Kielellinen merkitys emergenttinä prosessina: esimerkkinä suomen adessiivi

Tutkielmassa tarkastelen sitä, miten monimerkityksinen kielellinen ilmaus voidaan ymmärtää, eli miten vastaanottaja tavoittaa kielellisen viestin merkityksen. Tutkielmassa keskeisessä asemassa on kielellisen merkin tulkinnan riippuvuus siitä kontekstista, jossa merkki esiintyy, ja polysemian käsittäminen kielellisen merkin abstrahoinniksi irti konteksteista. Tarkastelen myös sitä, kuinka paljon kontekstia kielellisen merkin tulkintaan tarvitaan. Esittelen prototyyppien ympärille rakentuvia sumearajaisia kategorioita ennen kaikkea Eleanor Roschin tutkimusten kautta. Tältä pohjalta tarkastelen käsitystä, jonka mukaan ihminen kielellistä ilmausta muodostaessaan valitsee hallitsemiensa kielellisten merkkien joukosta ne, jotka parhaiten täyttävät tarkoituksensa kokonaisilmauksessa eli toimivat tietyssä kokonaisprosessin osafunktiossa. Tutkielmassa tarkastellaan tähän liittyen emergenssiä, yleistä tieteenfilosofista käsitettä, jolla viitataan tavallisesti sellaisten ilmiöiden syntyyn, jotka ovat laadullisesti uudenlaisia ja joita ei voi ennustaa alkuehtojen pohjalta. Tutkimusongelmaa lähestyn käyttämällä esimerkkinä suomen adessiivia. Adessiivin merkitystehtävien esittelyssä käytän käsitteellisenä apuvälineenä Ronald W. Langackerin kognitiivista kielioppia. Tutkimusaineistona on sanomalehti Karjalaisen vuosikerran 1999 ne adessiivimuotoiset substantiivit, jotka esiintyvät vähintään kymmenen kertaa, lausekonteksteineen. Aineiston laajuus on noin 18 000 lausetta. Johtopäätöksenä tutkimusaineistosta todetaan, että suurimmalle osalle adessiivitapauksista on löydettävissä merkitystehtävä kantasanan semanttisen luonteen avulla; tämä tarkoittaa, että lausekontekstistaan irrotettu adessiivimuotoinen sana saa suurimmaksi osaksi saman tulkinnan kuin lausekontekstissaan. Toisena johtopäätöksenä todetaan, että merkityksen määräytyminen lausekontekstin kautta ei ole systemaattista tai lineaarista, ts. sama lausekonteksti johtaa eri sananmuodoilla eri merkitystulkintaan. Tämän katson olevan osoitus merkityksen emergenssistä.

