Rintamamiesten muonitus Suomessa sotavuosina 1939-1945

This study analyzes the war-time rations the Finnish soldiers received on the front from 1939 until 1945. The main objective was to determine the contents of the rations and how they affected the soldiers' nutrition and morale. The information concerning food and feeding is mainly based on the official documents found in the Military Archives. Some additional material was from the historical literature, some from memoirs, or from the veterans who personally experienced the front. The documents in the Archives of Military Medicine provided information on the soldiers' deficiencies. During the Winter War, which took place from 30 November 1939 until 13 March 1940, ample food was available. The cold climate caused problems and the fresh food got frozen. However, no severe deficiency cases were reported and the morale was high. By contrast, during the Continuation War, which began in June, 1941 and ended in September, 1944, difficulties were experienced. At the time farming in the country faced serious problems due to the shortage of labour, fuel, etc. Furthermore, importing food was generally not possible. However, importing food mainly from Germany saved the Finns from hunger. In addition, the self activity of the soldiers on the front added somewhat to the food production. But the rations had to be reduced. Their energy values were consequently low, especially for the young men. Food was monotonous and occasionally caused complaints. The main sources of protein, vitamins and minerals were the whole cereal foods. Butter was fortified with vitamin A and vitamin C tablets were also distributed, to compensate for the scant food sources. Only approximately 300 serious deficiency cases required hospital care during the three years time, out of a total of 400 000 soldiers. Feeding the young soldiers during the war (1944 - 1945) in Lapland, which had been destroyed, was problematic but the increased rations also saved them from deficiencies. In spite of the severe difficulties experienced occasionally in feeding the soldiers during the wars, the system worked all the time. The soldiers were fed, the cases of nutritional deficiency and epidemics caused by food were kept very limited and the morale of soldiers remained high.

Multiangular Spectrometry and Optical Properties of Debris Covered Surfaces

Due to the recent development in CCD technology aerial photography is now slowly changing from film to digital cameras. This new aspect in remote sensing allows and requires also new automated analysis methods. Basic research on reflectance properties of natural targets is needed so that computerized processes could be fully utilized. For this reason an instrument was developed at Finnish Geodetic Institute for measurement of multiangular reflectance of small remote sensing targets e.g. forest understorey or asphalt. Finnish Geodetic Institute Field Goniospectrometer (FiGIFiGo) is a portable device that is operated by 1 or 2 persons. It can be reassembled to a new location in 15 minutes and after that a target's multiangular reflectance can be measured in 10 - 30 minutes (with one illumination angle). FiGIFiGo has effective spectral range approximately from 400 nm to 2000 nm. The measurements can be made either outside with sunlight or in laboratory with 1000 W QTH light source. In this thesis FiGIFiGo is introduced and the theoretical basis of such reflectance measurements are discussed. A new method is introduced for extraction of subcomponent proportions from reflectance of a mixture sample, e.g. for retrieving proportion of lingonberry's reflectance in observation of lingonberry-lichen sample. This method was tested by conducting a series of measurements on reflectance properties of artificial samples. The component separation method yielded sound results and brought up interesting aspects in targets' reflectances. The method and the results still need to be verified with further studies, but the preliminary results imply that this method could be a valuable tool in analysis of such mixture samples.

