe colloidal particles at the air-water interface, a model system for experimental study of two-dimensional melting. It is shown that the state of the system (a strip of width D) depends very sensitively on the precise boundary conditions at the two ``walls'' providing the confinement. If one uses a corrugated boundary commensurate with the order of the bulk triangular crystalline structure, both orientational order and positional order is enhanced, and such surface-induced order persists near the boundaries also at temperatures where the system in the bulk is in its fluid state. However, using smooth repulsive boundaries as walls providing the confinement, only the orientational order is enhanced, but positional (quasi-) long range order is destroyed: The mean-square displacement of two particles n lattice parameters apart in the y-direction along the walls then crosses over from the logarithmic increase (characteristic for $d=2$) to a linear increase (characteristic for d=1). The strip then exhibits a vanishing shear modulus. These results are interpreted in terms of a phenomenological harmonic theory. Also the effect of incommensurability of the strip width D with the triangular lattice structure is discussed, and a comparison with surface effects on phase transitions in simple Ising- and XY-models is made

Mixtures of colloidal rods and spheres in bulk and in confinement

When non-adsorbing polymers are added to an isotropic suspension of rod-like colloids, the colloids effectively attract each other via depletion forces. Monte Carlo simulations were performed to study the phase diagram of such rod-polymer mixtures. The colloidal rods were modelled as hard spherocylinders; the polymers were described as spheres of the same diameter as the rods. The polymers may overlap with no energy cost, while overlap of polymers and rods is forbidden. In this thesis the emphasis was on the depletion effects caused by the addition of spheres on the isotropic phase of rod-like particles. Although most of the present experimental studies consider systems close to or beyond the isotropic-nematic transition, the isotropic phase with depletion interactions turns out to be a not less interesting topic. First, the percolation problem was studied in canonical simulations of a system of hard rods and soft spheres, where the amount of depletant was kept low to prevent phase separation of the mixture. The lowering of the percolation threshold seen in experiment is confirmed to be due to the depletion interactions. The local changes in the structure of the fluid of rods, which were measured in the simulations, indicated that the depletion forces enhance local alignment and aggregation of the rods. Then, the phase diagram of isotropic-isotropic demixing of short spherocylinders was calculated using grand canonical ensemble simulations with successive umbrella sampling. Finite size scaling analysis allowed to estimate the location of the critical point. Also, estimates for the interfacial tension between the coexisting isotropic phases and analyses of its power-law behaviour on approach of the critical point are presented. The obtained phase diagram was compared to the predictions of the free volume theory. After an analysis of the bulk, the phase behaviour in confinement was studied. The critical point of gas-liquid demixing is shifted to higher concentrations of rods and smaller concentrations of spheres due to the formation of an orientationally ordered surface film. If the separation between the walls becomes very small, the critical point is shifted back to smaller concentrations of rods because the surface film breaks up. A method to calculate the contact angle of the liquid-gas interface with the wall is introduced and the wetting behaviour on the approach to the critical point is analysed.

Monte-Carlo simulation of hard spherocylinders under confinement

When a liquid crystal is confined to a cavity its director field becomes subject to competing forces: on the one hand, the surface of the cavity orients the director field (``surface anchoring''), on the other hand deformations of the director field cost elastic energy. Hence the equilibrium director field is determined by a compromise between surface anchoring and elasticity. One example of a confined liquid crystal that has attracted particular interest from physicists is the nematic droplet. In this thesis a system of hard rods is considered as the simplest model for nematic liquid crystals consisting of elongated molecules. First, systems of hard spherocylinders in a spherical geometry are investigated by means of canonical Monte Carlo simulations. In contrast to previous simulation work on this problem, a continuum model is used. In particular, the effects of ordering near hard curved walls are studied for the low-density regime. With increasing density, first a uniaxial surface film forms and then a biaxial surface film, which eventually fills the entire cavity. We study how the surface order, the adsorption and the shape of the director field depend on the curvature of the wall. We find that orientational ordering at a curved wall in a cavity is stronger than at a flat wall, while adsorption is weaker. For densities above the isotropic-nematic transition, we always find bipolar configurations. As a next step, an extension of the Asakura-Oosawa-Vrij model for colloid-polymer mixtures to anisotropic colloids is considered. By means of computer simulations we study how droplets of hard, rod-like particles optimize their shape and structure under the influence of the osmotic compression caused by the presence of spherical particles that act as depletion agents. At sufficiently high osmotic pressures the rods that make up the drops spontaneously align to turn them into uniaxial nematic liquid crystalline droplets. The nematic droplets or ``tactoids'' that so form are not spherical but elongated, resulting from the competition between the anisotropic surface tension and the elastic deformation of the director field. In agreement with recent theoretical predictions we find that sufficiently small tactoids have a uniform director field, whilst large ones are characterized by a bipolar director field. From the shape and director-field transformation of the droplets we estimate the surface anchoring strength.

