Modeling the gas and aqueous phase chemistry of the marine boundary layer

Ein eindimensionales numerisches Modell der maritimenGrenzschicht (MBL) wurde erweitert, um chemische Reaktionenin der Gasphase, von Aerosolpartikeln und Wolkentropfen zu beschreiben. Ein Schwerpunkt war dabei die Betrachtung derReaktionszyklen von Halogenen. Soweit Ergebnisse vonMesskampagnen zur Verfuegung standen, wurden diese zurValidierung des Modells benutzt. Die Ergebnisse von frueheren Boxmodellstudien konntenbestaetigt werden. Diese zeigten die saeurekatalysierteAktivierung von Brom aus Seesalzaerosolen, die Bedeutung vonHalogenradikalen fuer die Zerstoerung von O3, diepotentielle Rolle von BrO bei der Oxidation von DMS und dievon HOBr und HOCl in der Oxidation von S(IV). Es wurde gezeigt, dass die Beruecksichtigung derVertikalprofile von meteorologischen und chemischen Groessenvon grosser Bedeutung ist. Dies spiegelt sich darin wider,dass Maxima des Saeuregehaltes von Seesalzaerosolen und vonreaktiven Halogenen am Oberrand der MBL gefunden wurden.Darueber hinaus wurde die Bedeutung von Sulfataerosolen beidem aktiven Recyceln von weniger aktiven zu photolysierbarenBromspezies gezeigt. Wolken haben grosse Auswirkungen auf die Evolution und denTagesgang der Halogene. Dies ist nicht auf Wolkenschichtenbeschraenkt. Der Tagesgang der meisten Halogene ist aufgrundeiner erhoehten Aufnahme der chemischen Substanzen in die Fluessigphase veraendert. Diese Ergebnisse betonen dieWichtigkeit der genauen Dokumentation der meteorologischenBedingungen bei Messkampagnen (besonders Wolkenbedeckungsgrad und Fluessigwassergehalt), um dieErgebnisse richtig interpretieren und mit Modellresultatenvergleichen zu koennen. Dieses eindimensionale Modell wurde zusammen mit einemBoxmodell der MBL verwendet, um die Auswirkungen vonSchiffemissionen auf die MBL abzuschaetzen, wobei dieVerduennung der Abgasfahne parameterisiert wurde. DieAuswirkungen der Emissionen sind am staerksten, wenn sie insauberen Gebieten stattfinden, die Hoehe der MBL gering istund das Einmischen von Hintergrundluft schwach ist.Chemische Reaktionen auf Hintergrundaerosolen spielen nureine geringe Rolle. In Ozeangebieten mit schwachemSchiffsverkehr sind die Auswirkungen auf die Chemie der MBL beschraenkt. In staerker befahrenen Gebieten ueberlappensich die Abgasfahnen mehrerer Schiffe und sorgen fuerdeutliche Auswirkungen. Diese Abschaetzung wurde mitSimulationen verglichen, bei denen die Emissionen alskontinuierliche Quellen behandelt wurden, wie das inglobalen Chemiemodellen der Fall ist. Wenn die Entwicklungder Abgasfahne beruecksichtigt wird, sind die Auswirkungendeutlich geringer da die Lebenszeit der Abgase in der erstenPhase nach Emission deutlich reduziert ist.