Atomic Layer Deposition of Electroluminescent ZnS, SrS, and BaS Thin Films

The light emitted by flat panel displays (FPD) can be generated in many different ways, such as for example alternating current thin film electroluminescence (ACTFEL), liquid crystal display (LCD), light emitting diode (LED), or plasma display panel (PDP) technologies. In this work, the focus was on ACTFEL devices and the goal was to develop new thin film processes for light emitting materials in ACTFEL devices. The films were deposited with the atomic layer deposition (ALD) method, which has been utilized in the manufacturing of ACTFEL displays since the mid-1980s. The ALD method is based on surface-controlled self-terminated reactions and a maximum of one layer of the desired material can be prepared during one deposition cycle. Therefore, the film thickness can be controlled simply by adjusting the number of deposition cycles. In addition, both large areas and deep trench structures can be covered uniformly. During this work, new ALD processes were developed for the following thin film materials: BaS, CuxS, MnS, PbS, SrS, SrSe, SrTe, SrS1-xSex, ZnS, and ZnS1-xSex. In addition, several ACTFEL devices were prepared where the light emitting material was BaS, SrS, SrS1-xSex, ZnS, or ZnS1-xSex thin film that was doped with Ce, Cu, Eu, Mn, or Pb. The sulfoselenide films were made by substituting the elemental selenium for sulfur on the substrate surface during film deposition. In this way, it was possible to replace a maximum of 90% of the sulfur with selenium, and the XRD analyses indicated that the films were solid solutions. The polycrystalline BaS, SrS, and ZnS thin films were deposited at 180-400, 120-460, and 280-500 °C, respectively, and the processes had a wide temperature range where the growth rate of the films was independent of the deposition temperature. The electroluminescence studies showed that the doped sulfoselenide films resulted in low emission intensity. However, the emission intensities and emission colors of the doped SrS, BaS, and ZnS films were comparable with those found in earlier studies. It was also shown that the electro-optical properties of the different ZnS:Mn devices were different as a consequence of different ZnS:Mn processes. Finally, it was concluded that because the higher deposition temperature seemed to result in a higher emission intensity, the thermal stability of the reactants has a significant role when the light emitting materials of ACTFEL devices are deposited with the ALD method.

Sankarihautaus vapaussodassa : valkoisten kaatuneiden hautaaminen Suomessa vuonna 1918

Civil War Hero Burials the funerals of the fallen White in Finland in 1918 This study focuses on the burial with honours of fallen White combatants during the Finnish Civil War of 1918, as well as on the reasons underpinning the practice. The main sources of the study included the archives of the White army, the Civil Guard organisation and the Church, as well as the newspapers. The genetic method of history research was used. Both the existing tradition of military burials and the ecclesiastical burial culture influenced the burials of those who fell during the Civil War. The first war hero funerals took place as early as the beginning of February 1918, and the first larger-scale collective funerals were organised in Laihia and Vaasa in the Ostrobothnia province, with the latter attended by the supreme civil and military leaders of White Finland. From early on, these funerals assumed their characteristic features, such as the lion flag a design for the Finnish national flag proposed immediately upon the declaration of the country s independence military parades, lines of honour guards, eulogies, salutes and common war hero graves. As a result of the general offensive begun in mid-March 1918, the numbers of the fallen multiplied, so special organisations were established to handle the burials of the fallen. At the same time, the war hero funerals became more frequent and diffused, and the numbers of the buried grew throughout the country. In early March, the advocates of the republican system of government published their appeal in the newspapers, requesting that collective graves for those who fell in the war prepared in every locality. They motivated their request by stating that it was the funerals in particular that had inspired many men to join the ranks voluntarily in the first place, and that the large collective soldiers graves increased the numbers of those who answered the call and left for the front. The Civil Guard organisation arranged the burials of war heroes. The clergy contributed by officiating the religious service and by clearly aligning themselves with the Whites in their eulogies. The teachings of the Lutheran Church suggest that they found the Whites to be the temporal authority instituted by God, and therefore authorised raising the sword against the Reds. Speaking at the funerals with great pomp and sentimental power, the leaders of the Civil Guard and the exponents of the learned classes instigated their audiences against the Reds. The funeral speeches idealised the war hero s death by recalling military history since the times of ancient Greece. Being of the emblematic colour of the Whites, the white coffin assumed a particular importance connected to ideas of biblical purity and innocence. By the end of May 1918, almost 3,300 Whites were buried in the soldiers graves prepared by the burial organisation in some 400 localities. Only about 200 men remained missing in action or unidentified. The largest common graves accommodated over 60 fallen combatants. Thus, the traditions of the 1918 Civil War directly influenced war hero burial practices, which continued into the Finnish Winter War of 1939.

Efraim Syyrialaisen luostari: Tapausesimerkkejä munkkien luostariin vetäytymisen syistä

