Dancing and Professional Dancers in Roman Egypt

The main aim of the study is to create a many-sided view of dancing in Roman Egypt (1st - early 4th centuries AD) and especially of the dancers who earned their living by dancing as hired performers. Even though dancers and other performers played a central part in many kinds of festivities throughout the ancient world, research on ancient professional dancers is rare and tends to rest on the ancient literature, which reflects the opinions of the elite. Documentary written sources (i.e., papyri, ostraka) the core of the present study are mentioned rather superficially, easily resulting in a stereotypical view of the dancers. This study will balance the picture of professional dancers in antiquity and of ancient dancing in a more general sense. The second aim characterizes this study as basic research: to provide a corpus of written sources from Greco-Roman Egypt on dancing and to discuss pictorial sources contemporary with the texts. The study also takes into account the theoretical discussion that centres on dancing as a nonverbal communicative mode. Dancers are seen as significant conveyors of social and cultural matters. This study shows that dancers were hired to perform especially in religious contexts, where the local associations on the village level also played an important part as the employers of the performers. These performers had a better standard of living in economic terms than the average hired worker, and dancers were better paid than other performers. In the Egyptian villages and towns, where the dancers performed and lived, the dancers do not seem to have been marginal because they were professionals or because of some ethnic or social background. However, their possible marginality may have occurred for reasons related to the practicalities of their profession (e.g., the itinerant life style). The oriental background of performers was a literary topos reflecting partly the situation in the centres of the empire, especially Rome, where many performers were of other than Roman origin. The connection of dancing, prostitution and slavery reflects the essential link between dance, body and gender: dancers are equated with such professions or socio-legal statuses where the body is the focus of attention, a commodity and a source of sensual pleasure; this dimension is clearly observable in ancient literature. According to the Egyptian documentary sources, there is no watertight evidence that professional dancers would have been engaged in prostitution and very little, if any, evidence that the disapproval of the professional dancers expressed by the ancient authors was shared by the Egyptians. From the 4th century onwards the dancers almost disappear from the documentary sources, reflecting the political and religious changes in the Mediterranean east.

Bilingual Notaries in Hellenistic Egypt : A Study of Language Use

The impact of Greek-Egyptian bilingualism on language use and linguistic competence is the key issue in this dissertation. The language use in a corpus of 148 Greek notarial contracts is analyzed on phonological, morphological and syntactic levels. The texts were written by bilingual notaries (agoranomoi) in Upper Egypt in the later Hellenistic period. They present, for the most part, very good administrative Greek. On the other hand, their language contains variation and idiosyncrasies that were earlier condemned as ungrammatical and bad Greek, and were not subjected to closer analysis. In order to reach plausible explanations for those phenomena, a thorough research into the sociohistorical and linguistic context was needed before the linguistic analysis. The general linguistic landscape, the population pattern and the status and frequency of Greek literacy in Ptolemaic Egypt in general, and in Upper Egypt in particular, are presented. Through a detailed examination of the notaries themselves (their names, families and handwriting), it became evident that there were one to three persons at the notarial office writing under the signature of one notary. Often the documents under one notary's name were written in the same hand. We get, therefore, exceptionally close to studying idiolects in written material from antiquity. The qualitative linguistic analysis revealed that the notaries made relatively few orthographic mistakes that reflect the ongoing phonological changes and they mastered the morphological forms. The problems arose at the syntactic level, for example, with the pattern of agreement between the noun groups or a noun with its modifiers. The significant structural differences between Greek and Egyptian can be behind the innovative strategies used by some of the notaries. Moreover, certain syntactic structures were clearly transferred from the notaries first language, Egyptian. This is obvious in the relative clause structure. Transfer can be found in other structures, as well, although, we must not forget the influence of parallel Greek structures. Sometimes these can act simultaneously. The interesting linguistic strategies and transfer features come mostly from the hand of one notary, Hermias. Some other notaries show similar patterns, for example, Hermias' cousin, Ammonios. Hermias' texts reveal that he probably spoke Greek more than his predecessors. It is possible to conclude, then, that the notaries of the later generations were more fluently bilingual; their two languages were partly integrated in their minds as an interlanguage combining elements from both languages. The earlier notaries had the two languages functionally separated and they followed the standardized contract formulae more rigidly.