Iodine speciation in atmospheric aerosols in the marine boundary layer

Iodine chemistry plays an important role in the tropospheric ozone depletion and the new particle formation in the Marine Boundary Layer (MBL). The sources, reaction pathways, and the sinks of iodine are investigated using lab experiments and field observations. The aims of this work are, firstly, to develop analytical methods for iodine measurements of marine aerosol samples especially for iodine speciation in the soluble iodine; secondly, to apply the analytical methods in field collected aerosol samples, and to estimate the characteristics of aerosol iodine in the MBL. Inductively Coupled Plasma – Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) was the technique used for iodine measurements. Offline methods using water extraction and Tetra-methyl-ammonium-hydroxide (TMAH) extraction were applied to measure total soluble iodine (TSI) and total insoluble iodine (TII) in the marine aerosol samples. External standard calibration and isotope dilution analysis (IDA) were both conducted for iodine quantification and the limits of detection (LODs) were both 0.1 μg L-1 for TSI and TII measurements. Online couplings of Ion Chromatography (IC)-ICP-MS and Gel electrophoresis (GE)-ICP-MS were both developed for soluble iodine speciation. Anion exchange columns were adopted for IC-ICP-MS systems. Iodide, iodate, and unknown signal(s) were observed in these methods. Iodide and iodate were separated successfully and the LODs were 0.1 and 0.5 μg L-1, respectively. Unknown signals were soluble organic iodine species (SOI) and quantified by the calibration curve of iodide, but not clearly identified and quantified yet. These analytical methods were all applied to the iodine measurements of marine aerosol samples from the worldwide filed campaigns. The TSI and TII concentrations (medians) in PM2.5 were found to be 240.87 pmol m-3 and 105.37 pmol m-3 at Mace Head, west coast of Ireland, as well as 119.10 pmol m-3 and 97.88 pmol m-3 in the cruise campaign over the North Atlantic Ocean, during June – July 2006. Inorganic iodine, namely iodide and iodate, was the minor iodine fraction in both campaigns, accounting for 7.3% (median) and 5.8% (median) in PM2.5 iodine at Mace Head and over the North Atlantic Ocean, respectively. Iodide concentrations were higher than iodate in most of the samples. In the contrast, more than 90% of TSI was SOI and the SOI concentration was correlated significantly with the iodide concentration. The correlation coefficients (R2) were both higher than 0.5 at Mace Head and in the first leg of the cruise. Size fractionated aerosol samples collected by 5 stage Berner impactor cascade sampler showed similar proportions of inorganic and organic iodine. Significant correlations were obtained in the particle size ranges of 0.25 – 0.71 μm and 0.71 – 2.0 μm between SOI and iodide, and better correlations were found in sunny days. TSI and iodide existed mainly in fine particle size range (< 2.0 μm) and iodate resided in coarse range (2.0 – 10 μm). Aerosol iodine was suggested to be related to the primary iodine release in the tidal zone. Natural meteorological conditions such as solar radiation, raining etc were observed to have influence on the aerosol iodine. During the ship campaign over the North Atlantic Ocean (January – February 2007), the TSI concentrations (medians) ranged 35.14 – 60.63 pmol m-3 among the 5 stages. Likewise, SOI was found to be the most abundant iodine fraction in TSI with a median of 98.6%. Significant correlation also presented between SOI and iodide in the size range of 2.0 – 5.9 μm. Higher iodate concentration was again found in the higher particle size range, similar to that at Mace Head. Airmass transport from the biogenic bloom region and the Antarctic ice front sector was observed to play an important role in aerosol iodine enhancement. The TSI concentrations observed along the 30,000 km long cruise round trip from East Asia to Antarctica during November 2005 – March 2006 were much lower than in the other campaigns, with a median of 6.51 pmol m-3. Approximately 70% of the TSI was SOI on average. The abundances of inorganic iodine including iodine and iodide were less than 30% of TSI. The median value of iodide was 1.49 pmol m-3, which was more than four fold higher than that of iodate (median, 0.28 pmol m-3). Spatial variation indicated highest aerosol iodine appearing in the tropical area. Iodine level was considerably lower in coastal Antarctica with the TSI median of 3.22 pmol m-3. However, airmass transport from the ice front sector was correlated with the enhance TSI level, suggesting the unrevealed source of iodine in the polar region. In addition, significant correlation between SOI and iodide was also shown in this campaign. A global distribution in aerosol was shown in the field campaigns in this work. SOI was verified globally ubiquitous due to the presence in the different sampling locations and its high proportion in TSI in the marine aerosols. The correlations between SOI and iodide were obtained not only in different locations but also in different seasons, implying the possible mechanism of iodide production through SOI decomposition. Nevertheless, future studies are needed for improving the current understanding of iodine chemistry in the MBL (e.g. SOI identification and quantification as well as the update modeling involving organic matters).

The impact of ice crystals on radiative forcing and remote sensing of arctic boundary-layer mixed-phase clouds

This PhD thesis is embedded into the Arctic Study of Tropospheric Aerosol, Clouds and Radiation (ASTAR) and investigates the radiative transfer through Arctic boundary-layer mixed-phase (ABM) clouds. For this purpose airborne spectral solar radiation measurements and simulations of the solar and thermal infrared radiative transfer have been performed. This work reports on measurements with the Spectral Modular Airborne Radiation measurement sysTem (SMART-Albedometer) conducted in the framework of ASTAR in April 2007 close to Svalbard. For ASTAR the SMART-Albedometer was extended to measure spectral radiance. The development and calibration of the radiance measurements are described in this work. In combination with in situ measurements of cloud particle properties provided by the Laboratoire de M¶et¶eorologie Physique (LaMP) and simultaneous airborne lidar measurements by the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research (AWI) ABM clouds were sampled. The SMART-Albedometer measurements were used to retrieve the cloud thermodynamic phase by three different approaches. A comparison of these results with the in situ and lidar measurements is presented in two case studies. Beside the dominating mixed-phase clouds pure ice clouds were found in cloud gaps and at the edge of a large cloud field. Furthermore the vertical distribution of ice crystals within ABM clouds was investigated. It was found that ice crystals at cloud top are necessary to describe the observed SMART-Albedometer measurements. The impact of ice crystals on the radiative forcing of ABM clouds is in vestigated by extensive radiative transfer simulations. The solar and net radiative forcing was found to depend on the ice crystal size, shape and the mixing ratio of ice crystals and liquid water droplets.