Computer simulations of two-dimensional colloidal crystals under confinement and shear

In this thesis we are presenting a broadly based computer simulation study of two-dimensional colloidal crystals under different external conditions. In order to fully understand the phenomena which occur when the system is being compressed or when the walls are being sheared, it proved necessary to study also the basic motion of the particles and the diffusion processes which occur in the case without these external forces. In the first part of this thesis we investigate the structural transition in the number of rows which occurs when the crystal is being compressed by placing the structured walls closer together. Previous attempts to locate this transition were impeded by huge hysteresis effects. We were able to determine the transition point with higher precision by applying both the Schmid-Schilling thermodynamic integration method and the phase switch Monte Carlo method in order to determine the free energies. These simulations showed not only that the phase switch method can successfully be applied to systems with a few thousand particles and a soft crystalline structure with a superimposed pattern of defects, but also that this method is way more efficient than a thermodynamic integration when free energy differences are to be calculated. Additionally, the phase switch method enabled us to distinguish between several energetically very similar structures and to determine which one of them was actually stable. Another aspect considered in the first result chapter of this thesis is the ensemble inequivalence which can be observed when the structural transition is studied in the NpT and in the NVT ensemble. The second part of this work deals with the basic motion occurring in colloidal crystals confined by structured walls. Several cases are compared where the walls are placed in different positions, thereby introducing an incommensurability into the crystalline structure. Also the movement of the solitons, which are created in the course of the structural transition, is investigated. Furthermore, we will present results showing that not only the well-known mechanism of vacancies and interstitial particles leads to diffusion in our model system, but that also cooperative ring rotation phenomena occur. In this part and the following we applied Langevin dynamics simulations. In the last chapter of this work we will present results on the effect of shear on the colloidal crystal. The shear was implemented by moving the walls with constant velocity. We have observed shear banding and, depending on the shear velocity, that the inner part of the crystal breaks into several domains with different orientations. At very high shear velocities holes are created in the structure, which originate close to the walls, but also diffuse into the inner part of the crystal.

New enhancement strategies for plasmon-enhanced fluorescence biosensors

This thesis investigates metallic nanostructures exhibiting surface plasmon resonance for the amplification of fluorescence signal in sandwich immunoassays. In this approach, an analyte is captured by an antibody immobilized on a plasmonic structure and detected by a subsequently bound fluorophore labeled detection antibody. The highly confined field of surface plasmons originates from collective charge oscillations which are associated with high electromagnetic field enhancements at the metal surface and allow for greatly increased fluorescence signal from the attached fluorophores. This feature allows for improving the signal-to-noise ratio in fluorescence measurements and thus advancing the sensitivity of the sensor platform. In particular, the thesis presents two plasmonic nanostructures that amplify fluorescence signal in devices that rely on epifluorescence geometry, in which the fluorophore absorbs and emits light from the same direction perpendicular to the substrate surface.rnThe first is a crossed relief gold grating that supports propagating surface plasmon polaritons (SPPs) and second, gold nanoparticles embedded in refractive index symmetric environment exhibiting collective localized surface plasmons (cLSPs). Finite-difference time-domain simulations are performed in order to design structures for the optimum amplification of established Cy5 and Alexa Fluor 647 fluorophore labels with the absorption and emission wavelengths in the red region of spectrum. The design takes into account combined effect of surface plasmon-enhanced excitation rate, directional surface plasmon-driven emission and modified quantum yield for characteristic distances in immunoassays. Homebuilt optical instruments are developed for the experimental observation of the surface plasmon mode spectrum, measurements of the angular distribution of surface plasmon-coupled fluorescence light and a setup mimicking commercial fluorescence reading systems in epifluorescence geometry.rnCrossed relief grating structures are prepared by interference lithography and multiple copies are made by UV nanoimprint lithography. The fabricated crossed diffraction gratings were utilized for sandwich immunoassay-based detection of the clinically relevant inflammation marker interleukin 6 (IL-6). The enhancement factor of the crossed grating reached EF=100 when compared to a flat gold substrate. This result is comparable to the highest reported enhancements to date, for fluorophores with relatively high intrinsic quantum yield. The measured enhancement factor excellently agrees with the predictions of the simulations and the mechanisms of the enhancement are explained in detail. Main contributions were the high electric field intensity enhancement (30-fold increase) and the directional fluorescence emission at (4-fold increase) compared to a flat gold substrate.rnCollective localized surface plasmons (cLSPs) hold potential for even stronger fluorescence enhancement of EF=1000, due to higher electric field intensity confinement. cLSPs are established by diffractive coupling of the localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) of metallic nanoparticles and result in a narrow resonance. Due to the narrow resonance, it is hard to overlap the cLSPs mode with the absorption and emission bands of the used fluorophore, simultaneously. Therefore, a novel two resonance structure that supports SPP and cLSP modes was proposed. It consists of a 2D array of cylindrical gold nanoparticles above a low refractive index polymer and a silver film. A structure that supports the proposed SPP and cLSP modes was prepared by employing laser interference lithography and the measured mode spectrum was compared to simulation results.rn