The non-literary Latin letters. A study of their syntax and pragmatics

This dissertation studies the language of Latin letters that were written in Egypt and Vindolanda (in northern Britain) during the period 1st century BC 3rd century AD on papyri, ostraca, and wooden tablets. The majority of the texts is, in one way or another, connected with the Roman army. The focus of the study is on syntax and pragmatics. Besides traditional philological methods, modern syntactic theory is used as well, especially in the pragmatic analysis. The study begins with a critical survey of certain concepts that are current in the research on the Latin language, most importantly the concept of vulgar Latin , which, it is argued, seems to be used as an abstract noun for variation and change in Latin . Further, it is necessary to treat even the non-literary material primarily as written texts and not as straightforward reflections of spoken language. An examination of letter phraseology shows that there is considerable variation between the two major geographical areas of provenance. Latin letter writing in Egypt was influenced by Greek. The study highlights the importance of seeing the letters as a text type, with recurring phraseological elements appearing in the body text as well. It is argued that recognising these elements is essential for the correct analysis of the syntax. Three areas of syntax are discussed in detail: sentence connection (mainly parataxis), syntactically incoherent structures and word order (the order of the object and the verb). For certain types of sentence connection we may plausibly posit an origin in spoken Latin, but for many other linguistic phenomena attested in this material the issue of spoken Latin is anything but simple. Concerning the study of historical syntax, the letters offer information about the changing status of the accusative case. Incoherent structures may reflect contaminations in spoken language but usually the reason for them is the inability of the writer to put his thoughts into writing, especially when there is something more complicated to be expressed. Many incoherent expressions reflect the need to start the predication with a thematic constituent. Latin word order is seen as resulting from an interaction of syntactic and pragmatic factors. The preference for an order where the topic is placed sentence-initially can be seen in word order more generally as well. Furthermore, there appears a difference between Egypt and Vindolanda. The letters from Vindolanda show the order O(bject) V(erb) clearly more often than the letters from Egypt. Interestingly, this difference correlates with another, namely the use of the anaphoric pronoun is. This is an interesting observation in view of the fact that both of these are traditional Latin features, as opposed to those that foreshadow the Romance development (VO order and use of the anaphoric ille). However, it is difficult to say whether this is an indication of social or regional variation.

"Do Not Celebrate Your Feast without Your Neighbours" : A Study of References to Feasts and Festivals in Non-Literary Documents from Ramesside Period Deir el-Medina

This dissertation is a study of the forms and functions of feasts and feasting in the ancient Egyptian village of Deir el-Medina in Thebes (modern Luxor). This particular village, during the New Kingdom (c. 1550 1069 BC), was inhabited by the men (and their families) who constructed the Royal Tombs in the Valley of the Kings and the Valley of the Queens. The royal artisans were probably more literate than the average Egyptians and the numerous Ramesside Period (c. 1295 1069 BC) non-literary texts found in the excavations of the village and its surroundings form the source material for this study. In this study, the methods used are mainly Egyptological and the references to feasts and feasting are considered in view of what is known of New Kingdom Egypt, Thebes, and Deir el-Medina. Nevertheless, it is the use of the methodological concept local vernacular religion that has resulted in the division of the research findings into two sections, i.e., references to feasts celebrated both in and outside the community and other references to feasts and feasting in the village. When considering the function of the feasts celebrated at Deir el-Medina, a functional approach to feasts introduced by anthropologists and archaeologists is utilized. The Deir el-Medina feasts which were associated with the official religion form a festival calendar of feasts celebrated annually on the same civil calendar day. The reconstructed festival calendar of Deir el-Medina reflects the feasts celebrated around Thebes or, at least, in Western Thebes. The function of the nationally and regionally observed feasts (which, at least at Deir el-Medina, resulted in a work-free day) may have been to keep people content so that they would continue to work which was to the advantage of the king and the elite surrounding him. Local feasts appear to have been observed more irregularly at Deir el-Medina or perhaps according to the lunar calendar. Feasts celebrated by the community as a whole served to maintain the unity of the group. In addition to feasts celebrated by the entire community, the inhabitants of Deir el-Medina could mark their own personal feasts and organize small gatherings during public feasts. Through such feasts, an individual man might form alliances and advance his chances of a favourable marriage or of acquiring a position on the work crew.