Oxidation photochemistry in the remote marine boundary layer

Die bedeutendste Folge der Luftverschmutzung ist eine erhöhte Konzentration an Ozon (O3) in der Troposphäre innerhalb der letzten 150 Jahre. Ozon ist ein photochemisches Oxidationsmittel und ein Treibhausgas, das als wichtigste Vorstufe des Hydroxyradikals OH die Oxidationskraft der Atmosphäre stark beeinflusst. Um die Oxidationskraft der Atmosphäre und ihren Einfluss auf das Klima verstehen zu können, ist es von großer Bedeutung ein detailliertes Wissen über die Photochemie des Ozons und seiner Vorläufer, den Stickoxiden (NOx), in der Troposphäre zu besitzen. Dies erfordert das Verstehen der Bildungs- und Abbaumechanismen von Ozon und seiner Vorläufer. Als eine für den chemischen Ozonabbau wichtige Region kann die vom Menschen weitgehend unberührte marine Grenzschicht (Marine boundary layer (MBL)) angesehen werden. Bisher wurden für diese Region jedoch kaum Spurengasmessungen durchgeführt, und so sind die dort ablaufenden photochemischen Prozesse wenig untersucht. Da etwa 70 % der Erdoberfläche mit Ozeanen bedeckt sind, können die in der marinen Granzschicht ablaufenden Prozesse als signifikant für die gesamte Atmosphäre angesehen werden. Dies macht eine genaue Untersuchung dieser Region interessant. Um die photochemische Produktion und den Abbau von Ozon abschätzen zu können und den Einfluss antrophogener Emissionen auf troposphärisches Ozon zu quantifizieren, sind aktuelle Messergebnisse von NOx im pptv-Bereich für diese Region erforderlich. Die notwendigen Messungen von NO, NO2, O3, JNO2, J(O1D), HO2, OH, ROx sowie einiger meteorologischer Parameter wurden während der Fahrt des französischen Forschungsschiffes Marion-Dufresne auf dem südlichen Atlantik (28°S-57°S, 46°W-34°E) im März 2007 durchgeführt. Dabei sind für NO und NO2 die bisher niedrigsten gemessenen Werte zu verzeichnen. Die während der Messcampagne gewonnen Daten wurden hinsichtlich Ihrer Übereinstimmung mit den Bedingungen des photochemischen stationären Gleichgewichts (photochemical steady state (PSS)) überprüft. Dabei konnte eine Abweichung vom PSS festgestellt werden, welche unter Bedingungen niedriger NOx-Konzentrationen (5 bis 25pptv) einen unerwarteten Trend im Leighton-Verhältnis bewirkt, der abhängig vom NOx Mischungsverhältnis und der JNO2 Intensität ist. Signifikante Abweichungen vom Verhältnis liegen bei einer Zunahme der JNO2 Intensität vor. Diese Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Abweichung vom PSS nicht beim Minimum der NOx-Konzentrationen und der JNO2 Werte liegt, so wie es in bisherigen theoretischen Studien dargelegt wurde und können als Hinweis auf weitere photochemische Prozesse bei höheren JNO2-Werten in einem System mit niedrigem NOx verstanden werden. Das wichtigste Ergebnis dieser Untersuchung, ist die Verifizierung des Leighton-Verhältnisses, das zur Charakterisierung des PSS dient, bei sehr geringen NOx-Konzentrationen in der MBL. Die bei dieser Doktorarbeit gewonnenen Erkenntnisse beweisen, dass unter den Bedingungen der marinen Granzschicht rein photochemischer Abbau von Ozon stattfindet und als Hauptursache hierfür während des Tages die Photolyse gilt. Mit Hilfe der gemessenen Parameter wurde der kritische NO-Level auf Werte zwischen 5 und 9 pptv abgeschätzt, wobei diese Werte im Vergleich zu bisherigen Studien vergleichsweise niedrig sind. Möglicherweise bedeutet dies, dass das Ozon Produktion/ Abbau-Potential des südlichen Atlantiks deutlich stärker auf die Verfügbarkeit von NO reagiert, als es in anderen Regionen der Fall ist. Im Rahmen der Doktorarbeit wurde desweiteren ein direkter Vergleich der gemessenen Spezies mit dem Modelergebnis eines 3-dimensionalen Zirkulationsmodel zur Simulation atmosphären chemischer Prozesse (EMAC) entlang der exakten Schiffsstrecke durchgeführt. Um die Übereinstimmung der Messergebnisse mit dem bisherigen Verständnis der atmosphärischen Radikalchemie zu überprüfen, wurde ein Gleichgewichtspunktmodel entwickelt, das die während der Überfahrt erhaltenen Daten für Berechungen verwendet. Ein Vergleich zwischen der gemessenen und der modellierten ROx Konzentrationen in einer Umgebung mit niedrigem NOx zeigt, dass die herkömmliche Theorie zur Reproduktion der Beobachtungen unzureichend ist. Die möglichen Gründe hierfür und die Folgen werden in dieser Doktorarbeit diskutiert.

Reactive halogen compounds in the marine boundary layer: method developments and field measurements

Reactive halogen compounds are known to play an important role in a wide variety of atmospheric processes such as atmospheric oxidation capacity and coastal new particle formation. In this work, novel analytical approaches combining diffusion denuder/impinger sampling techniques with gas chromatographic–mass spectrometric (GC–MS) determination are developed to measure activated chlorine compounds (HOCl and Cl2), activated bromine compounds (HOBr, Br2, BrCl, and BrI), activated iodine compounds (HOI and ICl), and molecular iodine (I2). The denuder/GC–MS methods have been used to field measurements in the marine boundary layer (MBL). High mixing ratios (of the order of 100 ppt) of activated halogen compounds and I2 are observed in the coastal MBL in Ireland, which explains the ozone destruction observed. The emission of I2 is found to correlate inversely with tidal height and correlate positively with the levels of O3 in the surrounding air. In addition the release is found to be dominated by algae species compositions and biomass density, which proves the “hot-spot” hypothesis of atmospheric iodine chemistry. The observations of elevated I2 concentrations substantially support the existence of higher concentrations of littoral iodine oxides and thus the connection to the strong ultra-fine particle formation events in the coastal MBL.

