27 resultados para Minority

em Doria (National Library of Finland DSpace Services) - National Library of Finland, Finland


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Denna avhandling tar sin utgÃ¥ngspunkt i ett ifrÃ¥gasättande av effektiviteten i EU:s konditionalitetspolitik avseende minoritetsrättigheter. Baserat pÃ¥ den rationalistiska teoretiska modellen, External Incentives Model of Governance, syftar denna hypotesprÃvande avhandling till att fÃrklara om tidsavstÃ¥ndet pÃ¥ det potentiella EU medlemskapet pÃ¥verkar lagstiftningsnivÃ¥n avseende minoritetssprÃ¥ksrättigheter. Mätningen av nivÃ¥n pÃ¥ lagstiftningen avseende minoritetssprÃ¥ksrättigheter begränsas till att omfatta icke-diskriminering, användning av minoritetssprÃ¥k i officiella sammanhang samt minoriteters sprÃ¥kliga rättigheter i utbildningen. Metodologiskt används ett jämfÃrande angreppssätt bÃ¥de avseende tidsramen fÃr studien, som sträcker sig mellan 2003 och 2010, men även avseende urvalet av stater. PÃ¥ basis av det \"mest lika systemet\" kategoriseras staterna i tre grupper efter deras olika tidsavstÃ¥nd frÃ¥n det potentiella EU medlemskapet. Hypotesen som prÃvas är fÃljande: ju kortare tidsavstÃ¥nd till det potentiella EU medlemskapet desto stÃrre sannolikhet att staternas lagstiftningsnivÃ¥ inom de tre omrÃ¥den som studeras har utvecklats till en hÃg nivÃ¥. Studien visar att hypotesen endast bekräftas delvis. Resultaten avseende icke-diskriminering visar att sambandet mellan tidsavstÃ¥ndet och nivÃ¥n pÃ¥ lagstiftningen har Ãkat markant under den undersÃkta tidsperioden. Detta samband har endast stärkts mellan kategorin av stater som ligger tidsmässigt längst bort ett potentiellt EU medlemskap och de tvÃ¥ kategorier som ligger närmare respektive närmast ett potentiellt EU medlemskap. Resultaten avseende användning av minoritetssprÃ¥k i officiella sammanhang och minoriteters sprÃ¥kliga rättigheter i utbildningen visar inget respektive nästan inget samband mellan tidsavstÃ¥ndet och utvecklingen pÃ¥ lagstiftningen mellan 2003 och 2010.

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Addenda: Turcica, Arabica, Persica and Caucasica. Studia Orientalia, vol. 64, 1988.

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Partial ownership interests are a widespread phenomenon in modern corporate environment. Unless minority shareholding affords the target to exercise control over the target, they do currently not have to be notified to the European Commission under EU merger regime. However, economic research has long suggested that when linking competing or non-horizontally positioned undertakings particularly in industries with few competitors, minority shareholdings even far below the majority of shares or voting rights could lead to higher prices or lower output volumes to the detriment of consumers. The Commission has recognized this issue and proceeded to suggest an extension of the merger regime to catch also certain non-controlling minority acquisitions. Horizontal non-controlling minority shareholdings create a positive correlation between the sales revenues of the partial acquirer and target. Through the equity interest the acquirer will internalise a fraction, proportional to the financial rights attached to the shareholding, of the profit of the target. This will incentivise the acquirer to contribute to increasing the targetâs business profits by increasing its own sales price (horizontal unilateral effects). When a minority stake is held in a vertically related or a conglomerate company, the minority acquirer could be allowed to hamper or eliminate the targetâs rivalsâ access either to inputs (input foreclosure) or customers (customer foreclosure), depending on which level of the supply chain the parties are (vertical unilateral effects). Under certain circumstances minority share acquisitions could also lessen competition because they facilitate collusion between companies active in the market (coordinated effects). Economic theory confirms that non-controlling minority shareholdings may under certain circumstances create anti-competitive effects that are unlikely to be remedies by pro-competitive effects. However, they are likely to be of less significant nature than anticompetitive effects created by full mergers. This derives fore mostly from the fact that a minority share acquirer carries all the costs associated with its unilateral action but will internalise only a fraction of the lost profits. This is likely to limit the acquirerâs incentive to raise price and the profitability of such behavior. Having in mind that the number of potentially problematic cases is expected to be next to negligible, the limited potential competitive effects of non-controlling minority share acquisitions cannot be seen to clearly merit extension of the scope of the EUMR. The system suggested by the Commission is particularly ill-fitted for such purpose given the clear lack of legal certainty and considerable administrative burden associated with it.

