Teatteri liikkeessä : Työväenteatterit Suomen teatterikentällä ja työväenliikkeessä kaksiteatterijärjestelmän syntyyn asti vuonna 1922

Workers' theatres in Finland until 1922 The topic of this dissertation is the workers' theatres in Finland before the year 1922. The main question is: why did these amateur theatres within the workers' associations become part of the professional theatre field in the 1910s by getting state subsidy as local theatre institutions? How is it possible that they received this status even after the civil war in 1918 when new professional theatres were founded all over the country? The study also asks, what kind of position did workers' theatres have in the workers' associations and in the workers' movement, what did the Social Democrats and Communists think of theatre and in particular of workers' theatre, and what kind of repertoire did the workers' theatres perform? It is a particular feature of Finland that the professional theatre field was not organised and that the workers’ movement had a relatively strong political position. The study concludes that some workers' theatres were the only steady theatre institutions in their surroundings, and thus functioned as local popular theatres performing to all social groups. Although amateur-based, they started to resemble professional theatres. Even though the Social Democratic Party did not have a specific theatre policy, the leaders of the Party appreciated and supported the workers' theatres as educational institutions and worked for their artistic improvement. The workers' theatres were also largely approved of and seen as people's theatres thought to unite and educate the nation and the working class. This reveals the need for national consensus, in the 1910s against the Russian government who worked to dissolve the autonomous position of the Finnish state, and after the civil war (1918) against the threat of a communist revolution. A wave of agitating proletarian theatre was felt in Finland in the early 1920s but it was marginalised by the large anti-communist majority.

Vähemmistövaltiokirkon synty : Ortodoksisen kirkkokunnan ja valtion suhteiden muotoutuminen Suomessa 1917-1922

The Birth of the Minority State Church Development of the legal relationship between the state of Finland and the Finnish Orthodox Church 1917 1922 Mika Nokelainen, University of Helsinki, Finland. The present research seeks to explain how the legal relationship developed between the state of Finland and the Orthodox Church of Finland. The main focus is on three statutes: 1) the Statute of the Orthodox Church in Finland as stated by Prime Minister J. K. Paasikivi s cabinet in November 1918, 2) The Republican Constitution of July 1919 and 3) The Freedom of Religion Act of 1923. This study examines how different political goals influenced the three statutes mentioned above. Another important factor that is taken into account is the attitude of the Lutheran Church of Finland, the church of the national majority, towards the Orthodox minority and its judicial position in the country. Finland became independent in December 1917, in the aftermath of the November Revolution in Russia. The Orthodox Church already had hundreds of years of history in Finland. In the 19th century, several statutes by emperors of Russia had made the Orthodox Church an official state church of Finland. Due to the long history of the Orthodox Church in Finland, Prime Minister Paasikivi s cabinet made the decision to support the church in the spring of 1918. Furthermore, the cabinet s goal to occupy East Karelia increased its willingness to support the church. The Finnish-national Orthodox Church was needed to educate the East-Karelians. A new statute on the Orthodox Church in Finland came into force in November 1918, reorganising the administration, economy and legal relationship between the church and state in Finland. With this statue, the cabinet gained some authority over the church. Sections of this statute made possible, for example, the cabinet s interference in the internal affairs of the church. The Republican Constitution of 1919 included the principle of freedom of religion. The state, which previously had been Lutheran, now became non-denominational. However, the Republican Constitution explicitly mentioned the Lutheran as well as the Orthodox Church, which indirectly confirmed the position of the Orthodox Church as the second state church of Finland. This position was finally confirmed by the Freedom of Religion Act in 1923. In general, the Lutheran Church of Finland did not resist the judicial position of the Orthodox Church. However, some Lutherans regarded the Orthodox Church with suspicion because of its intimate connection with Russia.