Influences of deep convective cloud systems on tropospheric trace gases and photochemistry over the tropical West Pacific

A numerical model for studying the influences of deep convective cloud systems on photochemistry was developed based on a non-hydrostatic meteorological model and chemistry from a global chemistry transport model. The transport of trace gases, the scavenging of soluble trace gases, and the influences of lightning produced nitrogen oxides (NOx=NO+NO2) on the local ozone-related photochemistry were investigated in a multi-day case study for an oceanic region located in the tropical western Pacific. Model runs considering influences of large scale flows, previously neglected in multi-day cloud resolving and single column model studies of tracer transport, yielded that the influence of the mesoscale subsidence (between clouds) on trace gas transport was considerably overestimated in these studies. The simulated vertical transport and scavenging of highly soluble tracers were found to depend on the initial profiles, reconciling contrasting results from two previous studies. Influences of the modeled uptake of trace gases by hydrometeors in the liquid and the ice phase were studied in some detail for a small number of atmospheric trace gases and novel aspects concerning the role of the retention coefficient (i.e. the fraction of a dissolved trace gas that is retained in the ice phase upon freezing) on the vertical transport of highly soluble gases were illuminated. Including lightning NOx production inside a 500 km 2-D model domain was found to be important for the NOx budget and caused small to moderate changes in the domain averaged ozone concentrations. A number of sensitivity studies yielded that the fraction of lightning associated NOx which was lost through photochemical reactions in the vicinity of the lightning source was considerable, but strongly depended on assumptions about the magnitude and the altitude of the lightning NOx source. In contrast to a suggestion from an earlier study, it was argued that the near zero upper tropospheric ozone mixing ratios which were observed close to the study region were most probably not caused by the formation of NO associated with lightning. Instead, it was argued in agreement with suggestions from other studies that the deep convective transport of ozone-poor air masses from the relatively unpolluted marine boundary layer, which have most likely been advected horizontally over relatively large distances (both before and after encountering deep convection) probably played a role. In particular, it was suggested that the ozone profiles observed during CEPEX (Central Equatorial Pacific Experiment) were strongly influenced by the deep convection and the larger scale flow which are associated with the intra-seasonal oscillation.

Untersuchungen zur troposphärischen Photochemie am GAW-Observatorium Izana

Im Rahmen dieser Promotionsarbeit wurden Fragestellungen der troposphärischen Ozonproduktion, des photostationären Gleichgewicht des NO2-NO-O3-ROx-Systems, des Einflusses von heterogenen Reaktionen an Mineralstauboberflächen und der Bedeutung lokaler anthropogener Emissionen für Spurengasmessungen an einem Gebirgsobservatorium untersucht. Dazu wurde insbesondere ein atmosphärenchemisch-meteorologischer Datensatz ausgewertet, welcher während der Feldmesskampagne MINATROC II im Juli/August 2002 am Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW) Observatorium Izana (2360m über NN) auf Teneriffa gewonnen wurde. Der Datensatz enthält Messdaten von Aerosolen, Spurengasen, Strahlungsgrößen und meteorologischen Parametern. Eine dichte Sahara-Staubwolke passierte die Messstation zwischen dem 28. und 31.07.2002. Die Mischungsverhältnisse von O3, H2O2, NOx und ROx zeigten während dieses Ereignisses Abnahmen zwischen 10% und 50%. Insbesondere infolge der Reduktion von NO und HO2 wurde eine deutliche Verringerung der Netto-Ozon-Produktion in der Staubwolke berechnet. Die Bewertung der verschiedenen Terme der Ozonproduktion bzw. –vernichtung zeigte relativ geringe Beiträge der einzelnen photochemischen Verlustreaktionen am Ozonbudget. Im Rahmen einer Boxmodellstudie, welche die Eingangsdaten von MINATROC II verwendete, wurde ein Vergleich zwischen Simulation und Messung kurzlebiger Spurengase angestellt. Die Modellrechnungen weisen darauf hin, dass die reduzierten H2O2-Mischungsverhältnisse in der Sahara-Staubwolke unter Berücksichtigung heterogener Reaktionen von HO2 bzw. H2O2 an Stauboberflächen erklärt werden können. Die Betrachtungen zum photostationären Gleichgewicht des NO2-NO-O3-ROx-Systems ergeben hauptsächlich stark überhöhte Leighton-Verhältnisse. Die Abweichungen der Messdaten vom photostationären Gleichgewichtszustand sind dabei zum Verschmutzungsgrad der Atmosphäre antikorreliert. Eine Reihe potentieller Einflüsse auf das NO2-NO-O3-ROx-System wurde diskutiert, wobei gezeigt werden konnte, dass das bisherige Betrachtungsmodell nicht ausreicht, um die beobachteten Abweichungen vom photostationären Gleichgewicht zu erklären. Während für die Nachtmessungen von MINATROC II Bedingungen der freien Troposphäre vorlagen, waren die Messungen am Tage von der Kopplung zwischen photochemischer Aktivität und thermisch getriebener Hangströmung betroffen. Die zum Messort gelangte anthropogen beeinflusste Grenzschichtluft konnte dabei auf maximalen Mischungsanteilen zwischen 15% und 85% quantifiziert werden. Abschließend wurden verschiedene Aspekte der Quellen und der Verteilung anthropogener Verschmutzungen auf Teneriffa im Zusammenhang der zuvor behandelten Fragen diskutiert.