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The final project deals with the question of female comedy and the comedy made by women. Comedy has traditionally been made by men and the woman has been the one who laughs. A funny woman has been a rare phenomenon. Although times have changed and gender roles have become more flexible, female comedians still remain in a minority compared to their male colleagues. The essay reviews the social and historical structures that influence the position of women in general and on the field of comedy in particular. The teoretical basis to this is feminist theory. Female comedy and humour have features of their own, that are being examined in the essay. It also makes a difference between feminine comedy and feminist comedy. Largely the project handles stand up comedy. The popularity of stand up comedy has changed the field of professional entertainment and brought a number of widely gifted comedians to a common knowledge. Stand up has an opportunity to be a political tool, which is essential for marginal comedians, which also includes female comedians. One of the fundamental subjects of the project is the political character of comedy. The essay also portrays the historical roots of stand up comedy in the Finnish and in the American tradition. It reflects on the fore mothers of the modern female comedian. The reasons that make a woman become a comedian are under consideration, as well as the strategies that help her to get her voice and message delivered. Since a woman is still held in the marginal, it gives female comedy a feature of its own. This way comedy can become a tool for a feminist battle.

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Surgery is the cornerstone of ovarian cancer treatment and maximal cytoreduction is important. In the early 1980âs primary surgical treatment of ovarian cancer was performed in over 80 hospitals in Finland. The significance of the operative volume of the hospital, of the training of the surgeons and of centralization of surgical treatment has been widely discussed. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the outcome of surgical treatment of ovarian cancer in different hospital categories retrospectively and prospectively, and to analyze if any differences are reflected in survival. The retrospective study included 3851 ovarian cancer patients operated between 1983 and 1994 in Finland. The data was analyzed according to hospital category (university, central, and other) and by quartiles of the hospital operative volume. The results showed that patients operated in the highest operative volume hospitals had the best relative survival. When stratifying the analysis by the period of diagnosis (1983-1988 and 1989-1994), the university hospitals improved their performance the most. The prospective part of the thesis was initiated in 1999 and included 307 patients with invasive ovarian cancer and 65 patients with an ovarian borderline tumor. The baseline and 5-year surveys used a questionnaire that was filled in by the operating surgeons. For analysis of the 5-year followup data, the hospitals were divided into three categories (<10, 10-20, or >20 patients operated in 1999). The effect of the surgical volume was analyzed also as a continuous variable (1-47 operations per year). In university hospitals, pelvic lymphadenectomy was performed in 88 %, and para-aortic lymphadenectomy in 73 %, of the patients with stage I disease. The corresponding figures ranged from 11 % to 21 % in the other hospitals. For stage III ovarian cancer patients operated by gynecological oncologists, the estimated odds ratio for no macroscopic residual tumor was 3.0 times higher (95 % CI 1.2-7.5) than for those operated by general gynecologists. In the university and other hospitals 82% of the patients received platinum-based chemotherapy. Platinum + taxane combination was given to 63 % of the patients in the university and in 49 % in the other hospitals (p = 0.0763). Only a minority of the patients with tumors of borderline malignancy were staged according to recommendations, most often multiple peritoneal biopsies and omentectomy were neglected. FIGO stage, patient age, and residual tumor were independent prognostic factors of cancer-specific 5-year survival. A higher hospital operative volume was also a significant prognostic factor for better cancer-specific survival (p = 0.036) and disease-free survival (p = 0.048). In conclusion, ovarian cancer patients operated in high-volume university hospitals were more often optimally debulked and had a significantly better cancer-specific survival than patients operated in other hospitals. These results favor centralization of primary surgical treatment of ovarian cancer.