Puhutun kielen segmentointi lausemaisiksi yksiköiksi

Puhutun kielen segmentointiin ei ole olemassa kaikkiin tarkoituksiin sopivaa, yleisesti hyväksyttyä ja toimivaa menetelmää - kirjoitettu kieli segmentoituu lauseiksi ja virkkeiksi, mutta puhetta segmentoidaan monin eri tavoin tilanteesta ja tarkoituksesta riippuen. Tähän on vaikuttanut kirjoitetun kielen keskeinen asema kielitieteellisessä tutkimuksessa: kirjoitusta on tutkittu enemmän ja kauemmin kuin puhetta, ja lisäksi kirjoitettu kieli vaikuttaa ihmisten kielikäsityksiin myös tiedostamattomalla tasolla, joten puhetta on vasta viime aikoina alettu tarkastella sen omista lähtökohdista käsin. Pro gradu -tutkielmassani vertaan keskenään kolmea puhutun kielen segmentointitapaa, jotka perustuvat erilaisiin teorioihin puheen luonteesta. Ensimmäinen on pohjoismaiseen Talsyntax-projektiin perustuva puhtaasti syntaktinen analyysimalli, jonka mukaiset segmentit ovat syntaktisesti itsenäisiä makrosyntagmoja. Toinen on Wallace Chafen ajattelua mukaileva kognitiivisperustainen segmentointitapa, jossa puheen katsotaan koostuvan ihmisen kognition toimintaa heijastavista ajatusyksiköistä. Kolmas malli perustuu David Brazilin teoriaan, jossa intonaatio ja kommunikaatio liittyvät olennaisesti toisiinsa, ja tämän mallin mukaan puhe segmentoituu kommunikaation kannalta merkityksellisiksi intonaatiojaksoiksi. Mallien vertailupohjana toimii erilaisista puhetilanteista koostuva 15 minuutin puhekorpus, jonka olen segmentoinut kaikkien kolmen mallin mukaisesti ja verrannut segmentointituloksia toisiinsa. Tutkimukseni osoittaa, että intonaatioon, kognitioon ja syntaksiin pohjautuvat segmentointitavat tuottavat hyvin samantapaisia tuloksia: segmenttien rajakohdista suurin osa on kaikkien kolmen segmentointitavan mukaisia. Erityisesti intonaatioon ja syntaksiin perustuvien analyysien tulokset ovat hyvin samankaltaisia, kun taas kognitiivispohjaisen segmentointitavan mukaiset tulokset eroavat muista enemmän ja se on myös tulkinnanvaraisempi. Kun puhuttu teksti segmentoidaan sekä intonaatiojaksoiksi että makrosyntagmoiksi, syntyvistä segmenteistä on molempien segmentointitapojen suhteen yhteneviä noin 85 % ja niihin kuuluu kaikista tekstin sanoista lähes 60 %. Eri segmentointitapojen suhteen yhteneviä segmenttejä ovat tyypillisesti minimipalautteet ja muut lyhyet puheenvuorot, ja lisäksi yhtenevyys on tyypillistä kysymyksille sekä puhujan ja puheenaiheen vaihtumiskohdille. Epäyhtenevyyttä puolestaan esiintyy lähinnä tilanteissa, joissa sama henkilö on pitkään yhtäjaksoisesti äänessä: mitä pidempi yhtenäinen puhejakso, sitä vaikeampi puhujan on hahmottaa sitä kokonaisuutena, joten sellaisiin muodostuu helpommin intonationaalisia tai syntaktisia epäjohdonmukaisuuksia. Tuloksista voidaan päätellä, että intonaatio ja syntaksi sekä jossain määrin myös kognitio liittyvät olennaisesti toisiinsa puhutussa kielessä. Jos tarkoituksena on löytää yleisesti hyväksyttävä ja toimiva puhutun kielen segmentointitapa, intonationaalis-syntaktinen segmentointi vaikuttaisi olevan hyvä lähtökohta. Avainsanat: puhuttu kieli, puhe, segmentointi, lause, intonaatio, kognitio, syntaksi

Language change as an evolutionary process

In the thesis it is discussed in what ways concepts and methodology developed in evolutionary biology can be applied to the explanation and research of language change. The parallel nature of the mechanisms of biological evolution and language change is explored along with the history of the exchange of ideas between these two disciplines. Against this background computational methods developed in evolutionary biology are taken into consideration in terms of their applicability to the study of historical relationships between languages. Different phylogenetic methods are explained in common terminology, avoiding the technical language of statistics. The thesis is on one hand a synthesis of earlier scientific discussion, and on the other an attempt to map out the problems of earlier approaches in addition to finding new guidelines in the study of language change on their basis. Primarily literature about the connections between evolutionary biology and language change, along with research articles describing applications of phylogenetic methods into language change have been used as source material. The thesis starts out by describing the initial development of the disciplines of evolutionary biology and historical linguistics, a process which right from the beginning can be seen to have involved an exchange of ideas concerning the mechanisms of language change and biological evolution. The historical discussion lays the foundation for the handling of the generalised account of selection developed during the recent few decades. This account is aimed for creating a theoretical framework capable of explaining both biological evolution and cultural change as selection processes acting on self-replicating entities. This thesis focusses on the capacity of the generalised account of selection to describe language change as a process of this kind. In biology, the mechanisms of evolution are seen to form populations of genetically related organisms through time. One of the central questions explored in this thesis is whether selection theory makes it possible to picture languages are forming populations of a similar kind, and what a perspective like this can offer to the understanding of language in general. In historical linguistics, the comparative method and other, complementing methods have been traditionally used to study the development of languages from a common ancestral language. Computational, quantitative methods have not become widely used as part of the central methodology of historical linguistics. After the fading of a limited popularity enjoyed by the lexicostatistical method since the 1950s, only in the recent years have also the computational methods of phylogenetic inference used in evolutionary biology been applied to the study of early language history. In this thesis the possibilities offered by the traditional methodology of historical linguistics and the new phylogenetic methods are compared. The methods are approached through the ways in which they have been applied to the Indo-European languages, which is the most thoroughly investigated language family using both the traditional and the phylogenetic methods. The problems of these applications along with the optimal form of the linguistic data used in these methods are explored in the thesis. The mechanisms of biological evolution are seen in the thesis as parallel in a limited sense to the mechanisms of language change, however sufficiently so that the development of a generalised account of selection is deemed as possibly fruiful for understanding language change. These similarities are also seen to support the validity of using phylogenetic methods in the study of language history, although the use of linguistic data and the models of language change employed by these models are seen to await further development.