Measurement and modeling of cloud condensation nuclei in continental air

Atmospheric aerosol particles serving as cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) are key elements of the hydrological cycle and climate. Knowledge of the spatial and temporal distribution of CCN in the atmosphere is essential to understand and describe the effects of aerosols in meteorological models. In this study, CCN properties were measured in polluted and pristine air of different continental regions, and the results were parameterized for efficient prediction of CCN concentrations.The continuous-flow CCN counter used for size-resolved measurements of CCN efficiency spectra (activation curves) was calibrated with ammonium sulfate and sodium chloride aerosols for a wide range of water vapor supersaturations (S=0.068% to 1.27%). A comprehensive uncertainty analysis showed that the instrument calibration depends strongly on the applied particle generation techniques, Köhler model calculations, and water activity parameterizations (relative deviations in S up to 25%). Laboratory experiments and a comparison with other CCN instruments confirmed the high accuracy and precision of the calibration and measurement procedures developed and applied in this study.The mean CCN number concentrations (NCCN,S) observed in polluted mega-city air and biomass burning smoke (Beijing and Pearl River Delta, China) ranged from 1000 cm−3 at S=0.068% to 16 000 cm−3 at S=1.27%, which is about two orders of magnitude higher than in pristine air at remote continental sites (Swiss Alps, Amazonian rainforest). Effective average hygroscopicity parameters, κ, describing the influence of chemical composition on the CCN activity of aerosol particles were derived from the measurement data. They varied in the range of 0.3±0.2, were size-dependent, and could be parameterized as a function of organic and inorganic aerosol mass fraction. At low S (≤0.27%), substantial portions of externally mixed CCN-inactive particles with much lower hygroscopicity were observed in polluted air (fresh soot particles with κ≈0.01). Thus, the aerosol particle mixing state needs to be known for highly accurate predictions of NCCN,S. Nevertheless, the observed CCN number concentrations could be efficiently approximated using measured aerosol particle number size distributions and a simple κ-Köhler model with a single proxy for the effective average particle hygroscopicity. The relative deviations between observations and model predictions were on average less than 20% when a constant average value of κ=0.3 was used in conjunction with variable size distribution data. With a constant average size distribution, however, the deviations increased up to 100% and more. The measurement and model results demonstrate that the aerosol particle number and size are the major predictors for the variability of the CCN concentration in continental boundary layer air, followed by particle composition and hygroscopicity as relatively minor modulators. Depending on the required and applicable level of detail, the measurement results and parameterizations presented in this study can be directly implemented in detailed process models as well as in large-scale atmospheric and climate models for efficient description of the CCN activity of atmospheric aerosols.

GC/MS-Meßsystem für Nicht-Methan-Kohlenwasserstoffe

Im Rahmen der Projekte CARIBIC ('Civil Aircraft for the Regular Investigation of the atmosphere Based on an Instrument Container') und INDOEX ('Indian Ocean Experi-ment') wurde ein Gaschromatograph mit Massenspektrometer zur Analyse von Luftproben auf Nicht-Methan-Kohlenwasserstoffe (NMKW) im ppb- und ppt-Bereich entwickelt. Während INDOEX erfolgte die Probennahme auf dem Forschungsschiff Ronald Brown, während CARIBIC mit einem automatischen Probensammler an Bord eines Passagierflugzeuges (Boeing 767-ER, LTU). Die NMKW-Meßergebnisse wurden zusammen mit Ergebnissen von Mes-sungen von Kohlenmonoxid (CO, einschließlich Isotopenzusam-mensetzung), Ozon (O3), Methan (CH4), Kohlendioxid (CO2), Distickstoffmonoxid (N2O), Schwefelhexafluorid (SF6) und Aerosoleigenschaften sowie meteorologischen Daten inter-pretiert. Während INDOEX (Februar / März 1999) wurde in der maritimen Grenzschicht (MBL) des Indischen Ozeans (IO) eine starke Variabilität diverser Spurengase beobachtet, die teilweise durch regionale Emissionen hervorgerufen wurde, die stärkste Variabilität war jedoch durch Langstrecken-transport aus mittleren Breiten der Nordhemisphäre bedingt. Aufgrund der Abweichungen vom klimatologischen Mittel, sollten regionale Quellen die MBL des IO im allgemeinen stärker beeinflussen. Die Einteilung des IO in meteorologi-sche Luftmassenregime wurde bestätigt. Starke Spurengasgra-dienten an der innertropischen Konvergenzzone (ITCZ) zeigen, daß die ITCZ in erster Linie den Austausch von Luftmassen zwischen den Hemisphären behindert. Bei CARIBIC werden Messungen von Spurengasen (ein-(schließlich NMKW) und Aerosoleigenschaften auf Flügen in der oberen Troposphäre / unteren Stratosphäre durchgeführt. Während eines Flug über Afrika wurden der Einfluß von durch Konvektion in die obere Troposphäre eingebrachten, frischen Abgasen aus Biomassenverbrennung nachgewiesen. Andere Luft-massen wurden durch Emissionen von Erdgas bzw. durch die Stratosphäre beeinflußt.

Tropospheric carboxylic acids in tropical rainforest environments

Der Übergang der Grenzschicht von stark ozeanisch auf kontinental beeinflusst wurde in 2 tropischen Küstenwaldgebieten Amerikas untersucht, wo Luftmassen vom Meer kommend über den Kontinent transportiert werden.Zwei Feldkampagnen wurden durchgeführt; in Costa Rica (CR; 07.1996) und in Surinam (04.1998). In CR wurde im nordöstlichen Flachgebiet (etwa 10°25' N; 84°W) Regenwasser gesammelt, in dem später Carboxylate, anorganischen Anionen, Ca2+, K+, NH4+ und Mg2+ gemessen wurden. Die Proben wurden an 5 verschiedenen Stellen entlang der Windrichtung 1, 20, 60, 60 und 80 km von der Küste gesammelt. In Surinam (Sipaliwini, 2°02' N, 56°08' W) wurden organischen Säuren aus der Gasphase gesammelt etwa 550 km von der Küste entfernt, sowohl wie O3 und CO. Die Proben wurden mittels Ionenchromatographie und Kapillarelektrophorese analysiert. Morgendliche Einmischung der nächtlichen residualen Schicht und Luft der unteren freien Troposphäre war Hauptquelle für HCOOH und CH3COOH in der Tagesmischschicht. Es wurde gezeigt, dass lokale Produktion dieser Säuren durch chemische Reaktionen eine kleine Rolle gespielt hat und dass direkte Emission vernachlässigbar war.Aus den beiden Feldkampagnen folgt, dass die Konzentrationen der sekundären Verbindungen HCOOH, CH3COOH, Ozon und CO in der Tagesmischschicht von Importen bestimmt wurden, was gilt für Regen- und Trockenzeit bis zu Entfernungen von 550 km zur Küste.

