Preparing for flexible delivery in industry : learners and their workplaces

This thesis examines the learning preferences and learning strategies of apprentices, and the contexts within which they learn in their workplaces. Since the end of the 1980s Australian vocational education and training (VET) structures and processes have undergone radical change in attempts to develop skills in the workforce that will ensure enterprise, national, and international competitiveness. A major strategy in the national reforms has been the encouragement of flexible delivery as a means through which workplace-based learning can be accessed by a larger number of workers in ways that are cost-efficient, and that reduce the amount of time that workers spend away from their jobs. Although flexible delivery has been championed by governments and industry alike, there has been little attempt to identify the preparedness of either learners or their workplaces for the demands of flexible learning. The thesis examines the economic context for these changes to VET, and also examines the literature available on workplace learning. Additionally, the thesis examines the conceptualisations of flexible delivery that are available in the literature, pointing to the possibility that the wide range of meanings associated with the term ‘flexible delivery’ may result in quite different practices and expectations. The thesis also examines the literature on independent learning and self-directed learning, and explores the concept of ‘client-focused’ flexible delivery. The study of learner preferences uses data collected from apprentices over a period of some years, in the four occupational areas commanding the highest number of apprentices in Australia. These occupational areas are Metals and Machining, Building, Electrical, and Hairdressing. These data on learning preferences are collected using the commercially available Canfield Learning Styles Inventory (CLSI). The data from the sample of 389 apprentices are analysed statistically through analyses of variance, and indicate that variables such as age, gender, and occupational area are related to learning preferences. Apprentices are shown by this analysis to prefer structured programs of instruction that are instructor-led, and to not have a high preference for independent learning or the development of their own learning goals. Additionally, they are shown to have very low preferences for learning through reading, preferring instead to learn through direct hands-on experience. While these characteristics are largely common among the four occupational groups, the Hairdressing apprentices are shown to have a slightly higher preference for independent learning and goal setting. Females are shown to have a higher preference than males for learning qualitative material through reading. Interestingly, the younger apprentices are shown to have a higher preference than the older ones for self-directed learning. Some possibilities for that finding are discussed. The research also shows that the learning preferences displayed by different groups of apprentices in any one program are much the same over time, providing some confidence that data generated from one group of apprentices can be used to make instructional decisions for future groups in the same program. The data are also factor analysed to indicate three major factors underlying apprentice learning preferences. The first factor indicates a Verbal–Non-verbal preference factor, with apprentices clearly preferring to learn through non-verbal means. A second factor is described as Structure–Content, with apprentices showing a preference for learning from structured programs in a structured environment. A third factor, Self-directed–Social preference, indicates apprentices preferring to learn through socially mediated presentations and contexts rather than through more independent forms of learning. Qualitative data are also generated through interviewing eight apprentices, and focusing on the learning strategies they employ while constructing knowledge in the workplace. That component of the research uses a modification of the Marland, Patching and Putt (1992a, 1992b) stimulated recall technique, and a set of learning strategies derived from the work of O’Malley and Chamot (1990) and Billett (1996a). The eight apprentices are drawn from the Metals and Machining, Electrical, and Hairdressing trades. The findings indicate that the learning strategies most often used by apprentices in the workplace are those associated with the construction of knowledge that is structured and provided by the instructor or learning program, and those that include social mediation of learning. Additionally, the strategies associated with demonstration and hands-on practice are most favoured. The qualitative data are confirmatory of the quantitative data. The research also indicates, through the apprentice interviews, that support for apprentice’s learning in their workplace is typically unplanned and haphazard. Their experience was sometimes characterised by a reluctance on the part of the workplace to acknowledge learning needs such as trialling and practice of new knowledge, or pro-actively seeking understanding from other more skilled workers. The learning preferences and learning strategies findings for apprentices, coupled with the findings of typically poor or unplanned support in the workplace, indicate that effective flexible delivery of training to apprentices in the workplace provides a number of challenges. These challenges, it is argued, demand strategies to be developed and implemented to prepare both learners and workplaces for effective engagement with flexible delivery. Using as a theoretical framework Kember’s (1995) two-dimensional model of open learning for adults, the thesis integrates the findings into a proposed two-dimensional model of learner and workplace preparedness for flexible delivery. The model provides for a Learner Development Space, a Workplace Development Space, and a Strategy Space. Within the Learner Development Space, focuses for the development of learner preparedness are identified in terms of self-directed learning, skills developments, and effective participation in a community of practice. Focuses for workplace development identified in the Workplace Development Space are those associated with development of training policies, training structures, and trainer skills and abilities. The Strategy Space then provides detail of seventy-nine specific strategies developed to enhance learner and workplace preparedness within each of the focuses identified.