Kiinan kielen automaattinen käsittely ja kieliteknologia

Tutkielma käsittelee kiinan kielen automaattista käsittelyä ja kieliteknologiaa. Kieliteknologian osa-alueista keskitytään kiinan kielelle tyypilliseen sanarajatunnistus- eli segmentointiongelmaan, joka kumpuaa kiinan kielen kirjoitusjärjestelmän erityispiirteistä. Tutkielma on aihepiiriä esittelevä pilottitutkimus, jonka tarkoitettu lukijaryhmä on kiinan kieliteknologisesta tutkimuksesta kiinnostuneet opiskelijat ja tutkijat. Lähdemateriaali koostuu englannin- ja kiinankielisestä kirjallisuudesta, lähinnä konferenssiartikkeleista. Tutkielma esittelee kiinan kirjoitusjärjestelmää automaattisen käsittelyn näkökulmasta, käsittelee perinteisten ja yksinkertaistettujen merkkien eroja, merkkikoodauksia sekä erilaisia lähestymistapoja käyttäviä syöttöjärjestelmiä. Kirjoitusjärjestelmän esittely tarjoaa esitietoja kielen rakenteen ymmärtämiseksi sekä rakentaa pohjaa sanarajatunnistusta käsitteleviä osuuksia varten. Sanarajatunnistus- eli segmentointiongelma johtuu kiinan kirjoitusjärjestelmästä, jossa sanojen välejä ei merkitä välilyönneillä. Kielen kieliteknologista käsittelyä varten sanojen rajat tulee kuitenkin selvittää. Sanarajatunnistusjärjestelmät ovat tietokoneohjelmia, jotka etsivät ja merkitsevät nämä rajat automaattisesti. Tehtävä ei kuitenkaan ole yksinkertainen kielen monitulkintaisuuksien ja ns. tuntemattomien sanojen vuoksi. Joissain tilanteissa ei ole olemassa yksiselitteisen oikeaa segmentointia. Tutkielmassa esitellään kaksi segmentointijärjestelmää, keskittyen erityisesti niiden toiminnan kuvaukseen lukijalle ymmärrettävässä muodossa. Tärkeää on menetelmien ymmärtäminen, ei tekniset yksityiskohdat. Lopuksi paneudutaan segmentointijärjestelmien evaluaation ongelmiin. Sanarajatunnistusta suorittavien ohjelmien vertailu on usein hankalaa, koska monissa tapauksissa järjestelmät eivät tuota yhteismitallisia tuloksia. Tutkielmassa esitellään yritys saada aikaan yhteismitallisia evaluaatiomenetelmiä segmentointiohjelmien Chinese Word Segmentation Bakeoff -kilpailujen muodossa. Tutkielmassa todetaan sanarajatunnistusongelman olevan tärkeä tutkimuskohde. Ratkaisemattomia ongelmia on kuitenkin edelleen, tärkeimpänä evaluaatio. Avainsanat – Nyckelord – Keywords kiinan kieli, sanarajatunnistus, segmentointi,kirjoitusmerkit, merkkikoodaukset, kiinan syöttötavat