Lagrangian transport evaluation of atmospheric chemistry in the Mediterranean region

Global observations of the chemical composition of the atmosphere are essential for understanding and studying the present and future state of the earth's atmosphere. However, by analyzing field experiments the consideration of the atmospheric motion is indispensable, because transport enables different chemical species, with different local natural and anthropogenic sources, to interact chemically and so consequently influences the chemical composition of the atmosphere. The distance over which that transport occurs is highly dependent upon meteorological conditions (e.g., wind speed, precipitation) and the properties of chemical species itself (e.g., solubility, reactivity). This interaction between chemistry and dynamics makes the study of atmospheric chemistry both difficult and challenging, and also demonstrates the relevance of including the atmospheric motions in that context. In this doctoral thesis the large-scale transport of air over the eastern Mediterranean region during summer 2001, with a focus on August during the Mediterranean Intensive Oxidant Study (MINOS) measurement campaign, was investigated from a lagrangian perspective. Analysis of back trajectories demonstrated transport of polluted air masses from western and eastern Europe in the boundary layer, from the North Atlantic/North American area in the middle end upper troposphere and additionally from South Asia in the upper troposphere towards the eastern Mediterranean. Investigation of air mass transport near the tropopause indicated enhanced cross-tropopause transport relative to the surrounding area over the eastern Mediterranean region in summer. A large band of air mass transport across the dynamical tropopause develops in June, and is shifted toward higher latitudes in July and August. This shifting is associated with the development and the intensification of the Arabian and South Asian upper-level anticyclones and consequential with areas of maximum clear-air turbulence, hypothesizing quasi-permanent areas with turbulent mixing of tropospheric and stratospheric air during summer over the eastern Mediterranean as a result of large-scale synoptic circulation. In context with the latex knowledge about the transport of polluted air masses towards the Mediterranean and with increasing emissions, especially in developing countries like India, this likely gains in importance.

Development of analytical methodologies for iodine species in gaseous and particulate phases of the coastal atmosphere

It has been demonstrated that iodine does have an important influence on atmospheric chemistry, especially the formation of new particles and the enrichment of iodine in marine aerosols. It was pointed out that the most probable chemical species involved in the production or growth of these particles are iodine oxides, produced photochemically from biogenic halocarbon emissions and/or iodine emission from the sea surface. However, the iodine chemistry from gaseous to particulate phase in the coastal atmosphere and the chemical nature of the condensing iodine species are still not understood. A Tenax / Carbotrap adsorption sampling technique and a thermo-desorption / cryo-trap / GC-MS system has been further developed and improved for the volatile organic iodine species in the gas phase. Several iodo-hydrocarbons such as CH3I, C2H5I, CH2ICl, CH2IBr and CH2I2 etc., have been measured in samples from a calibration test gas source (standards), real air samples and samples from seaweeds / macro-algae emission experiments. A denuder sampling technique has been developed to characterise potential precursor compounds of coastal particle formation processes, such as molecular iodine in the gas phase. Starch, TMAH (TetraMethylAmmonium Hydroxide) and TBAH (TetraButylAmmonium Hydroxide) coated denuders were tested for their efficiencies to collect I2 at the inner surface, followed by a TMAH extraction and ICP/MS determination, adding tellurium as an internal standard. The developed method has been proved to be an effective, accurate and suitable process for I2 measurement in the field, with the estimated detection limit of ~0.10 ng∙L-1 for a sampling volume of 15 L. An H2O/TMAH-Extraction-ICP/MS method has been developed for the accurate and sensitive determination of iodine species in tropospheric aerosol particles. The particle samples were collected on cellulose-nitrate filters using conventional filter holders or on cellulose nitrate/tedlar-foils using a 5-stage Berner impactor for size-segregated particle analysis. The water soluble species as IO3- and I- were separated by anion exchanging process after water extraction. Non-water soluble species including iodine oxide and organic iodine were digested and extracted by TMAH. Afterwards the triple samples were analysed by ICP/MS. The detection limit for particulate iodine was determined to be 0.10~0.20 ng•m-3 for sampling volumes of 40~100 m3. The developed methods have been used in two field measurements in May 2002 and September 2003, at and around the Mace Head Atmospheric Research Station (MHARS) located at the west coast of Ireland. Elemental iodine as a precursor of the iodine chemistry in the coastal atmosphere, was determined in the gas phase at a seaweed hot-spot around the MHARS, showing I2 concentrations were in the range of 0~1.6 ng∙L-1 and indicating a positive correlation with the ozone concentration. A seaweed-chamber experiment performed at the field measurement station showed that the I2 emission rate from macro-algae was in the range of 0.019~0.022 ng•min-1•kg-1. During these experiments, nanometer-particle concentrations were obtained from the Scanning Mobility Particle Sizer (SMPS) measurements. Particle number concentrations were found to have a linear correlation with elemental iodine in the gas phase of the seaweeds chamber, showing that gaseous I2 is one of the important precursors of the new particle formation in the coastal atmosphere. Iodine contents in the particle phase were measured in both field campaigns at and around the field measurement station. Total iodine concentrations were found to be in the range of 1.0 ~ 21.0 ng∙m-3 in the PM2.5 samples. A significant correlation between the total iodine concentrations and the nanometer-particle number concentrations was observed. The particulate iodine species analysis indicated that iodide contents are usually higher than those of iodate in all samples, with ratios in the range of 2~5:1. It is possible that those water soluble iodine species are transferred through the sea-air interface into the particle phase. The ratio of water soluble (iodate + iodide) and non-water soluble species (probably iodine oxide and organic iodine compounds) was observed to be in the range of 1:1 to 1:2. It appears that higher concentrated non-water soluble species, as the products of the photolysis from the gas phase into the particle phase, can be obtained in those samples while the nucleation events occur. That supports the idea that iodine chemistry in the coastal boundary layer is linked with new particle formation events. Furthermore, artificial aerosol particles were formed from gaseous iodine sources (e.g. CH2I2) using a laboratory reaction-chamber experiment, in which the reaction constant of the CH2I2 photolysis was calculated to be based upon the first order reaction kinetic. The end products of iodine chemistry in the particle phase were identified and quantified.