Hautamuistomerkki elämän ja kuoleman tulkitsijana : Heikki Häiväojan, Kain Tapperin ja Matti Peltokankaan tekemät hautamuistomerkit 1952-2002

Grave sculpture as interpreter of life and death. Grave sculptures done by Heikki Häiväoja, Kain Tapper and Matti Peltokangas 1952-2002. The thoughts of Philippe Ariès and Erwin Panofsky on western funeral art constitute the starting point of this study. These scholars speak about the 20th century as a period of decline regarding western funeral art. The reason for this situation lies, according to them, in the fact that death has been rejected and become a private affair in modern society. Especially Panofsky sees an important reason for the decay of funeral art also in the separation of death from religion. In this study, I approach the view of Ariès and Panofsky from the angle of Finnish funeral art. The subject of the study is grave sculptures of three Finnish sculptors: Heikki Häiväoja, Kain Tapper and Matti Peltokangas, from 1952 to 2002. (The analysis of the grave sculptures has been performed with the Iconology of Erwin Panofsky. The analysis has been deepened by the ideas of a graveyard as a semiotic text according to Werner Enninger and Christa Schwens. In order to confirm their argumentation, they analyse the graveyard text with the model of communicative functions of Roman Jakobson and verify that the graveyard is a cultural text according to Juri Lotman.) Results of the study In the grave sculptures of the sculptors, different worldviews appear alongside Christian thoughts indicating a new stage in the tradition of funeral art. In the grave sculptures characterised as Christian, the view of life after death is included. In these memorials the direction of life is prospective, pointing to the life beyond. Death is a border, beyond which one is unable to see. Nevertheless the border is open or marked by the cross. On this open border, death is absence of pain, glory and new unity. In memorials with different worldviews, the life beyond is a possibility which is not excluded. Memorials interpret life retrospectively; life is a precious memory which wakens grief and longing. Many memorials have metaphysical and mystic features. In spite of democratization the order and valuation of social classes appear in some memorials. The old order also materializes in the war memorials relating the same destiny of the deceased. Different burial places, nevertheless, do not indicate social inequality but are rather signs of diversity. The sculptors' abstract means of modern funeral art deepen the handling of the subject matter of death and reveal the mystery of it. Grave sculptures are a part of Finnish and sacral modern art, and there is an interaction between funeral art and modern art. Modern art acquires a new dimension, when grave sculptures become a part of its field. Grave sculptures offer an alternative to anonymous burying. The memorial is a sign of the end of life; it gives death significance and publicity and creates a relation to the past of the society. In this way, grave sculptures are a part of the chain of memory of the western funeral art, which extends throughout Antiquity until ancient Egypt. (In this study I have spoken of funeral art as a chain of memory using the thoughts of Danièle Hervieu-Léger.) There are no signs of decay in the grave sculptures, on the contrary the tradition of funeral art continues in them as a search for the meaning of life and death and as an intuitive interpretation of death. As such, grave sculptures are part of the Finnish discussion of death.

Genetic and epigenetic mechanisms of tumor predisposition in hereditary non-polyposis colorectal carcinoma and sporadic cancers