Intermediate Past BE : A Paradigm Reshaped With Data Drawn From HARES

In this paper, I look into a grammatical phenomenon found among speakers of the Cambridgeshire dialect of English. According to my hypothesis, the phenomenon is a new entry into the past BE verb paradigm in the English language. In my paper, I claim that the structure I have found complements the existing two verb forms, was and were, with a third verb form that I have labelled ‘intermediate past BE’. The paper is divided into two parts. In the first section, I introduce the theoretical ground for the study of variation, which is founded on empiricist principles. In variationist linguistics, the main claim is that heterogeneous language use is structured and ordered. In the last 50 years of history in modern linguistics, this claim is controversial. In the 1960s, the generativist movement spearheaded by Noam Chomsky diverted attention away from grammatical theories that are based on empirical observations. The generativists steered away from language diversity, variation and change in favour of generalisations, abstractions and universalist claims. The theoretical part of my paper goes through the main points of the variationist agenda and concludes that abandoning the concept of language variation in linguistics is harmful for both theory and methodology. In the method part of the paper, I present the Helsinki Archive of Regional English Speech (HARES) corpus. It is an audio archive that contains interviews conducted in England in the 1970s and 1980s. The interviews were done in accordance to methods used generally in traditional dialectology. The informants are mostly elderly male people who have lived in the same region throughout their lives and who have left school at an early age. The interviews are actually conversations: the interviewer allowed the informant to pick the topic of conversation to induce a maximally relaxed and comfortable atmosphere and thus allow the most natural dialect variant to emerge in the informant’s speech. In the paper, the corpus chapter introduces some of the transcription and annotation problems associated with spoken language corpora (especially those containing dialectal speech). Questions surrounding the concept of variation are present in this part of the paper too, as especially transcription work is troubled by the fundamental problem of having to describe the fluctuations of everyday speech in text. In the empirical section of the paper, I use HARES to analyse the speech of four informants, with special focus on the emergence of the intermediate past BE variant. My observations and the subsequent analysis permit me to claim that my hypothesis seems to hold. The intermediate variant occupies almost all contexts where one would expect was or were in the informants’ speech. This means that the new variant is integrated into the speakers’ grammars and exemplifies the kind of variation that is at the heart of this paper.

Preliminary phonological analysis of the Limi dialect of Humla Bhotia

The purpose of this research was to analyse the phonological system of the Limi dialect of Humla Bhotia. Humla Bhotia is a Tibeto-Burman language that is spoken by approximately 4000 5000 people in the far northwestern Humla province of the Kingdom of Nepal. The language has not previously been the subject of analysis. The data base for this thesis was collected on two different dialects of Humla Bhotia in Kathmandu, the capital of Nepal, from February to May 2000. I had three language informants who speak Humla Bhotia as their mother tongue. One of the informants speaks the Upper Humla dialect and the other two informants speak the Limi dialect. In this thesis I have concentrated on the phonology of the dialect of Limi but occasionally I also make reference to the Upper Humla dialect. The Limi data base consists of 600 words elicited in isolation, sentences where words have been checked for consonantal and pitch variation, and five texts comprising 117 sentences. Firstly, I have studied the geographical location, population and dialects of Humla Bhotia. Five dialects were identified: Limi, Upper Humla, La Yakba, Nyinba and Humli Khyampa. Information on the dialect areas is based on the accounts of seven mother tongue speakers of the language and on Nancy Levine s (1988) anthropological research of the ethnic group Nyinba. Secondly, I have analysed the phonological system of Limi from the viewpoint of American stucturalism much along the lines followed by Pike 1966 [1947] ja 1967 [1948]. In defining the prosodic elements I have also used acoustic analysis. In the Limi dialect there are 7 vowel phonemes. No vowel clusters occur within the same syllable. In this preliminary analysis 29 contrastive plosives, 8 affricates and 5 6 fricatives were found. The data also revealed 4 nasal phonemes, two rhotic phonemes, one lateral phoneme and two central approximants. Further research is however called for to check the phonemic status of these segments. Four contrastive prosodic elements were encountered: nasalisation, length, phonation type and pitch movement. There are two contrastive types of phonation: tense and lax. Many words were found with a third type of phonation, modal phonation. How modal phonation relates to the prosodic system is unclear at this stage and is therefore left for further research to determine. There are two contrastive pitch movement tonemes: a rising toneme and falling toneme. The falling toneme occurs in free variation with a level pitch contour. Rising appears to be linked with lax phonation and falling with tense phonation.