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Tutkielmassa tarkastellaan osakkeenomistajien suojaamiskeinoja Suomessa ja Delawaressa. Oikeusvertailevaa metodia sovelletaan kolmella tasolla: lakien ja määräysten osalta, menettelyn osalta sekä suojaamiskeinojen osalta. Osakkeenomistajien katsotaan tarvitsevan suojaa vähemmistÃosakkeiden hankinnan yhteydessä, sillä siinä osakkeiden vapaan vaihdettavuuden perusperiaate ja pakkolunastaminen kohtaavat. Suojaamiskeinot on jaettu etukäteisiin, menettelya koskeviin sekä hinnanmäärittelyyn liittyviin keinoihin. Etukäteisiin keinoihin voidaan laskea johdon vastuu, joka koostuu huolellisuus- ja lojaliteettivelvoitteista, ja yhtiÃjärjestysmääräykset. Delawaressa johdon vastuu on määritelty Suomea tarkemmin. YhtiÃjärjestysmääräykset ovat ongelmallisia Suomessa, sillä ne saattavat olla arvopaperimarkkinalain vastaisia. Delawaressa niiden käyttà on runsasta. Menettelyyn liittyviaä suojakeinoja lÃytyi useita. VähemmistÃnsuojaperiaatetta toteutetaan Suomessa yhdenvertaisuusperiaatetta noudattamalla sekä määräämällä lunastusoikeudesta tai -velvollisuudesta. Delawaressa vähemmistÃllä on oikeus saada erityistuomioistuin Court of Chanceryn arviointi menettelyn oikeellisuudesta. Menettelyn oikeellisuutta pyritään kummassakin tutkimuskohteessa suojaamaan myÃs tiedonantovelvollisuudella. Lisäksi Delawaressa johdon on asetettava aina erikoiskomitea neuvottelemaan ostajan kanssa. Hinnanmäärittelyn osalta suojaa antavat käyvän hinnan vaatimus, sekä Suomessa taloudellisen yhdenvertaisuuden periaate ja Delawaressa vähemmistÃn oikeus saada Court of Chanceryn arviointi oikeasta hinnasta.

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Tutkielman tavoitteena on selvittää osakeyhtiÃn määräysvaltasuhteet ja miten päämies-agentti- ongelmat vaikeuttavat määräysvallan käyttÃä. Tutkimusmetodi on lainopillinen ja lähestyminen aiheeseen tapahtuu sekä yhtiÃoikeudellisesta, että oikeustaloustieteellisestä näkÃkulmasta. Aineistona tutkielmassa käytetään lähinnä voimassa olevaa lainsäädäntÃä ja oikeuskirjallisuutta. Päämies-agentti- ongelmalla tarkoitetaan osakeyhtiÃssä määräysvallan osittaista luisumista omistajalta (päämies) yritysjohdolle (agentti) tai vähemmistÃomistajalta (päämies) kontrolloivalle omistajalle (agentti). Tärkeimpiä ongelman lähteitä ovat epäsymmetrinen informaatio ja intressiristiriidat yhtiÃn johdon ja omistajien välillä tai toisaalta yhtiÃtä lähellä olevien omistajien ja muiden omistajien välillä. Epäsymmetrinen informaatio luo osaltaan puitteet agenttitahojen opportunistiselle käyttäytymiselle. Ratkaisuja päämies-agentti- ongelmiin ovat ennen kaikkea päämiestahoja suojaava lainsäädäntà ja ulkoiset yritysjohtajien käyttäytymistä ohjaavat keinot, kuten erilaiset kannustinjärjestelmät ja hyvät hallintotavat. Kontrolloivien omistajien käyttäytymistä on puolestaan vaikea ohjata ja erilaisilla määräysvaltaa keskittävillä omistusrakenteilla onkin taipumus voimistaa päämies-agentti- ongelmien vaikutusta. Erityisiä tilanteita osaltaan luovat myÃs luonteiltaan erilaiset omistajatahot, kuten institutionaaliset omistajat.