Engineering flexible teaching and learning in engineering education

The key challenges for achieving flexibility in flexible mode programmes in engineering and technology include: the integration of the explicit and implicit content in potentially disparate and isolated study modules across the whole programme curriculum; ensuring the validity and consistency of policies for granting students advanced standing based on recognition for prior learning and workplace experience; developing learning materials and experiences that cater for a wide and diverse audience, while at the same time offering relevance to the individual student in their own context; creating innovative communication environments that bring remote students into both the directed and the discursive discussion that are an important part of the learning process; and the financial and resourcing sustainability of the development, maintenance and delivery of high quality flexible mode  engineering and technology study programmes.

Two approaches to workplace flexible delivery and assessment in a rural community

The implementation of forms of flexible delivery and workplace training and assessment in rural areas presents particular difficulties for providers and employers alike. This article discusses some of the outcomes of a case-study research and professional development project undertaken in north-west Victoria. It describes the development and implementation of two different approaches to flexible delivery in the areas of engineering and office administration at Sunraysia Institute of TAFE. These two separate developments reversed the decline in the departments' fortunes and proved to be successful from the perspective of the staff who developed the courses, and the clients-employers and especially the students. The implications of these approaches in terms of catering for the learning preferences and contexts of the students are discussed.

Enhancing flexible business training through computer-mediated communication

A previous article in this journal, by the same author, reported on research that indicated that flexible training for business learners in the workplace needed to take account of their need for instructor guidance and direction, and of their preference for learning in affiliative environments with fellow learners and trainers. In this article the use of computer-mediated  communication (CMC) is explored as one training method that can assist with flexible training of this clientele. Some specific strategies for the successful use of CMC are suggested.

Enhancing flexible business training: learners and enterprises

Focuses on flexible training and its implementation in the workplace; examines the barriers for those learners on vocational programmes involved in self-directed independent learning. Discusses ways to develop learners self-direction and to improve learners ability to use and access a wide range of learning media. Highlights the need to establish structures to support learning through flexible training. Puts forward a two-dimensional diagram describing business vocational learner preferences, and outlines three sets of strategies to develop effective enterprise support for flexible training.

Technology student learning preferences and the design of flexible learning programs

The learning preferences of three hundred and thirty eight technology students enrolled in sub-degree programs at an Australian institution of Technical and Further Education were tested using the Canfield Learning Styles Inventory (CLSI). The results have been interpreted in a learning preferences framework and provide supportive evidence for the preferences factors of print-nonprint, collaborative, dependent,and autonomous learning identified by Sadler-Smith & Riding (1999). Although there search focussed on learning preferences the analysis also indicated support for the Wholist-Analytic cognitive style proposed by Riding & Cheema (1991). Gender differences were shown for the Interest subscales of the CLSI. Age-group differences were shown for several Conditions of Learning and Modes of Learning subscales. Implications for the design of training programs, and the skills that may need to be developed in technology learners to enable effective use of flexible delivery, are also discussed.

Flexible schedules, lower pay and women's "Opportunities" in law

University employment in Australia is experiencing a period of decreased security and compensation. Women tend to have more frequent labour force transitions and respond more to non-employment commitments than do men. Relative to other formal sector employers, universities can offer greater flexibility in work schedules. The law of comparative advantage predicts that universities' flexibility, together with women's labour force characteristics will prompt an expansion of women's employment in universities and in law schools in particular. Changes in employment patterns in Australian law schools confirm to this prediction. Deterioration in employment conditions thus leads to increased female participation in this case.

Learners and their workplaces: towards a strategic model of flexible delivery of training in the workplace

Although the flexible delivery of training in the workplace has become a favoured policy position for training authorities in both Britain and Australia, this article reviews research that indicates neither learners nor their workplaces are well prepared. Drawing on the author's own research and that from the broader literature, the article develops a model for the preparation of learners and workplaces for flexible delivery of training. Deriving from the proposed model, the article suggests a wide range of strategies that may be used in preparing learners and workplaces for successful engagement with the flexible delivery of training.

Longitudinal study of computer usage in flexible engineering education

A longitudinal analysis of computer usage by commencing students in Deakin University's undergraduate engineering and technology programs over the period 1998 to 2001 revealed that; access to computers was at high levels; mean computer usage for off campus students had not changed significantly, but had risen significantly for on campus students; while access to the Internet / WWW had not increased significantly, reported regular use of the Internet / WWW had risen significantly; while most students continued to report their source of Internet / WWW access as either home or university, the proportion reporting home as their source of access had risen significantly; and the reported regular use of email rose significantly. Other results are also presented.