Application of comprehensive gas chromatography (GCxGC) to measurements of volatile organic species in ambient air

The focus of this thesis was the in-situ application of the new analytical technique "GCxGC" in both the marine and continental boundary layer, as well as in the free troposphere. Biogenic and anthropogenic VOCs were analysed and used to characterise local chemistry at the individual measurement sites. The first part of the thesis work was the characterisation of a new set of columns that was to be used later in the field. To simplify the identification, a time-of-flight mass spectrometer (TOF-MS) detector was coupled to the GCxGC. In the field the TOF-MS was substituted by a more robust and tractable flame ionisation detector (FID), which is more suitable for quantitative measurements. During the process, a variety of volatile organic compounds could be assigned to different environmental sources, e.g. plankton sources, eucalyptus forest or urban centers. In-situ measurements of biogenic and anthropogenic VOCs were conducted at the Meteorological Observatory Hohenpeissenberg (MOHP), Germany, applying a thermodesorption-GCxGC-FID system. The measured VOCs were compared to GC-MS measurements routinely conducted at the MOHP as well as to PTR-MS measurements. Furthermore, a compressed ambient air standard was measured from three different gas chromatographic instruments and the results were compared. With few exceptions, the in-situ, as well as the standard measurements, revealed good agreement between the individual instruments. Diurnal cycles were observed, with differing patterns for the biogenic and the anthropogenic compounds. The variability-lifetime relationship of compounds with atmospheric lifetimes from a few hours to a few days in presence of O3 and OH was examined. It revealed a weak but significant influence of chemistry on these short-lived VOCs at the site. The relationship was also used to estimate the average OH radical concentration during the campaign, which was compared to in-situ OH measurements (1.7 x 10^6 molecules/cm^3, 0.071 ppt) for the first time. The OH concentration ranging from 3.5 to 6.5 x 10^5 molecules/cm^3 (0.015 to 0.027 ppt) obtained with this method represents an approximation of the average OH concentration influencing the discussed VOCs from emission to measurement. Based on these findings, the average concentration of the nighttime NO3 radicals was estimated using the same approach and found to range from 2.2 to 5.0 x 10^8 molecules/cm^3 (9.2 to 21.0 ppt). During the MINATROC field campaign, in-situ ambient air measurements with the GCxGC-FID were conducted at Tenerife, Spain. Although the station is mainly situated in the free troposphere, local influences of anthropogenic and biogenic VOCs were observed. Due to a strong dust event originating from Western Africa it was possible to compare the mixing ratios during normal and elevated dust loading in the atmosphere. The mixing ratios during the dust event were found to be lower. However, this could not be attributed to heterogeneous reactions as there was a change in the wind direction from northwesterly to southeasterly during the dust event.