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This thesis consists of four articles and an introductory section. The main research questions in all the articles are about proportionality and party success in Europe, at European, national or district levels. Proportionality in this thesis denotes the proximity of seat shares parties receive compared to their respective vote shares, after the electoral systemâs allocation process. This proportionality can be measured through numerous indices that illustrate either the overall proportionality of an electoral system or a particular election. The correspondence of a single partyâs seat shares to its vote shares can also be measured. The overall proportionality is essential in three of the articles (1, 2 and 4), where the systemâs performance is studied by means of plots. In article 3, minority party success is measured by advantage-ratios that reveal single partyâs winnings or losses in the votes to seat allocation process. The first article asks how proportional are the European parliamentary (EP) electoral systems, how do they compare with results gained from earlier studies and how do the EP electoral systems treat different sized parties. The reasons for different outcomes are looked for in explanations given by traditional electoral studies i.e. electoral system variables. The countries studied (EU15) apply electoral systems that vary in many important aspects, even though a certain amount of uniformity has been aspired to for decades. Since the electoral systems of the EP elections closely resemble the national elections, the same kinds of profiles emerge as in the national elections. The electoral systems indeed treat the parties differentially and six different profile types can be found. The counting method seems to somewhat determine the profile group, but the strongest variables determining the shape of a countriesâ profile appears to be the average district magnitude and number of seats allocated to each country. The second article also focuses on overall proportionality performance of an electoral system, but here the focus is on the impact of electoral system changes. I have developed a new method of visualizing some previously used indices and some new indices for this purpose. The aim is to draw a comparable picture of these electoral systemsâ changes and their effects. The cases, which illustrate this method, are four elections systems, where a change has occurred in one of the system variables, while the rest remained unchanged. The studied cases include the French, Greek and British European parliamentary systems and the Swedish national parliamentary system. The changed variables are electoral type (plurality changed to PR in the UK), magnitude (France splitting the nationwide district into eight smaller districts), legal threshold (Greece introducing a three percent threshold) and counting method (dâHondt was changed to modified Sainte-Laguë in Sweden). The radar plots from elections after and before the changes are drawn for all country cases. When quantifying the change, the change in the plots area that is created has also been calculated. Using these radar plots we can observe that the change in electoral system type, magnitude, and also to some extent legal threshold had an effect on overall proportionality and accessibility for small parties, while the change between the two highest averages counting method had none. The third article studies the success minority parties have had in nine electoral systems in European heterogeneous countries. This article aims to add more motivation as to why we should care how different sized parties are treated by the electoral systems. Since many of the parties that aspire to represent minorities in European countries are small, the possibilities for small parties are highlighted. The theory of consociational (or power-sharing) democracy suggests that, in heterogeneous societies, a proportional electoral system will provide the fairest treatment of minority parties. The OSCE Lund Recommendations propose a number of electoral system features, which would improve minority representation. In this article some party variables, namely the unity of the minority parties and the geographical concentration of the minorities were included among possible explanations. The conclusions are that the central points affecting minority success were indeed these non-electoral system variables rather than the electoral system itself. Moreover, the size of the party was a major factor governing success in all the systems investigated; large parties benefited in all the studied electoral systems. In the fourth article the proportionality profiles are again applied, but this time to district level results in Finnish parliamentary elections. The level of proportionality distortion is also studied by way of indices. The average magnitudes during the studied periodrange from 7.5 to 26.2 in the Finnish electoral districts and this opens up unequal opportunities for parties in different districts and affects the shape of the profiles. The intra-country case allows the focus to be placed on the effect of district magnitude, since all other electoral systems are kept constant in an intra-country study. The time span in the study is from 1962 to 2007, i.e. the time that the districts have largely been the same geographically. The plots and indices tell the same story, district magnitude and electoral alliances matter. The district magnitude is connected to the overall proportionality of the electoral districts according to both indices, and the profiles are, as expected, also closer to perfect proportionality in large districts. Alliances have helped some small parties to gain a much higher seat share than their respective vote share and these successes affect some of the profiles. The profiles also show a consistent pattern of benefits for the small parties who ally with the larger parties.