Tutkielma on kaksivaiheinen. Ensin esittelen apostolisen, Syyrialaisortodoksisen kirkon historiaa ja luostariperinnettä. Toisen osan tarkoitus on selvittää, liittyykö Pyhän Efraim Syyrialaisen luostarin munkkien luostariinjäämispäätökseen yhteiskunnallisia syitä ja mitä muita mahdollisia syitä voidaan löytää. Vertailen lopuksi varhaisia, 400-luvulla eläneiden kilvoittelijoiden Pyhän Efraim Syyrialaisen, Antonius Suuren ja Simeon Pylväspyhimyksen motiiveita nykykilvoittelijoiden motiiveihin, sikäli kuin se on mahdollista. Selvitän myös, onko Efraim Syyrialaisen esimerkillä ollut merkitystä nykykilvoittelijoille. Empiirinen aineisto kerättiin kahtena vuotena v. 2002 ja 2003. Tutkielmaa varten haastattelin kolmea Efraim Syyrialaisen luostarin munkkia. Pääinformanttini oli ko. luostarin seminaarin teologiopiskelija. Heidän kotitaustansa on syyrialaisortodoksinen, voimakkaasti uskonnollinen. Spiritualiteettia harjoitettiin jo lapsuudessa sekä kotona että kirkossa. Tutkielmani näkökulma on uskontohistoriallinen ja uskontososiologinen. Tutkin miten varhaiset- sekä nykypäivän kilvoittelijat ovat suhtautuneet yhteiskuntaan ja miten he ovat integroituneet luostariinsa. Kysymyksessä on nykypäivän osalta laadullinen tapaustutkimus, jonka metodeina ovat teemahaastattelu, jonka yhtenä osana olivat argumentit ja osallistruva havainnointi. Analysoin vastaukset sisällön analyysiä käyttäen. Haastatellut munkit korostivat syyrian kielen ja tradition opiskelun ja sen siirtämisen tärkeyttä seminaariin opiskelemaan hakeutumisensa, ja sen jälkeen munkiksi jäämisensä perusteluna. Pyhän Efraim Syyrialaisen esimerkin munkit kokivat olevan heille hyvin tärkeän tradition siirtäjän. Opiskelemisen ja matkustamisen mahdollisuus munkkina koettiin myös tärkeänä ja siitä syystä luostariin jäätiin, eli yhteiskunnallinen syy löytyi. Sisällön analyysissä ilmeni, että alkujaan koti edusti munkille primaarista tekijää. Sekundääristä tekijää edustivat kirkkoon kuuluva ryhmä, munkit ja luostari. Kodin ja kirkossa käynnin seurauksena tradition ja syyrian kielen oppimisen halu korostui ja niitä haluttiin lähteä opiskelemaan. Positiiviseksi viiteryhmäksi tällöin muodostuivat seminaariopiskelun aikana munkit ja muut luostarin asukkaat. Luostariin jäämisensä jälkeen primaarin tekijän voidaan huomata vaihtuneen luostariksi ja kodin asema on jäänyt sekundaariseksi. Yhteys luostarin ja ympäröivän yhteiskunnan kanssa tapahtui varhaisena aikana pääasiallisesti siten, että ihmiset tulivat kilvoittelijan luokse. Nykymunkit puolestaan käyvät niiden seurakuntalaisten kotona, jotka eivät pääse yhteisiin jumalanpalveluksiin ja auttavat heitä sielunhoidollisesti ja tarvittaessa taloudellisesti. Kirkon patriarkka Mar Ignatios Zakka I Iwasilla ja metropoliitta Eusthatios Matta Rohamilla on paljon yhteyksiä myös islaminuskoiseen väestönosaa Syyriassa. Ekumeenisia yhteyksiä on munkeillakin runsaasti. Ne mahdollistuvat erilaisissa kirkon kokouksissa ja konferensseissa sekä opiskelupaikkakunnalla Kreikassa.

Martta vai Maria? : Aktiivisen ja kontemplatiivisen välinen suhde Mestari Eckhartin mystiikanteologiassa.