Individuals with inherited deficiency in DNA mismatch repair(MMR) (Lynch syndrome) LS are predisposed to different cancers in a non-random fashion. Endometrial cancer (EC) is the most common extracolonic malignancy in LS. LS represents the best characterized form of hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal carcinoma (HNPCC). Other forms of familial non-polyposis colon cancer exist, including familial colorectal cancer type X (FCCX). This syndrome resembles LS, but MMR gene defects are excluded and the predisposition genes are unknown so far. To address why different organs are differently susceptible to cancer development, we examined molecular similarities and differences in selected cancers whose frequency varies in LS individuals. Tumors that are common (colorectal, endometrial, gastric) and less common (brain, urological) in LS were characterized for MMR protein expression, microsatellite instability (MSI), and by altered DNA methylation. We also studied samples of histologically normal endometrium, endometrial hyperplasia,and cancer for molecular alterations to identify potential markers that could predict malignant transformation in LS and sporadic cases. Our results suggest that brain and kidney tumors follow a different pathway for cancer development than the most common LS related cancers.Our results suggest also that MMR defects are detectable in endometrial tissues from a proportion of LS mutation carriers prior to endometrial cancer development. Traditionally (complex) atypical hyperplasia has been considered critical for progression to malignancy. Our results suggest that complex hyperplasia without atypia is equally important as a precursor lesion of malignancy. Tumor profiles from Egypt were compared with colorectal tumors from Finland to evaluate if there are differences specific to the ethnic origin (East vs.West). Results showed for the first time a distinct genetic and epigenetic signature in the Egyptian CRC marked by high methylation of microsatellite stable tumors associated with advanced stage, and low frequency of Wnt signaling activation, suggesting a novel pathway. DNA samples from FCCX families were studied with genome wide linkage analysis using microsatellite markers. Selected genes from the linked areas were tested for possible mutations that could explain predisposition to a large number of colon adenomas and carcinomas seen in these families. Based on the results from the linkage analysis, a number of areas with tentative linkage were identified in family 20. We narrowed down these areas by additional microsatellite markers to found a mutation in the BMPR1A gene. Sequencing of an additional 17 FCCX families resulted in a BMPR1A mutation frequency of 2/18 families (11%). Clarification of the mechanisms of the differential tumor susceptibility in LS increases the understanding of gene and organ specific targets of MMR deficiency. While it is generally accepted that widespread MMR deficiency and consequent microsatellite instability (MSI) drives tumorigenesis in LS, the timing of molecular alterations is controversial. In particular, it is important to know that alterations may occur several years before cancer formation, at stages that are still histologically regarded as normal. Identification of molecular markers that could predict the risk of malignant transformation may be used to improve surveillance and cancer prevention in genetically predisposed individuals. Significant fractions of families with colorectal and/or endometrial cancer presently lack molecular definition altogether. Our findings expand the phenotypic spectrum of BMPR1A mutations and, for the first time, link FCCX families to the germline mutation of a specific gene. In particular, our observations encourage screening of additional families with FCCX for BMPR1A mutation, which is necessary in obtaining a reliable estimate of the share of BMPR1A-associated cases among all FCCX families worldwide. Clinically, the identification of predisposing mutations enables targeted cancer prevention in proven mutation carriers and thereby reduces cancer morbidity and mortality in the respective families.

Carotid Surgery : A posse ad esse non valet consequentia

According to a large body of evidence, carotid endarterectomy (CEA) can prevent strokes, provided that appropriate inclusion criteria and high-quality perioperative treatment methods are utilised with low complication rates. From the patient s perspective, it is of paramount importance that the operation is as safe and effective as possible. From the community s point of view, it is important that CEA provision prevents as many strokes as possible. In order to define the stroke preventing potential of CEA in different communities, a comparison between eight European countries and Australia was performed including 53 077 carotid interventions. A more detailed evaluation was performed in Finland, the United Kingdom and Egypt. It could be estimated that many potentially preventable strokes occur due to insufficient diagnostics and CEA provision. The number of CEAs should be at least doubled in the Helsinki region. The theoretical power of CEA provision in stroke prevention varied significantly between the countries. Delay from symptom to surgery has been identified as one of the most important factors influencing the effectiveness of CEA. In 2008 only 11% of CEAs in Helsinki university central hospital (HUCH) were performed within the recommended14 days. Registered data of 673 CEAs in HUCH during 2000-2005 was analyzed. There was no systematic error that would have changed the outcome analysis. However it is important that registers are audited regularly and cross matching of different registries is possible. A previously unpublished method of combining medial mandibulotomy, neck incision and carotid artery interposition was carried out as a collaboration of maxillofacial, ear, nose and throat and vascular surgeons. Five patients were operated on with a technique that was feasible and possible to perform with little morbidity, but due to the significant risks involved, this technique should be reserved for carefully selected cases. In stroke prevention, organisational decisions seem far more important than details in interventional procedures when CEA is performed with low complication rates, as was the case in the present study. A TIA clinic approach with close co-operation between the on-call vascular surgeons, neurologists and radiologists should be available at all centres treating these patients. Patients should have a direct and fast admission to the hospital performing CEA.