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OsakeyhtiÃlain kokonaisuudistus astui voimaan 1.9.2006. Lain tavoitteeksi asetettiin yhtiÃiden toimintaedellytysten hallittu lisääminen velkojain- tai vähemmistÃosakkaiden suojaa heikentämättä. Erityisesti pienten yhtiÃiden asemaan kiinnitettiin huomiota selventämällä lakia ja keventämällä muotomääräyksiä. Tämän tutkimuksen tavoitteena on selvittää, miten uudistukset vaikuttivat pienen osakeyhtiÃn toimintaan. Tutkimuksessa käydään läpi niitä osakeyhtiÃlain säädÃksiä, jotka vaikuttavat pienyhtiÃn toimintaan sekä kirjallisuuden pohjalta että case-yhtiÃiden avulla. Case-yhtiÃinä tutkimuksessa on kaksi pientä osakeyhtiÃtä. Tutkimusmenetelmä on kvalitatiivinen ja osin deskriptiivinen tutkimus. Tutkimus osoitti, että osakeyhtiÃlain uudistuksen kokonaisvaikutus pienissä yhtiÃssä näkyy muotosäännÃsten kevenemisenä ja tahdonvaltaisuuden lisääntymisenä. Suurin haaste pienille yhtiÃille on lain maksukykyisyysvaatimus varojenjakopäätÃstä tehtäessä. Se, missä määrin lain suomia mahII dollisuuksia käytäntÃjen keventämiseen yhtiÃissä otetaan käyttÃÃn, riippuu täysin yhtiÃn johdon aktiivisuudesta ja muutosvastarinnan voittamisesta.

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Tutkielman tavoitteena on selvittää osakeyhtiÃn palkitsemisjärjestelmiin liittyviä kysymyksiä päämiesâagenttisuhteiden ja osakeyhtiÃoikeudellisten periaatteiden kautta. Tutkielmassa selvitetään, kuinka maksuttomia osakkeita voidaan hyÃdyntää julkisen osakeyhtiÃn palkitsemisjärjestelmissä ja mitä haasteita ja mahdollisuuksia niiden käyttÃÃn liittyy. Tutkimusmetodi tyÃssä on lainopillinen ja aihetta lähestytään luontevasti kauppatieteellisen ja oikeustieteellisen näkÃkulman yhdistävän oikeustaloustieteen kautta. Ensisijaisena aineistona tutkielmassa käytetään voimassaolevaa lainsäädäntÃä valmisteluaineistoineen ja näkÃkulmaa syvennetään aiemmin voimassa olleen lainsäädännÃn tarkastelulla. Toissijaisena aineistona tutkielmassa käytetään sekä eri asiantuntijoiden oikeudellista kirjallisuutta että palkitsemisen asiantuntijoiden laatimaa kirjallisuutta Suomesta ja muista länsimaista. Teoreettista tyÃtä on syvennetty asiantuntijahaastattelulla ja yhtiÃiden sijoittajatiedosta saatavalla informaatiolla. Merkittävin osakeyhtiÃn johdon ja yhtiÃn välisen suhteen tehokkuutta alentava seikka on päämiesâagenttisuhteen valvontaongelma. Tämä liittyy päämies - agenttisuhteeseen, joka ilmenee negatiivisesti yhtiÃn ja yhtiÃn johdon intressien ristiriitatilanteissa. Valvontaongelma voi aiheuttaa ylimääräisiä transaktiokustannuksia ja tämä näkyy yhtiÃn toiminnan tehokkuuden laskemisena. Päämiesâagenttisuhteen ratkaisuna lainsäädäntà ja erilaiset valvonnan keinot ovat tehottomia ja nykyisen yhtiÃoikeudellisen ajattelun vastaisia. Tehokkaimmin valvontaongelma saadaan ratkaistua erilaisin kannustimin tapahtuvalla johdon ohjauksella. Osakesidonnainen palkitseminen on suosituin johdon ja yhtiÃn intressien yhdistämisen keino. Osakesidonnainen palkitseminen on parhaimmillaan eri osapuolien näkÃkulmasta sitouttavaa ja kannustavaa mutta osakepalkitsemisen käyttÃÃn liittyy myÃs riskejä. Eräs keskeisistä yhtiÃoikeudellisista periaatteista on yhdenvertaisuus, jota saatetaan loukata eri palkitsemisjärjestelmiä käytettäessä. Varojen jakoon ja järjestelmien rahoitukseen liittyy niin ikään riskejä, jotka saattavat vaarantaa järjestelmän onnistumisen. Liian avokätiset palkkiojärjestelmät taas saattavat aiheuttaa yhtiÃn eri sidosryhmien piirissä tyytymättÃmyyttä joka taas alentaa järjestelmän tehokkuutta. YhtiÃn johto vastaa yhtiÃn strategian toteutumisesta ja linjaa Corporate Governance käytännÃn mukaisesti johdon palkitsemisen tavat. YhtiÃn johto on kuitenkin päätÃksistään vastuussa yhtiÃn residuaalioikeuden omaaville päämiehille, eli osakkeenomistajille. Vaikka yhtiÃn johto vastaa viime kädessä yhtiÃn toiminnasta, sen on huomioitava toiminnassaan yhtiÃn toiminnan tarkoitus ja sitä kautta yksittäisen osakkeenomistajan etu. Vaikka osakeyhtiÃssä toteutettaisiin enemmistÃomistajan valitsemaa toimintalinjaa, osakeyhtiÃn yhdenvertaisuusperiaate korostaa juuri vähemmistÃosakkeenomistajan asemaa. Johdon fidusiaaristen velvoitteiden voidaankin nähdä korostuvan johdon suhteessa vähemmistÃosakkeenomistajaan. Tämä on huomioitava myÃs palkitsemisjärjestelmissä. Johdon palkitsemisjärjestelmien suunnittelussa ja toteutuksessa on suunnattava keskeinen huomio sen tavoitteiden toteutumiseen, eli yksittäisen osakkeenomistajan omistuksen arvon kasvattamiseen pidemmällä aikavälillä, pitäen huolta osakeyhtiÃn kantavista periaatteista.