Tämän tutkimuksen tarkoitus on selvittää millainen suhde käsitteiden ”aktiivinen” ja ”kontemplatiivinen” välillä vallitsee 1200- ja 1300-lukujen taitteessa eläneen saksalaisen teologin Mestari Eckhartin mystiikanteologiassa. Lisäksi on tarkoitus selvittää mitä tuon suhteen kautta on mahdollista paljastaa Eckhartin mystiikanteologiasta laajemmin. Tutkimuksen metodi on systemaattinen analyysi ja päälähteinä käytetään Eckhartin saksankielisiä saarnoja. Erityisesti analysoidaan Eckhartin Martta-Maria -perikooppia (Lk.10:38–42) käsitteleviä saarnoja Pr.86 ja Pr.2. Lisäksi lähteinä käytetään muita Eckhartin saksankielisiä saarnoja ja muuta tuotantoa siinä määrin kuin niiden mukaan ottaminen auttaa paremmin ymmärtämään saarnojen intentioita. Jo ensimmäisistä kristillisistä vuosisadoista lähtien Luukkaan evankeliumin kertomus Martasta ja Mariasta on ollut aktiivisen ja kontemplatiivisen elämän locus classicus. Siksi tutkimuskysymykseen vastaamiseksi on valittu juuri Eckhartin sitä käsittelevät saarnat. Itse tutkimuskysymyksen valintaan on vaikuttanut puolestaan se, että Eckhart tulkitsee perikooppia häntä edeltävästä tulkintatraditiosta selvästi poikkeavalla tavalla ja nostaa Martan sisaruksista edistyneemmäksi. Tutkimus etenee seuraavalla tavalla. Luvussa 2 avataan käsitteiden ”aktiivinen” ja ”kontemplatiivinen” sisältöä sekä käsitellään kysymystä siitä miten niiden välistä suhdetta on kirkon historiassa tulkittu. Se tapahtuu esittelemällä kolme keskeistä tulkintalinjaa: normaalikirkollinen, monastinen ja mendikanttisääntökuntien tulkinta. Luvussa 3 käydään läpi Eckhartin elämää, tuotantoa ja harhaoppisuustuomiota sekä hänen teologiansa keskeisiä jäsentäviä periaatteita. Koska Eckhart on suomalaiselle yleisölle verrattain tuntematon teologi, aihetta käsitellään hieman laajemmin kuin pro gradu -tukielmassa on yleensä tapana. Luvussa 4 perehdytään Martta-Maria -perikooppiin ja sen pitkään tulkintahistoriaan. Luvussa 5 analysoidaan Eckhartin saarna Pr.86, luvussa 6 Pr.2. Luvussa 7 tutkimuksen tulokset kootaan yhteen. Eckhartin saarnoja analysoimalla paljastuu, että hän tulkitsee aktiivisen ja kontemplatiivisen elämän suhteen häntä edeltävästä traditiosta poikkeavalla tavalla. Eckhartia edeltävänä aikana kontemplatiivisia pyrkimyksiä ja Mariaa oli pidetty kristillisessä kirkossa aktiivista elämää ihailtavampana ja ansiollisempana jo tuhat vuotta. Siihen oli vaikuttanut erityisesti se, että 400-luvulta lähtien aina 1200-luvulle asti luostarit olivat Länsi-Euroopan sivistyksen ja teologian keskuksia. Sen vuoksi juuri monastisia ihanteita – erityisesti kontemplatiivisia pyrkimyksiä Jumalan välittömään katselemiseen – pidettiin pitkään kristillisen elämän ihanteina. Eckhart on kuitenkin