The Far Eastern Question at the Washington Conference (1921-1922) with an outline of its implications for internal politics in China

This dissertation is a narrative account of the negotiations concerning the question of the Far East and the Shandong issue at the Washington Conference, leading to treaties, agreements and resolutions. In this dissertation, a certain stress is laid on the interaction between the Conference and the internal situation in China, particularly concerning the question of the implications of the Conference for Cabinet politics in Peking. Through the narrative account of the Conference, the general aim is an attempt to reassess the achievements of the Washington Conference. Too often the Washington Conference has been viewed negatively. The political aim behind the legal framework was to open the door to China as a sovereign State member of the international community whose territorial integrity was internationally recognized, despite its chaotic internal situation. It is undeniable that the Washington Conference opened a new chapter in modern Chinese history. The violations of the agreements concerning China that occurred in the 1930s should not lead to the belief that these agreements were of no value. Peace may not be lasting and evolves according to circumstances; agreements are transitory, and new situations need new arrangements. This dissertation tries to demonstrate that the agreements in themselves were not the cause of their failure, but the failure was due to the lack of determination on the part of the Signatories Powers to defend them.

Historiebruk kring Nådendal : och den kommemorativa anatomin av klostrets minnesplats

This thesis examines the ruins of the medieval Bridgettine (Birgittan) monastery of Naantali (Vallis Gratiae, f. 1443) in Finland and the transformation of the site into a national heritage and a memory landscape. It was archaeologically surveyed in the 19th century by Professor Sven Gabriel Elmgren (1817 1897). His work was followed by Dr. Reinhold Hausen (1850 1942), who excavated the site in the 1870s. During this time the memories of Saint Bridget (Birgitta) in Sweden were also invented as heritage. Hausen published his results in 1922 thus forming the connection with the next generation of actors involved with the Naantali site: the magnate Amos Anderson (1878 1961), the teacher Julius Finnberg (1877 1955) and the archaeologist Juhani Rinne (1872 1950). They erected commemorative monuments etc. on the Naantali site, thus creating a memory landscape there. For them, the site represented the good homeland in connection with a western-oriented view of the history of Finland. The network of actors was connected to the Swedish researchers and so-called Birgitta Friends, such as state antiquarian Sigurd Curman (1879 1966), but also to the members of the Societas Sanctae Birgittae and the Society for the Embellishment of Pirita, among others. Historical jubilees as manifestations of the use of history were also arranged in Naantali in 1943, 1993 and 2003. It seems as if Naantali is needed in Finnish history from time to time after a period of crisis, i.e. after the Crimean War in the 1850s, the civil war of 1918, during World War II and also after the economic crisis of the early 1990s. In 2003, there was a stronger focus on the international Saint Bridget Jubilee in Sweden and all over Europe. Methodologically, the thesis belongs to the history of ideas, but also to research on the use of history, invented traditions and lieux de mémoire. The material for the work consists of public articles and scholarly texts in books or newspapers and letters produced by the actors and kept in archives in Finland, Sweden and Estonia, in addition to pictures and erected commemorative monuments in situ in the Western Finnish region. Keywords: Nådendal, Naantali monastery, Bridgettines, St. Bridget, use of history, lieux de mémoire, invented traditions, commemorative anatomy, memory landscape, Saint Bridget jubilees , S. G. Elmgren, R. Hausen, A. Anderson, J. Finnberg, J. Rinne, S. Curman, High Church Movement, Pirita, Vadstena.