Preliminary Phonological Analysis of Denjongka of Sikkim

This thesis is a preliminary phonological description of the Tibetan-related Denjongka language of Sikkim, India. Because the language has not been much researched and the previous studies have focused on other issues than phonology, the present paper is the first of its kind. The data for this thesis was gathered in Gangtok, the capital of Sikkim, from March to May 2004. I had four language informants from four different locations in Sikkim who spoke different dialects of Denjongka. One of the informants, from whom I recorded c. 900 words and 530 sentences, was used as the main data source for the analysis. First, I will give some ethnographic background information on the people who speak Denjongka. Next, I will discuss first the segmental and then the suprasegmental phonology of the language, which were analysed much in line with American structuralism. I also used acoustic analysis enabled by the Praat-program. Eight vowel phonemes were found. The phonemic status of /E/, however, is still suspect. I present some preliminary evidence for roundedness, frontness and height assimilation among the vowels. In the interpretation adopted in this analysis, there are no diphthongs in Denjongka. Forty consonant phonemes were found: 17 plosives, 7 affricates, 5 fricatives, 5 nasals, 4 liquids and 2 approximants. Denjongka plosives and affricates have four-way aspiration/voicing distinction: voiceless aspirated, voiceless unaspirated, voiceless slightly aspirated (devoiced), and voiced unaspirated. Two voiceless nasals and two voiceless liquids were found. Two phonation types were found to be contrastive, lax/breathy and tense/creaky. Nasalisation and length in vowels are phonemic. Denjongka is an incipient tone language. Tonal phenomena, which involve mainly pitch and phonation type, are complex. Pitch is most of the time predictable from the initial consonant and the phonation type. In some cases, however, pitch is the only contrastive feature between words. The description of Denjongka in this paper differs from the traditional four-tone system, which has been used in many descriptions of Tibetan-related languages. In the four-tone system, pitch is contrastive both in the high and low register, whereas in the present analysis pitch has been established to contrast only in the high register. Lastly, the appendices include a comparative word list of the four Denjongka dialects studied in this thesis.

World Wide Web korpuksena kielitieteellisen tutkimusaineiston haku verkkosivuilta

Tämä tutkielma käsittelee World Wide Webin sisältämien verkkosivujen sisältöjen käyttöä korpusmaisesti kielitieteellisenä tutkimusaineistona. World Wide Web sisältää moninkertaisesti enemmän tekstiä kuin suurimmat olemassa olevat perinteiset tekstikorpukset, joten verkkosivuilta voi todennäköisesti löytää paljon esiintymiä sellaisista sanoista ja rakenteista, jotka ovat perinteisissä korpuksissa harvinaisia. Verkkosivuja voidaan käyttää aineistona kahdella eri tavalla: voidaan kerätä satunnainen otos verkkosivuista ja luoda itsenäinen korpus niiden sisällöistä, tai käyttää koko World Wide Webiä korpuksena verkkohakukoneiden kautta. Verkkosivuja on käytetty tutkimusaineistona monilla eri kielitieteen aloilla, kuten leksikograafisessa tutkimuksessa, syntaktisten rakenteiden tutkimuksessa, pedagogisena materiaalina ja vähemmistökielten tutkimuksessa. Verkkosivuilla on perinteisiin korpuksiin verrattuna useita haitallisia ominaisuuksia, jotka pitää ottaa huomioon, kun niitä käytetään aineistona. Kaikki sivut eivät sisällä kelvollista tekstiä, ja sivut ovat usein esimerkiksi HTML-muotoisia, jolloin ne pitää muuttaa helpommin käsiteltävissä olevaan muotoon. Verkkosivut sisältävät enemmän kielellisiä virheitä kuin perinteiset korpukset, ja niiden tekstityypit ja aihepiirit ovat runsaslukuisempia kuin perinteisten korpusten. Aineiston keräämiseen verkkosivuilta tarvitaan tehokkaita ohjelmatyökaluja. Näistä yleisimpiä ovat kaupalliset verkkohakukoneet, joiden kautta on mahdollista päästä nopeasti käsiksi suureen määrään erilaisia sivuja. Näiden lisäksi voidaan käyttää erityisesti kielitieteellisiin tarpeisiin kehitettyjä työkaluja. Tässä tutkielmassa esitellään ohjelmatyökalut WebCorp, WebAsCorpus.org, BootCaT ja Web as Corpus Toolkit, joiden avulla voi hakea aineistoa verkkosivuilta nimenomaan kielitieteellisiin tarkoituksiin.