osa uutta tulkintatraditiota jossa perinteisen klausuurin rajat pyrittiin laajentamaan luostarin muureista koskemaan koko maailmaa. Tämä uusi tulkintatraditio oli ominaista erityisesti mendikanttisääntökunnille (fransiskaanit ja dominikaanit) sekä begiiniyhteisöille, joissa kontemplatiivinen ja aktiivinen elämä pyrittiin yhdistämään yhdeksi kristilliseksi elämäksi. Tutkimuksessa käy ilmi, että suhteessa laajempiin tulkintatradition linjoihin, Eckhart voidaan liittää luontevasti osaksi näiden sääntökuntien uusia orastavia tulkintoja. Niiden mukaan kristillistä täydellisyyttä ei tavoiteta kääntymällä pois päin maailmasta vaan sitä kohti. Sen on kuitenkin tarkoitus tapahtua niin, että aktiivisuus maailmassa nousee kontemplatiivisesta elämänmuodosta käsin. Toisaalta tutkimuksessa paljastuu myös, että Eckhart menee vielä edellä mainittuja uusia tulkintojakin pidemmälle. Mendikanttisääntökunnissa kontemplatiivisuus säilytti yleensä vielä jonkinlaisen ensisijaisuuden aktiivisuuteen nähden, siihen valmistavana ja sen mahdollistavana vaiheena. Eckhart saarnaa kuitenkin niiden täydellisen ykseyden ja samanaikaisuuden puolesta. Hänelle täydellisyyttä edustaa Betanian sisaruksista Martta joka on ”neitsyt-vaimo”, koskematon ja puhdas, mutta joka kuitenkin samalla synnyttää. Neitsyyden ja vaimouden täydellisen samanaikaisuuden korostaminen nousee puolestaan Eckhartin voimakkaasta sitoutumisesta uusplatoniseen metafysiikkaan. Eckhartin ontologia on ”dynaamista ontologiaa”, jossa kaikki ymmärretään Jumalan yliajalliseksi emanaatioksi. Tulkitsemalla mm. Proklosta, Eckhart esittää, että kaikki luotu on olemassa ensisijaisesti ja täydellisenä ikuisuudessa syntyvässä Pojassa ja vain formaalisesti ja vajavaisella tavalla havaittavassa todellisuudessa. Kristillinen täydellisyys on Eckhartille paluuta tuohon varsinaiseen olemiseen ikuisuudessa syntyvässä Pojassa. Paluu tapahtuu irrottautumalla (abegescheiden) kuvista (bilde) eli hyväksymällä, että Jumala ei ole missään käsitteissä, eikä häntä tavoiteta samoin kuin olemassa olevat asiat tavoitetaan. Sikäli kun ihminen riisutaan riippuvuudestaan kuvista, sikäli hän murtautuu (durchbrechen) takaisin siihen perustaan (grunt) jossa Poika ikuisesti syntyy. Perustasta käsin ihmisen on puolestaan mahdollista synnyttää sellaista aktiivisuutta ja toimintaa, joka ei ole itsekkyyden ja egon tahraamaa suorittamista ja kaupankäyntiä. Tutkimuksessa käy ilmi myös se, kuinka keskeinen rooli ymmärryksen (intellectus) kategorialla on kuvista luopumisen prosessissa ja Jumalan kaltaisuuden realisoitumisessa ihmisessä. Juuri ymmärtämisaktin (intelligere) puolesta ihminen on Eckhartin mukaan eniten Jumalan kaltainen ja osa Jumalan ikuisuudessa tapahtuvaa emanaatiota.