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The aim of this thesis was to study the health, the hospitalisations, and the use of communal health care services in very preterm children during the first five years of life. In addition, the effect of very preterm birth and prematurity-related morbidities on the costs of hospitalisations, other health care services and the cost per quality adjusted life years (QALY) were studied. This population-based study included all very preterm children (gestational age (GA) <32 weeks or birth weight<1501g, N=2 064) and full-term controls (GA 37+0âˆ41+6, N=200 609) born in Finland during 2000-2003. The data sources included national register data, costing data from the participating hospitals and parental questionnaires. This study showed that most very preterm infants born in Finland survived without prematurity-related morbidities diagnosed during the first years of life. They required relatively little hospital care after the initial discharge, which accounted for the vast majority of the total four-year hospitalisation costs. However, a minority of children born very preterm later developing morbidities had a long initial length of stay and more re-admissions and outpatient visits during the five-year follow-up period. In particular, the number and costs of non-emergency outpatient visits were considerable in individuals with prematurity-related morbidities. The need and costs of hospitalisations decreased clearly with each follow-up year, even in individuals with morbidities. The health-care related costs during the fifth year of life in children born very preterm without prematurity-related morbidities were close to the costs in infants born healthy at term. The cost per QALY of 19,245 ⬠was at an acceptable level already by four years of age in the very preterm population as a whole. Prematurity-related later morbidities and decreasing GA increased the costs per QALY. As the initial hospital stay accounted for a great majority of the total four-year costs, and the costs of hospitalisation decreased with each follow-up year, the cost per QALY is likely to decrease with age. In conclusion, the majority of costs arising after the initial hospitalisation were associated with morbidities related to prematurity. Therefore offering high-quality neonatal care to prevent later morbidities in very preterm survivors has a long-term impact on the cost per QALY. In addition, this study indicates that when estimating the costs of prematurity after the first year of life, one should calculate not only the hospitalisation costs, but also other costs for social welfare services, primary care, and therapies, as these exceed the hospitalisation costs in very preterm infants during the fifth year of life.