Groteski suomalaisessa kirjallisuudessa : Neljä tapaustutkimusta

The grotesque in Finnish literature. Four case studies The topic of the dissertation is the grotesque in Finnish literature. The dissertation is twofold. Firstly, it focuses on the genre tradition of the grotesque, especially its other main branch, which has been named, following in Bakhtin s footsteps, subjective ( chamber ) grotesque, to be distinguished from carnivalistic ( public square ) grotesque. Secondly, the dissertation analyses and interprets four fictional literary works within the context of the grotesque genre, constructed on the basis of previous research and literature. These works are the novel Rakastunut rampa (1922) by Joel Lehtonen, the novel Prins Efflam (1953, transl. into Finnish as Kalastajakylän prinssi) by Sally Salminen, the short story Orjien kasvattaja (1965) by Juhani Peltonen, and the novel Veljeni Sebastian (1985) by Annika Idström. What connects these stirring novels, representing early or full modernism, is the supposition that they belong to the tradition of the subjective grotesque, not only due to occasional details, but also in a more comprehensive manner. The premises are that genre is a significant part of the work and that reading a novel in the context of the genre tradition adds something essential to the interpretation of individual texts and reveals meanings that might otherwise go unnoticed. The main characteristic of the grotesque is breaking the norm. This is accomplished through different means: degradation, distortion, inversion, combination, exaggeration and multiplication. The most significant strategy for breaking the norm is incongruence: the grotesque combines conflicting or mutually exclusive categories and elements on different levels. Simultaneously, the grotesque unravels categorisations and questions our way of perceiving the world. The grotesque not only poses a threat to one s identity, but can also pose a threat to the cognitive process. An analysis of the fictional works is presented as case studies of each chosen work as a whole. The analysis is based on the method of close reading, which draws on both classical and postclassical narratology, and the analysis and interpretation are expanded within the genre tradition of the grotesque. The grotesque is also analysed in terms of its relationship to the neighbouring categories and genre traditions, such as the tragic, the sublime, the horror story and the coming-of-age story. This dissertation shows how the grotesque is constructed repeatedly on deviations from the norm as well as on incongruence, also in the works analysed, and how it stratifies in these novels on and between different levels, such as the story, text, narration, composition and the world of the novels. In all the works analysed, the grotesque reduces and subverts. Again and again it reveals different sides of humanity stripped of idealisation and glorification. The dissertation reveals that Finnish literature is not a solitary island, even regarding the grotesque, for it continues and offers variations of the common tradition of grotesque literature, and likewise draws on grotesque visual arts. This dissertation is the first monograph in Finnish literature research focusing on the subjective grotesque.

Soil carbon modelling as a tool for carbon balance studies in forestry

Soils represent a remarkable stock of carbon, and forest soils are estimated to hold half of the global stock of soil carbon. Topical concern about the effects of climate change and forest management on soil carbon as well as practical reporting requirements set by climate conventions have created a need to assess soil carbon stock changes reliably and transparently. The large spatial variability of soil carbon commensurate with relatively slow changes in stocks hinders the assessment of soil carbon stocks and their changes by direct measurements. Models therefore widely serve to estimate carbon stocks and stock changes in soils. This dissertation aimed to develop the soil carbon model YASSO for upland forest soils. The model was aimed to take into account the most important processes controlling the decomposition in soils, yet remain simple enough to ensure its practical applicability in different applications. The model structure and assumptions were presented and the model parameters were defined with empirical measurements. The model was evaluated by studying the sensitivities of the model results to parameter values, by estimating the precision of the results with an uncertainty analysis, and by assessing the accuracy of the model by comparing the predictions against measured data and to the results of an alternative model. The model was applied to study the effects of intensified biomass extraction on the forest carbon balance and to estimate the effects of soil carbon deficit on net greenhouse gas emissions of energy use of forest residues. The model was also applied in an inventory based method to assess the national scale forest carbon balance for Finland’s forests from 1922 to 2004. YASSO managed to describe sufficiently the effects of both the variable litter and climatic conditions on decomposition. When combined with the stand models or other systems providing litter information, the dynamic approach of the model proved to be powerful for estimating changes in soil carbon stocks on different scales. The climate dependency of the model, the effects of nitrogen on decomposition and forest growth as well as the effects of soil texture on soil carbon stock dynamics are areas for development when considering the applicability of the model to different research questions, different land use types and wider geographic regions. Intensified biomass extraction affects soil carbon stocks, and these changes in stocks should be taken into account when considering the net effects of forest residue utilisation as energy. On a national scale, soil carbon stocks play an important role in forest carbon balances.