Asunnoton yhteiskunnan jäsenenä : Sosiaalisesti syrjäytyneen osallistumismahdollisuudet ja deliberatiivinen demokratia

Tutkielmassani selvitän, millä tavalla sosiaalisesti syrjäytyneen, kuten asunnottoman, on mahdollista osallistua yhteiskunnan toimintaan ja itseään koskevaan päätöksentekoon. Tutkimuskysymykseni ovat: Toteutuvatko perustuslain 14 § ja 19 §:ssä säädetyt oikeudet, ja ovatko viranomaisten toimet riittäviä edistämään syrjäytyneiden asunnottomien itsenäistä asumista sekä lisäämään vaikutusmahdollisuuksia itseään koskevassa päätöksenteossa. Voisiko deliberatiivisen demokratiamallin avulla vahvistaa syrjäytyneiden yhteiskunnallista osallistumista, ja siten helpottaa asunnottomuusongelmaa. Asunnottomia oli vuonna 2006 noin 7 400 henkilöä. Syitä joutua asunnottomaksi on useita. Valtaosalla ongelmat ovat kasautuneet, minkä jälkeen itsenäinen selviäminen on hankaloitunut. Asunnottomilla on usein monia eri ongelmia kuten pitkäaikaissairauksia, työttömyyttä ja päihteiden väärinkäyttöä. Avioero on yksi keskeisistä yksittäisistä syistä etenkin miehille päätyä asunnottomaksi. Maahanmuuttajien asunnottomuus voi olla seurausta pyrkimyksestä integroitua yhteiskuntaan: Muuttaessa sijoituspaikkakunnalta esimerkiksi ystävien, työn tai opiskelun vuoksi kasvukeskukseen, maahanmuuttajan voi olla vaikeaa saada asuntoa. Näin työn tai koulutuspaikan vastaanottaminen voi pakottaa maahanmuuttajan ottamaan riskin menettää asunto. Sosiaalisesti syrjäytyneeksi voidaan määritellä ihminen, joka ei kykene tai halua sopeutua normaalina pidettyyn elämään yhteiskunnassa. Tämä tutkimuksissa käytetty normaalin elämän määritelmä muotoutuu yhteiskunnan arvojen ja käytäntöjen pohjalta. Syrjäytyminen voi tarkoittaa myös sitä, että ihminen kokee itsensä ulkopuoliseksi yhteiskunnasta. Syrjäytymistä aiheuttavatkin siten toistuvat syrjinnän ja voimattomuuden kokemukset sekä hankaluus vaikuttaa itseään koskevaan päätöksentekoon. Asunnottomien yö –tapahtumassa syksyllä 2007 vapaaehtoiset haastattelivat asunnottomuutta kokeneita. Haastattelut on julkaistu internetissä ja ne ovat vapaasti tutkijoiden, toimittajien ja poliitikkojen käytettävissä. Useissa haastatteluissa asunnottomat kertovat, että he eivät koe olevansa täysivaltaisia yhteiskunnan jäseniä. Haastatteluissa kritisoidaan sitä, että poliitikot ja sosiaalityöntekijät päättävät asunnottomuuden hoidosta sekä asunnottomia koskevista asioista ilman, että asunnottomilla on mahdollisuutta vaikuttaa päätöksentekoon. Turhautumisen tunne paistoi läpi useissa haastatteluissa. Useissa vastauksissa asunnottomat vaativat poliitikkoja ja sosiaalityöntekijöitä perehtymään asunnottomien arjen elämään. Deliberatiivisessa demokratiassa yksi keskeisistä ajatuksista on, että vain sellaiset päätökset, jotka on tehty kaikille avoimen keskustelun ja vapaan tahdonmuodostuksen pohjalta voivat saada hyväksynnän ja luottamuksen kansalta sekä muodostua sitoviksi. Deliberatiivisessa demokratiakäsityksessä on kyse siitä, että asioista päätetään yhdessä, julkisen ja tasa-arvoisen keskustelun sekä harkinnan pohjalta. Keskeistä on myös, että kaikkien, joita päätökset koskettavat, täytyy voida osallistua päätöksiä edeltävään keskusteluun. Erityisesti Young ja Bohman korostavat, että myös sosiaalisesti syrjäytyneellä tulee olla mahdollisuus osallistua poliittiseen keskusteluun ja itseään koskevaan päätöksentekoon. Muun muassa koulutuksen kautta opitaan rauhallinen, asiallinen ja kielellisesti oikea argumentaatiotapa. Ihmisten erilaisuus ja kouluttamattomuus eivät Youngin mukaan saa estää mahdollisuutta osallistua yhteiskunnassa käytävään poliittiseen keskusteluun. Tutkimuskysymykseeni, lisäävätkö viranomaiset toiminnallaan yksilön mahdollisuutta vaikuttaa itseään koskevaan päätöksentekoon ja edistävätkö he yksilön mahdollisuuksia osallistua yhteiskunnalliseen toimintaan, vastaan eivät. Kuitenkin viranomaisten mahdollisuudet edistää perustuslaissa säädettyjä velvollisuuksia ovat poliittisten päättäjien budjetoinnin vuoksi rajoitettuja. Helsingin sosiaaliasiamiehet pitivät huolestuttavana sitä, että sosiaalityöntekijät pakotetaan toimimaan sekä lainsäädännön että ammattietiikkansa vastaisesti. Sosiaaliasiamiesten raportin perusteella voisi päätellä, että ainakin Helsingissä viranomaisilla olisi tahtoa toimia lain velvoittamalla tavalla. Asunnottomista suurin osa asuu Helsingissä ja Pääkaupunkiseudulla, joten tämän perusteella tutkimuskysymykseeni voi vastata yleistäen Helsingin esimerkin pohjalta. Syrjäytymistutkijoiden tulkinnan mukaan syrjäytyminen ja siitä pahimmillaan seuraava asunnottomuus johtuvat osittain ihmisten kokemien vaikutusmahdollisuuksien puutteesta. Deliberatiivisen demokratian tavoitteena on luoda sellainen demokraattinen malli, jossa poliittinen keskustelu ja vaikutusmahdollisuudet olisivat kaikkien yhteiskunnan jäsenten saavutettavissa. Syrjäytymistutkimuksen valossa deliberatiivinen demokratia voisi olla malli, jonka avulla vahvistettaisiin sosiaalisesti syrjäytyneiden kuten asunnottomien vaikutusmahdollisuuksia. Myös asunnottomien haastatteluissa nousi esille toive tulla kuulluksi. Moni kommentoi, että asunnottomuuden hoidosta ja heidän asioistaan päättävät sellaiset ihmiset, joilla ei ole todellista tietoa asunnottomien arjesta ja toiveista. Deliberatiivisen demokratian malli voisi näiden tutkimusten valossa olla keino lisätä osallistumismahdollisuuksia ja vähentää sitä kautta myös syrjäytymistä ja asunnottomuutta.