Betydelser i barnfamiljsbroschyrer : Systemisk-funktionell analys av den tänkta läsaren och institutionen

This thesis concerns Swedish and Finland-Swedish brochures to families with children, presenting family allowances from the social insurance institutions in the two countries. The aim of the study is to analyse what meanings are conveyed with reference to the conceivable reader and the institution in the brochures. The material consists of information brochures in Swedish from Kela, the social insurance institution of Finland, and Försäkringskassan, the Swedish social insurance agency, issued during 2003–2006. The general theoretical framework is systemic-functional linguistics (SFL) as presented by Halliday & Matthiessen (2004) and Holmberg & Karlsson (2006). The study consists of a quantitative study of the lexical choices of the social insurance brochures. Furthermore, a qualitative process and participant analysis is annotated with the UAM Corpus tool and the results are quantified. Speech functions and modal auxiliaries are analysed qualitatively. The analysis shows that material and relational processes are most common. The relational and verbal processes are used more in the Sweden-Swedish brochures, while the material processes are more common in the Finland-Swedish brochures. The participants in the brochures are the institution, mentioned by its name, and the conceivable reader, directly addressed with “you” (du). In addition, the referent “child” is often mentioned. The participants assigned for the reader are Actor, Receiver, Carrier and Speaker. In the Finland-Swedish texts, the reader is often an Actor, while the reader in the Sweden-Swedish texts is a Carrier. Thus, the conceivable reader is an active participant who takes care of his or her own matters using the internet, communicates actively to the institution and has legal rights and obligations. The institution is visible in the texts but does not have an active role as the name of the institution is mostly used in circumstances. The institution is not often a participant, but when it is, it is Actor, Receiver, Listener and Carrier, expecting the clients to address it. Speech functions are performed in different ways. For instance, questions structure the reading process and commands are realised by modal auxiliaries, not by imperatives. The most common modal auxiliary is kan (can, may), and another common auxiliary is ska (shall, must). Statements are surrounded by subordinate clauses and adverbs that describe situations and criteria. The results of the study suggest that the brochures in the two countries are similar, in particular when produced in similar ways, that is, when the Finland-Swedish texts are not translated. Existing differences reflect the differences in the institutions, the social insurance systems and the cultural contexts. KEYWORDS: Finland-Swedish, Swedish, comparative analysis, SFL, discourse analysis, administrative language, institutional discourse, institutional communication

Substrata Uralica : Studies on Finno-Ugrian Substrate in Northern Russian Dialects

The thesis consists of five articles and an introduction. It treats the problems of the Uralic substrate, most notably, the substrate toponyms, in the Russian dialects of Arkhangelsk region. The articles contribute to the general linguistic discussion concerning the nature of linguistic substrate and the outcome of language shift and to the onomastic discussion concerning the etymologisation and ethnic interpretation of substrate toponymy. Among the questions the articles scrutinised are the following: 1) How may phonetic and morphosyntactic substrate interference be verified? 2) How typical is the transfer of vocabulary in the case of a language shift? 3) How the borrowing of toponymy and appellative vocabulary are connected in the case of a language shift? 4) How does the etymologisation of the toponyms differ from the etymologisation of appellatives? 5) How reliable can the toponymic etymologies be? 6) How can the substrate language be identified? It is found that the substrate interference that can be meaningfully studied, from the point of view of historical linguistics, is predominantly lexical and not related to phonetics and morphosyntax, as presumed in many handbooks. New methods are outlined for the identification of substrate languages separately from the lexical, phonological and typological point of view by using the substrate toponymy as the main source of information on extinct languages. A reliability scale for the toponymic etymologies is developed that helps to identify the kinds of etymologies containing ethnohistorically meaningful information. The study also sheds light on questions related to Uralistics and Slavistics. The most important of these are the following: 1) Which Uralic languages were spoken in North Russia prior to Slavic? 2) When did the Slavicisation of the Finno-Ugrian population take place in the area of the Arkhangelsk Region? 3) What is the significance of the Finno-Ugrian substrate in northern Russian dialects to comparative Uralistics? 4) Are there any traces of pre-Uralic substrate languages in north-eastern Europe? The Finnic substrate languages, already identified by earlier studies, seem to have consisted of two groups, one of which was closest to the southern Finnic. Also, language(s) close to Sámi in some respects though not identical with it where spoken in pre-Slavic North Russia.