These results imply that commencing engineering and technology students are well placed to adopt online delivery and support of teaching and learning. However, while it might now be reasonable to assume that all students have access to computers and the Internet, the experiences of on campus students in computer laboratories with broadband network access will be different from off campus students accessing the Internet via a dialup modem connection. A small proportion of commencing students were unaware of the computing facilities provided by the university; an orientation program covering computing facilities and services would benefit all commencing students.

Developing preparedness for flexible delivery of training in enterprises

On a basis of research and literature review, Smith, in 2001, suggested a model for the development of preparedness of learners and their workplaces to support the flexible delivery of training in enterprises. Using the model as a framework, he then developed a detailed set of strategies that may be used in operating workplaces to develop learners and workplaces for effective flexible delivery. The research reported here was designed to test that strategy set in 12 different enterprises to assess the feasibility of their implementation in operating workplaces. The research shows that a majority of suggested strategies are feasible for implementation; some are feasible with qualification; and a minority were not seen as feasible.

Workplace learning and flexible delivery

Workplace learning has developed as a field both of practice and of research over the past decade. The increase in interest is due in part to heightened awareness that workplace knowledge and skills contribute to enterprise and national competitiveness, but it is also due to an increased focus on the connections to be made between theory and practice as part of an education or training experience. At the same time, new learning technologies have enhanced delivery of instruction and learning materials in workplaces. This article reviews some of the conceptualizations of workplace learning and its cognitive bases. It also examines workplaces as learning environments and considers the special challenges involved in the flexible delivery of training to workplaces.

Learning strategies used by apprentices in flexible delivery

Using a stimulated recall technique, eight apprentices were interviewed to identify the detailed learning strategies they used while constructing knowledge from flexible learning packages designed to develop workplace skills. The research shows that in their use of metacognitive, cognitive and social/affective learning strategies the apprentices in the sample made greatest use of those strategies that assisted them to construct knowledge as it was structured and presented by the learning package or by their instructors, trainers or supervisors. Little use was made of strategies that would indicate self-directed learning, working outside the structure provided, or learning independently of a sociocultural and hands-on context comprising their peers and their instructors. At the level of detail of learning strategies these results provide support for the larger scale quantitative research that has been previously conducted with apprentice learning preferences.

Flexible learning in teacher education: myths, muddles and models

While there has been widespread take-up of the concept 'flexible learning' within various educational environments—and equally frequent references to the flexible 'natures' of the computer and communication technologies that often underpin flexible learning initiatives—the relationship between technologies and flexibility is not a simple one. In this paper we examine some of the more persistent myths about technologies that are intertwined with discourses of flexibility. We highlight some of the more common 'muddles' that these myths can lead us in to and argue that the 'mess' that so often results from well-intentioned moves to 'be more flexible' is largely a result of the ways that CCTs, or indeed any new educational technology or strategy, is theorized. Drawing on a recent study of online teaching and learning in higher education, we outline a new framework for examining these and related issues as they apply to teacher education.

Towards a strategic use of computer mediated communication to support flexible learning in the workplace

A number of central precepts of flexible delivery of workplace training are challenged by research showing that vocational learners are typically non-verbal, and prefer structured and social learning environments. That research is reviewed, together with a number of strategies that will assist flexible delivery to these learners. These strategies are largely amenable to
computer-mediated communication.

Flexible learning for quality in higher education

This keynote presentation is in two related parts. The first deals deal with the issue of the background, context and issues concerned with the emergence of flexible learning and flexible delivery in education, especially in higher education and its interrelationships with the background, context and issues concerned with the emergence of' quality' in higher education. The second explores the issues concerned with the use of online media to facilitate quality flexible learning in higher education.

These presentations draw on authors teaching and research in these fields. In particular they draw on their work on the interrelationships between educational technology, interaction and dialogue in the development of 'quality' education. It is shown that, at institutional and individual levels, decisions are made to implement flexible and online forms of education that have significant curricula and pedagogical implications, not only for those institutions and individuals (teachers), but most importantly for the learners and their contexts. The rhetoric that advocates the implementation of flexible learning and online education may well be grounded in positive ideas for change, but the institutional and individual consequences the costs and benefits- are not always clearly understood from the outset.

The recent developments in information and communication technologies have enabled many institutions to provide courses flexibly using online learning. Maintaining quality in course provision, online teaching and support infrastructure has proved an important issue in higher education, as provision of technology alone is only a small part of ensuring quality in flexible learning. The possibilities of higher education without borders means that such issues of online quality be addressed and these presentations wiII draw on experiences from both international and Deakin University perspective.