Efraim Syyrialaisen luostari: Tapausesimerkkejä munkkien luostariin vetäytymisen syistä

Tutkielma on kaksivaiheinen. Ensin esittelen apostolisen, Syyrialaisortodoksisen kirkon historiaa ja luostariperinnettä. Toisen osan tarkoitus on selvittää, liittyykö Pyhän Efraim Syyrialaisen luostarin munkkien luostariinjäämispäätökseen yhteiskunnallisia syitä ja mitä muita mahdollisia syitä voidaan löytää. Vertailen lopuksi varhaisia, 400-luvulla eläneiden kilvoittelijoiden Pyhän Efraim Syyrialaisen, Antonius Suuren ja Simeon Pylväspyhimyksen motiiveita nykykilvoittelijoiden motiiveihin, sikäli kuin se on mahdollista. Selvitän myös, onko Efraim Syyrialaisen esimerkillä ollut merkitystä nykykilvoittelijoille. Empiirinen aineisto kerättiin kahtena vuotena v. 2002 ja 2003. Tutkielmaa varten haastattelin kolmea Efraim Syyrialaisen luostarin munkkia. Pääinformanttini oli ko. luostarin seminaarin teologiopiskelija. Heidän kotitaustansa on syyrialaisortodoksinen, voimakkaasti uskonnollinen. Spiritualiteettia harjoitettiin jo lapsuudessa sekä kotona että kirkossa. Tutkielmani näkökulma on uskontohistoriallinen ja uskontososiologinen. Tutkin miten varhaiset- sekä nykypäivän kilvoittelijat ovat suhtautuneet yhteiskuntaan ja miten he ovat integroituneet luostariinsa. Kysymyksessä on nykypäivän osalta laadullinen tapaustutkimus, jonka metodeina ovat teemahaastattelu, jonka yhtenä osana olivat argumentit ja osallistruva havainnointi. Analysoin vastaukset sisällön analyysiä käyttäen. Haastatellut munkit korostivat syyrian kielen ja tradition opiskelun ja sen siirtämisen tärkeyttä seminaariin opiskelemaan hakeutumisensa, ja sen jälkeen munkiksi jäämisensä perusteluna. Pyhän Efraim Syyrialaisen esimerkin munkit kokivat olevan heille hyvin tärkeän tradition siirtäjän. Opiskelemisen ja matkustamisen mahdollisuus munkkina koettiin myös tärkeänä ja siitä syystä luostariin jäätiin, eli yhteiskunnallinen syy löytyi. Sisällön analyysissä ilmeni, että alkujaan koti edusti munkille primaarista tekijää. Sekundääristä tekijää edustivat kirkkoon kuuluva ryhmä, munkit ja luostari. Kodin ja kirkossa käynnin seurauksena tradition ja syyrian kielen oppimisen halu korostui ja niitä haluttiin lähteä opiskelemaan. Positiiviseksi viiteryhmäksi tällöin muodostuivat seminaariopiskelun aikana munkit ja muut luostarin asukkaat. Luostariin jäämisensä jälkeen primaarin tekijän voidaan huomata vaihtuneen luostariksi ja kodin asema on jäänyt sekundaariseksi. Yhteys luostarin ja ympäröivän yhteiskunnan kanssa tapahtui varhaisena aikana pääasiallisesti siten, että ihmiset tulivat kilvoittelijan luokse. Nykymunkit puolestaan käyvät niiden seurakuntalaisten kotona, jotka eivät pääse yhteisiin jumalanpalveluksiin ja auttavat heitä sielunhoidollisesti ja tarvittaessa taloudellisesti. Kirkon patriarkka Mar Ignatios Zakka I Iwasilla ja metropoliitta Eusthatios Matta Rohamilla on paljon yhteyksiä myös islaminuskoiseen väestönosaa Syyriassa. Ekumeenisia yhteyksiä on munkeillakin runsaasti. Ne mahdollistuvat erilaisissa kirkon kokouksissa ja konferensseissa sekä opiskelupaikkakunnalla Kreikassa.