Anpassning i språkkontakt : Morfologisk och ortografisk anpassning av engelska lånord i svenskan

The study investigates the formal integration of English loanwords into the Swedish language system. The aim has been to analyse and describe the morphological/morphosyntactic and the orthographical integration of the loanwords. I have studied how the foreign language elements get accommodated to Swedish and which factors are relevant in the integration. The material for the study consists of Swedish newspapers published in Sweden and Finland in paper format (with a focus on the years 1975 and 2000) and newspapers in digital format on the net. The theoretical frame for the study is contact linguistics. The study is based on a sociolinguistic, structural and language political perspective on what language is, and what language contact is. The method used is usage-based linguistic analysis. In the morphological study of the loanwords, I have made both a quantitative and a qualitative study. I have analysed the extent to which loanwords show some indication of integration in Swedish, and to what extent they show no signs of integration at all. I have also analysed integration in relation to word classes i.e., how nouns, adjectives and verbs integrate and which factors are relevant for the result of the integration. The result shows that most loanwords (36 %) do not show any signs of being formally integrated in Swedish. They undergo neither inflectional, nor derivational changes. One fifth of the loanwords are inflected according to the rules of Swedish grammar. Nouns are generally more often than verbs placed in positions in the sentence where no formal adaption is needed. Almost all of the verbs in the material are inflected according to Swedish rules of grammar. Only 3 % of the loanwords are inflected according to English rules or are placed in an ungrammatical position in the sentence. The orthographical study shows that English loanwords very seldom get adapted to Swedish orthography. Some English vowel and consonant graphemes are replaced with Swedish ones, for example a, ay and ai are replaced with aj or ej (mail → mejl). The study also indicates that morphological integration is related to orthographical integration: loanwords that are inflected according to Swedish grammar are more likely to be orthographical integrated than loanwords that are inflected according to English grammar. The results also shows that the integration of loanwords are affected by mostly language structural factors and language political factors.

Konstruktioner i interaktion. : de e som resurs i samtal

This study concerns the most common word pair in spoken Swedish, de e (it is, third person pronoun + copula-verb in present tense). The aim of the study is twofold, with an empirical aim and a theoretical aim. The empirical aim is to investigate if and how the string de e can be understood and described as a construction in its own right with characteristics that distinguishes it from other structures and resources in spoken Swedish. The theoretical aim is to test how two different linguistic theories and methods, interactional linguistics and construction grammar, can be combined and used to describe and explain patterns in languaging that traditional grammar does take into account. The empirical analysis is done within the interactional linguistic framework with sequence analyses of excerpts from authentic conversation data. The data consists of approximately ten hours of recorded conversation from Finland and Sweden. The sequence analysis suggests that the string de e really is used as a resource in its own right. In most cases, the string is also used in ways consistent with abstract grammatical patterns described by traditional grammar. Nevertheless, there are instances where de e is used in ways not described before: with numerals and infinitive phrases as complements, without any complements at all and together with certain complements (bra, de) in idiomatic ways. Furthermore, in the instances where de e is used according to known grammatical patterns the function of the particular string de e is clearly contextually specific and in various ways linked to the micro-context in which it is used. A new model is suggested for understanding and concluding the results from the sequence analyses. It consists of two different types of constructions grammatical and interactional. The grammatical constructions show how the string is used in eleven structurally different ways. The interactional constructions show seven different sequential positions and functions in which the string occurs. The two types of constructions are also linked to each other as potentials. This is a new way to describe how interactants use and responds to a concrete string like de e in conversation.