HCHO, H 2 O 2 und CH 3 OOH in der Troposphäre

In dieser Arbeit wurden im Rahmen der UTOPIHAN- und HOHPEX04-Projekte Peroxid- und Formaldehydmessungen in der Troposphäre durchgeführt und wissenschaftlich interpretiert. Die Messungen während UTOPIHAN fanden dabei an Bord eines für Forschungszwecke umgerüsteten Flugzeuges (Learjet 35A) im Wesentlichen in der freien, insbesondere in der oberen Troposphäre über Europa statt. Die Messungen während HOHPEX04 waren hingegen als Bodenmessungen an der sich abwechselnd in der bodennahen Grenzschicht und in von dieser Schicht entkoppelten Luftmassen liegenden Bergstation Hohenpeißenberg (bayerisches Voralpenland) konzipiert. Um eine quantitative Auswertbarkeit der Messungen sicherzustellen, wurden die verwendeten, auf chemischer Derivatisierung und fluorimetrischer Detektion basierenden Messgeräte AL 2001CA (Peroxide) und AL 4021 (Formaldehyd) (AEROLASER) genau charakterisiert. Dabei wurde speziell die bekannte Ozoninterferenz beider Geräte in einer großen Zahl von Laborexperimenten mit unterschiedlichen Randbedingungen bezüglich Wasserdampf- und Kohlenwasserstoffgehalt der Luft untersucht. Für beide Verbindungen wurden Höhen- sowie Breitenprofile erstellt und mit Ergebnissen eines 3D-Chemie-Transport-Modells (CTM) sowie früherer Studien verglichen. In einem weiteren Kapitel werden Ergebnisse einer quantitativen Studie zum Einfluss hochreichender Konvektion auf das HCHO-Budget in der mittleren und oberen Troposphäre präsentiert. Diese Studie kommt zu dem Schluss, dass der rasche Aufwärtstransport von Vorläufergasen von HCHO und HOx wie Methanol, Aceton und sogar gut löslicher Spurengase wie CH3OOH beziehungsweise H2O2 aus der Grenzschicht einen signifikanten, auf Grund der längeren Lebensdauer von NOx über mehrere Tage andauernden und damit großräumigen Einfluss auf die Budgets von HCHO, HOx und auch O3 in der oberen Troposphäre haben kann. Die Befunde der Studie legen desweiteren nahe, dass fehlerhafte Modellvorhersagen für die NO-Mischungsverhältnisse in der Tropopausenregion, die zum Beispiel mit Mängeln des Modells bezüglich der Höhe der Konvektion und des Stratosphären-Troposphären-Austauschs zu tun haben, hauptverantwortlich sind für gefundene Differenzen zwischen Messdaten und dem verwendeten 3D-Chemie-Transport-Modell. Um die Signifikanz der Aussagen zu erhöhen, wurde eine Sensitivitätsstudie durchgeführt, in der die Konzentration einiger chemischer Verbindungen sowie die Photolyseraten variiert wurden. Eine weitere Studie zum Einfluss verschiedener Parameter auf das CH3OOH/H2O2-Verhältnis kommt zu dem Schluss, dass dieses Verhältnis keinen idealen Indikator für Wolkenprozessierung von Luftmassen darstellt, während eine signifikant positive Abweichung vom H2O2/H2O-Verhältnis in der oberen Troposphäre ein guter Indikator für rasch aufwärts transportierte Luftmassen sein kann. Im Rahmen dieser Studie werden auch Höhen- und Breitenprofile des CH3OOH/H2O2-Verhältnisses diskutiert. In einer letzten Untersuchung zu HCHO-Messungen am Observatorium Hohenpeißenberg im Sommer 2004 werden für die in zwei Windrichtungssektoren eingeteilten Daten Korrelationen anderer Spurengase wie O3, PAN, CO, NOy und Isopren mit HCHO interpretiert. In diesem Zusammenhang wird auch versucht, den beobachteten Tagesgang von HCHO zu erklären.

Measurement of volatile organic compounds and total OH reactivity in the atmosphere

Volatile organic compounds play a critical role in ozone formation and drive the chemistry of the atmosphere, together with OH radicals. The simplest volatile organic compound methane is a climatologically important greenhouse gas, and plays a key role in regulating water vapour in the stratosphere and hydroxyl radicals in the troposphere. The OH radical is the most important atmospheric oxidant and knowledge of the atmospheric OH sink, together with the OH source and ambient OH concentrations is essential for understanding the oxidative capacity of the atmosphere. Oceanic emission and / or uptake of methanol, acetone, acetaldehyde, isoprene and dimethyl sulphide (DMS) was characterized as a function of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) and a suite of biological parameters, in a mesocosm experiment conducted in the Norwegian fjord. High frequency (ca. 1 minute-1) methane measurements were performed using a gas chromatograph - flame ionization detector (GC-FID) in the boreal forests of Finland and the tropical forests of Suriname. A new on-line method (Comparative Reactivity Method - CRM) was developed to directly measure the total OH reactivity (sink) of ambient air. It was observed that under conditions of high biological activity and a PAR of ~ 450 μmol photons m-2 s-1, the ocean acted as a net source of acetone. However, if either of these criteria was not fulfilled then the ocean acted as a net sink of acetone. This new insight into the biogeochemical cycling of acetone at the ocean-air interface has helped to resolve discrepancies from earlier works such as Jacob et al. (2002) who reported the ocean to be a net acetone source (27 Tg yr-1) and Marandino et al. (2005) who reported the ocean to be a net sink of acetone (- 48 Tg yr-1). The ocean acted as net source of isoprene, DMS and acetaldehyde but net sink of methanol. Based on these findings, it is recommended that compound specific PAR and biological dependency be used for estimating the influence of the global ocean on atmospheric VOC budgets. Methane was observed to accumulate within the nocturnal boundary layer, clearly indicating emissions from the forest ecosystems. There was a remarkable similarity in the time series of the boreal and tropical forest ecosystem. The average of the median mixing ratios during a typical diel cycle were 1.83 μmol mol-1 and 1.74 μmol mol-1 for the boreal forest ecosystem and tropical forest ecosystem respectively. A flux value of (3.62 ± 0.87) x 1011 molecules cm-2 s-1 (or 45.5 ± 11 Tg CH4 yr-1 for global boreal forest area) was derived, which highlights the importance of the boreal forest ecosystem for the global budget of methane (~ 600 Tg yr-1). The newly developed CRM technique has a dynamic range of ~ 4 s-1 to 300 s-1 and accuracy of ± 25 %. The system has been tested and calibrated with several single and mixed hydrocarbon standards showing excellent linearity and accountability with the reactivity of the standards. Field tests at an urban and forest site illustrate the promise of the new method. The results from this study have improved current understanding about VOC emissions and uptake from ocean and forest ecosystems. Moreover, a new technique for directly measuring the total OH reactivity of ambient air has been developed and validated, which will be a valuable addition to the existing suite of atmospheric measurement techniques.