Country-scale carbon accounting of the vegetation and mineral soils of Finland

The increase in global temperature has been attributed to increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHG), mainly that of CO2. The threat of severe and complex socio-economic and ecological implications of climate change have initiated an international process that aims to reduce emissions, to increase C sinks, and to protect existing C reservoirs. The famous Kyoto protocol is an offspring of this process. The Kyoto protocol and its accords state that signatory countries need to monitor their forest C pools, and to follow the guidelines set by the IPCC in the preparation, reporting and quality assessment of the C pool change estimates. The aims of this thesis were i) to estimate the changes in carbon stocks vegetation and soil in the forests in Finnish forests from 1922 to 2004, ii) to evaluate the applied methodology by using empirical data, iii) to assess the reliability of the estimates by means of uncertainty analysis, iv) to assess the effect of forest C sinks on the reliability of the entire national GHG inventory, and finally, v) to present an application of model-based stratification to a large-scale sampling design of soil C stock changes. The applied methodology builds on the forest inventory measured data (or modelled stand data), and uses statistical modelling to predict biomasses and litter productions, as well as a dynamic soil C model to predict the decomposition of litter. The mean vegetation C sink of Finnish forests from 1922 to 2004 was 3.3 Tg C a-1, and in soil was 0.7 Tg C a-1. Soil is slowly accumulating C as a consequence of increased growing stock and unsaturated soil C stocks in relation to current detritus input to soil that is higher than in the beginning of the period. Annual estimates of vegetation and soil C stock changes fluctuated considerably during the period, were frequently opposite (e.g. vegetation was a sink but soil was a source). The inclusion of vegetation sinks into the national GHG inventory of 2003 increased its uncertainty from between -4% and 9% to ± 19% (95% CI), and further inclusion of upland mineral soils increased it to ± 24%. The uncertainties of annual sinks can be reduced most efficiently by concentrating on the quality of the model input data. Despite the decreased precision of the national GHG inventory, the inclusion of uncertain sinks improves its accuracy due to the larger sectoral coverage of the inventory. If the national soil sink estimates were prepared by repeated soil sampling of model-stratified sample plots, the uncertainties would be accounted for in the stratum formation and sample allocation. Otherwise, the increases of sampling efficiency by stratification remain smaller. The highly variable and frequently opposite annual changes in ecosystem C pools imply the importance of full ecosystem C accounting. If forest C sink estimates will be used in practice average sink estimates seem a more reasonable basis than the annual estimates. This is due to the fact that annual forest sinks vary considerably and annual estimates are uncertain, and they have severe consequences for the reliability of the total national GHG balance. The estimation of average sinks should still be based on annual or even more frequent data due to the non-linear decomposition process that is influenced by the annual climate. The methodology used in this study to predict forest C sinks can be transferred to other countries with some modifications. The ultimate verification of sink estimates should be based on comparison to empirical data, in which case the model-based stratification presented in this study can serve to improve the efficiency of the sampling design.

Sairaanhoitajat työn imussa? Palkkatyön sisällön ja kulttuuristen lähtökohtien tasapainossa