A sequential analysis of "nú" and "núna" in Icelandic conversation

This thesis is an empirical study of how two words in Icelandic, "nú" and "núna", are used in contemporary Icelandic conversation. My aims in this study are, first, to explain the differences between the temporal functions of "nú" and "núna", and, second, to describe the non-temporal functions of "nú". In the analysis, a focus is placed on comparing the sequential placement of the two words, on their syntactical distribution, and on their prosodic realization. The empirical data comprise 14 hours and 11 minutes of naturally occurring conversation recorded between 1996 and 2003. The selected conversations represent a wide range of interactional contexts including informal dinner parties, institutional and non-institutional telephone conversations, radio programs for teenagers, phone-in programs, and, finally, a political debate on television. The theoretical and methodological framework is interactional linguistics, which can be described as linguistically oriented conversation analysis (CA). A comparison of "nú" and "núna" shows that the two words have different syntactic distributions. "Nú" has a clear tendency to occur in the front field, before the finite verb, while "núna" typically occurs in the end field, after the object. It is argued that this syntactic difference reflects a functional difference between "nú" and "núna". A sequential analysis of "núna" shows that the word refers to an unspecified period of time which includes the utterance time as well as some time in the past and in the future. This temporal relation is referred to as reference time. "Nú", by contrast, is mainly used in three different environments: a) in temporal comparisons, 2) in transitions, and 3) when the speaker is taking an affective stance. The non-temporal functions of "nú" are divided into three categories: a) "nú" as a tone particle, 2) "nú" as an utterance particle, and 3) "nú" as a dialogue particle. "Nú" as a tone particle is syntactically integrated and can occur in two syntactic positions: pre-verbally and post-verbally. I argue that these instances are employed in utterances in which a speaker is foregrounding information or marking it as particularly important. The study shows that, although these instances are typically prosodically non-prominent and unstressed, they are in some cases delivered with stress and with a higher pitch than the surrounding talk. "Nú" as an utterance particle occurs turn-initially and is syntactically non-integrated. By using "nú", speakers show continuity between turns and link new turns to prior ones. These instances initiate either continuations by the same speaker or new turns after speaker shifts. "Nú" as a dialogue particle occurs as a turn of its own. The study shows that these instances register informings in prior turns as unexpected or as a departure from the normal state of affairs. "Nú" as a dialogue particle is often delivered with a prolonged vowel and a recognizable intonation contour. A comparative sequential and prosodic analysis shows that in these cases there is a correlation between the function of "nú" and the intonation contour by which it is delivered. Finally, I argue that despite the many functions of "nú", all the instances can be said to have a common denominator, which is to display attention towards the present moment and the utterances which are produced prior or after the production of "nú". Instead of anchoring the utterances in external time or reference time, these instances position the utterance in discourse internal time, or discourse time.

Konstruktioiden dynamiikkaa

Dynamic constructions Dynamic constructions is a study of the dynamism of Finnish grammar. Dynamism as a linguistic phenomenon is studied on both the diachronic and synchronic level. The study therefore focuses not only on the temporal changes of grammar but also on the conventionality of grammatical structures and on the interplay between closely related constructions. Dynamism is also treated as a phenomenon occurring between different varieties of Finnish. All in all, dynamism is shown to be a key feature of the nature of grammar. The study is set within the framework of cognitive linguistics and construction grammar. Both theories emphasise the role of constructions pairings of form with semantic or discourse function in the composition and development of grammar. The grammar of a language is understood to be a structured inventory of such constructions. I argue that the constructions are best studied in their original contexts of use. Thus, the study is usage-based in a strict sense. The data is compiled from various corpora consisting of both written and spoken as well as standard and non-standard Finnish. The dissertation consists of an introduction and four empirical studies. The four papers examine various Finnish constructions and thereby shed light on different aspects of the dynamism of a grammar. The first paper focuses on the diachronic development of the Finnish temporal converb essa. The second paper discusses a specific construction which includes the essa converb, that is, the mikäs on ollessa construction. Some closely related constructions and their semantic interplay are also examined. The third paper extensively studies what is generally regarded as an ellipsis of the negation verb in Finnish. By using present day Finnish data, I show that the omission of the negation verb is not an instance of mere ellipsis but rather a construction. The final paper combines the themes of the second and the third paper by focusing on closely related constructions of the negative ellipsis construction.