Tutkimuksen tavoitteena on selvittää, mikä saa pitkän työuran tehneet sairaanhoitajat innostumaan työstään. Taustalla on yhteiskunnallinen tilanne, jossa työelämän vetovoimaisuuden lisääminen ja ikääntyvien työntekijöiden työssä jaksaminen ovat keskeisiä poliittisia tavoitteita. Aihetta lähestytään positiivisesta psykologiasta lähtöisin olevan työn imun käsitteen avulla. Se on määritelty pysyväksi, ”myönteiseksi, tunne- ja motivaatiotäyttymyksen tilaksi, jota luonnehtivat tarmokkuus, omistautuminen ja uppoutuminen työhön” (Hakanen 2009a, 9). Tutkimuksessa kysytään, voidaanko työn imua ymmärtää myös sosiologisesta näkökulmasta. Oletuksena on, että käsitteen taustalla on muutakin kuin psykologisesta perinteestä käsin jäsentyvää vaihtelua. Empiirisen aineiston muodostavan 11 sairaanhoitajan koko työuraa ja nykyistä työtä koskevat tiettyihin teemoihin ankkuroidut syvähaastattelut. Otosta poimittaessa on etsitty sellaisia haastateltavia, jotka kokevat kantavansa työn imua. Aineiston analyysitapana on käytetty matriisin avulla sovellettua kvalitatiivista sisällönanalyysiä. Työn imua hahmotetaan analyysissä henkilöhistoriallisten haastatteluiden – menneen, nykyisen ja tulevan – kautta. Pyrkimyksenä on etsiä tarinoita mahdollisesti yhdistävää kulttuurista muotoa ja ymmärtää, mihin se perustuu. Analyysin nojalla vastuurationaalisuuden käsite (esim. Korvajärvi 1986) näyttäisi jäsentävän osan haastateltavien suhteesta työhönsä. Avain työn imun löytymiseen näissä tarinoissa on kuitenkin se, kuinka haastateltavilla on ollut henkilökohtainen halu mennä eteenpäin ja kykyä ratkaista ongelmia työuransa aikana ja nykyisessä työssään. Tämä havainto tulkitaan Max Weberin (1922, 1980) käsitteiden – arvorationaalisen ja päämäärärationaalisen toiminnan väliseen suhteen – avulla. Tulokseksi syntyy oletus siitä, että analyysin kohteena olevissa tarinoissa on kyse yhteisestä kulttuurisesta tarinasta siitä, millainen on hyvä ihminen, miten hyvä ihminen toteuttaa itseään työssä ja miten hän tekee työtään: tarmokkaasti, omistautuen ja uppoutuen. Henkilökohtainen halu mennä eteenpäin ja kyky ratkaista ongelmia nojaa sairaanhoitajien erityiseen eetokseen, kutsumustyöhön ja hoivan moraaliin tavalla, joka on rakenteellisesti yhtäläinen protestanttisuutta leimaavan yksilöllisen jumalasuhteen kanssa. Lisäksi analyysin perusteella esitetään, että työn imun edellytys on arvorationaalisen eetoksen lisäksi oikeanlainen, riittävät työn voimavarat sisältävä ympäristö, jossa hoitotyön keskeiset palkinnot on mahdollista saavuttaa. Tällöin palkkatyön sisältö kohtaa kulttuuriset lähtökohdat, ja tulos näkyy työn imuna. Keskeisimmät taustoittavat lähteet ovat Henriksson, Lea & Wrede, Sirpa (toim.) (2004a). Hyvinvointityön ammatit ja Hakanen, Jari (2009a). Työn imun arviointimenetelmä (Utrecht Work Engagement Scale). Sosiologisen tulkinnan kannalta tärkein teoreettinen lähde on Weber, Max (1980): Protestanttinen etiikka ja kapitalismin henki.

Sairaanhoitajat työn imussa? Palkkatyön sisällön ja kulttuuristen lähtökohtien tasapainossa

Tutkimuksen tavoitteena on selvittää, mikä saa pitkän työuran tehneet sairaanhoitajat innostumaan työstään. Taustalla on yhteiskunnallinen tilanne, jossa työelämän vetovoimaisuuden lisääminen ja ikääntyvien työntekijöiden työssä jaksaminen ovat keskeisiä poliittisia tavoitteita. Aihetta lähestytään positiivisesta psykologiasta lähtöisin olevan työn imun käsitteen avulla. Se on määritelty pysyväksi, ”myönteiseksi, tunne- ja motivaatiotäyttymyksen tilaksi, jota luonnehtivat tarmokkuus, omistautuminen ja uppoutuminen työhön” (Hakanen 2009a, 9). Tutkimuksessa kysytään, voidaanko työn imua ymmärtää myös sosiologisesta näkökulmasta. Oletuksena on, että käsitteen taustalla on muutakin kuin psykologisesta perinteestä käsin jäsentyvää vaihtelua. Empiirisen aineiston muodostavan 11 sairaanhoitajan koko työuraa ja nykyistä työtä koskevat tiettyihin teemoihin ankkuroidut syvähaastattelut. Otosta poimittaessa on etsitty sellaisia haastateltavia, jotka kokevat kantavansa työn imua. Aineiston analyysitapana on käytetty matriisin avulla sovellettua kvalitatiivista sisällönanalyysiä. Työn imua hahmotetaan analyysissä henkilöhistoriallisten haastatteluiden – menneen, nykyisen ja tulevan – kautta. Pyrkimyksenä on etsiä tarinoita mahdollisesti yhdistävää kulttuurista muotoa ja ymmärtää, mihin se perustuu. Analyysin nojalla vastuurationaalisuuden käsite (esim. Korvajärvi 1986) näyttäisi jäsentävän osan haastateltavien suhteesta työhönsä. Avain työn imun löytymiseen näissä tarinoissa on kuitenkin se, kuinka haastateltavilla on ollut henkilökohtainen halu mennä eteenpäin ja kykyä ratkaista ongelmia työuransa aikana ja nykyisessä työssään. Tämä havainto tulkitaan Max Weberin (1922; 1980) käsitteiden – arvorationaalisen ja päämäärärationaalisen toiminnan väliseen suhteen – avulla. Tulokseksi syntyy oletus siitä, että analyysin kohteena olevissa tarinoissa on kyse yhteisestä kulttuurisesta tarinasta siitä, millainen on hyvä ihminen, miten hyvä ihminen toteuttaa itseään työssä ja miten hän tekee työtään: tarmokkaasti, omistautuen ja uppoutuen. Henkilökohtainen halu mennä eteenpäin ja kyky ratkaista ongelmia nojaa sairaanhoitajien erityiseen eetokseen, kutsumustyöhön ja hoivan moraaliin tavalla, joka on rakenteellisesti yhtäläinen protestanttisuutta leimaavan yksilöllisen jumalasuhteen kanssa. Lisäksi analyysin perusteella esitetään, että työn imun edellytys on arvorationaalisen eetoksen lisäksi oikeanlainen, riittävät työn voimavarat sisältävä ympäristö, jossa hoitotyön keskeiset palkinnot on mahdollista saavuttaa. Tällöin palkkatyön sisältö kohtaa kulttuuriset lähtökohdat, ja tulos näkyy työn imuna. Keskeisimmät taustoittavat lähteet ovat Henriksson, Lea & Wrede, Sirpa (toim.) (2004a). Hyvinvointityön ammatit ja Hakanen, Jari (2009a). Työn imun arviointimenetelmä (Utrecht Work Engagement Scale). Sosiologisen tulkinnan kannalta tärkein teoreettinen lähde on Weber, Max (1980): Protestanttinen etiikka ja kapitalismin henki.

The Enlightenment Idea of History as a Legitimation Tool of Kemalism in Turkey

The study analyzes the effort to build political legitimacy in the Republic of Turkey by ex-ploring a group of influential texts produced by Kemalist writers. The study explores how the Kemalist regime reproduced certain long-lasting enlightenment meta-narrative in its effort to build political legitimacy. Central in this process was a hegemonic representation of history, namely the interpretation of the Anatolian Resistance Struggle of 1919 1922 as a Turkish Revolution executing the enlightenment in the Turkish nation-state. The method employed in the study is contextualizing narratological analysis. The Kemalist texts are analyzed with a repertoire of concepts originally developed in the theory of narra-tive. By bringing these concepts together with epistemological foundations of historical sciences, the study creates a theoretical frame inside of which it is possible to highlight how initially very controversial historical representations in the end manage to construct long-lasting, emotionally and intellectually convincing bases of national identity for the secular middle classes in Turkey. The two most important explanatory concepts in this sense are di-egesis and implied reader. The diegesis refers to the ability of narrative representation to create an inherently credible story-world that works as the basis of national community. The implied reader refers to the process where a certain hegemonic narrative creates a formula of identification and a position through which any individual real-world reader of a story can step inside the narrative story-world and identify oneself as one of us of the national narra-tive. The study demonstrates that the Kemalist enlightenment meta-narrative created a group of narrative accruals which enabled generations of secular middle classes to internalize Kemalist ideology. In this sense, the narrative in question has not only worked as a tool utilized by the so-called Kemalist state-elite to justify its leadership, but has been internalized by various groups in Turkey, working as their genuine world-view. It is shown in the study that secular-ism must be seen as the core ingredient of these groups national identity. The study proposes that the enlightenment narrative reproduced in the Kemalist ideology had its origin in a simi-lar totalizing cultural narrative created in and for Europe. Currently this enlightenment project is challenged in Turkey by those who are in an attempt to give religion a greater role in Turkish society. The study argues that the enduring practice of legitimizing political power through the enlightenment meta-narrative has not only become a major factor contributing to social polarization in Turkey, but has also, in contradiction to the very real potentials for crit-ical approaches inherent in the Enlightenment tradition, crucially restricted the development of critical and rational modes of thinking in the Republic of Turkey.