Juutalaisvastaisuus suomalaisissa aikakauslehdissä ja kirjallisuudessa 1918-1944

Anti-Semitism existed in Finland during the whole period covered by this study. The immoral acts associated with Jews in the articles were mostly regarded as universal habits, qualities and/or modes of action, that is, unconnected with any particular Finnish Jew. Researchers have tried to explain anti-Semitism in several ways. The theory of Jews as outsiders has been a popular explanation as well as xenophobia, chimerical anti-Semitism and the socio-economic models. The main sources of this study have been over 400 Finnish periodicals and magazines, literature and text books published between 1918 and 1944. This vast number of magazines includes those of the army and the civil guard, religion, humour and the papers of the Finnish extreme right. One can see a distinct foreign and especially German influence in the subjects and phraseology of Finnish anti-Semitic writings between 1918 and 1944. Several known Finnish anti-Semitic writers had some kind of link with Germany. Some Finnish organisations and societies were openly anti-Semitic during this period. There had been cycles in the activity of anti-Semitic writing in Finland, obvious peaks appearing in 1918 1919, 1929 1931, 1933 1938 and 1942 1944. The reason for the 1918 1919 activity was the civil rights which were granted to the Jews in Finland, and the Russian Bolshevik revolution. The worldwide depression from 1929 to 1932 seem to be the reason for new anti-Semitic writing activity. The rise of National Socialism in Germany and the influence this phenomenon had in Finland was the reason for the peak during 1933 1938. During the continuation war 1942 1944 National Socialist Germany was fighting side-by-side with Finland and their anti-Semitic propaganda found easier access to Finland. Of the 433 magazines, journals and newspapers which were used in this study, 71 or 16.4 per cent had at least one article that can be identified as anti-Semitic; especially the magazines of national socialists and other extreme right parties were making anti-Semitic annotations. There were about 50 people known to have written anti-Semitic articles. At least half of these known writers had studied at the university, including as many as 10 priests. Over and above these, there was an even larger number of people who wrote under a pseudonym. The material used suggested that anti-Semitism was not very popular in Finland between 1918 and 1944. Anti-Semitic articles appeared mostly in the magazines of the extreme right, but their circulation was not very large. A proof of the slight influence of these extreme right anti-Semitic ideas is that, beside the tightening of policy towards Jewish immigrants in 1938 and the handing over of eight of these refugees to Germany in 1942, the official policy of Finland never became anti-Semitic. As was stated before, despite the cycles in the number of writings, there does not appear to have been any noticeable change in public opinion. One must also remember that most Finns had not at that period actually met a Jew. The material used suggests that between 1918 and 1944 the so-called Jewish question was seemingly unimportant for most Finns and their attitude to Jews and Jewishness can be described as neutral.

Effect of long-wave UV radiation on mouse melanoma: an in vitro and in vivo study

The skin cancer incidence has increased substantially over the past decades and the role of ultraviolet (UV) radiation in the etiology of skin cancer is well established. Ultraviolet B radiation (280-320 nm) is commonly considered as the more harmful part of the UV-spectrum due to its DNA-damaging potential and well-known carcinogenic effects. Ultraviolet A radiation (320-400 nm) is still regarded as a relatively low health hazard. However, UVA radiation is the predominant component in sunlight, constituting more than 90% of the environmentally relevant solar ultraviolet radiation. In the light of the recent scientific evidence, UVA has been shown to have genotoxic and immunologic effects, and it has been proposed that UVA plays a significant role in the development of skin cancer. Due to the popularity of skin tanning lamps, which emit high intensity UVA radiation and because of the prolonged sun tanning periods with the help of effective UVB blockers, the potential deleterious effects of UVA has emerged as a source of concern for public health. The possibility that UV radiation may affect melanoma metastasis has not been addressed before. UVA radiation can modulate various cellular processes, some of which might affect the metastatic potential of melanoma cells. The aim of the present study was to investigate the possible role of UVA irradiation on the metastatic capacity of mouse melanoma both in vitro and in vivo. The in vitro part of the study dealt with the enhancement of the intercellular interactions occurring either between tumor cells or between tumor cells and endothelial cells after UVA irradiation. The use of the mouse melanoma/endothelium in vitro model showed that a single-dose of UVA to melanoma cells causes an increase in melanoma cell adhesiveness to non-irradiated endothelium after 24-h irradiation. Multiple-dose irradiation of melanoma cells already increased adhesion at a 1-h time-point, which suggests the possible cumulative effect of multiple doses of UVA irradiation. This enhancement of adhesiveness might lead to an increase in binding tumor cells to the endothelial lining of vasculature in various internal organs if occurring also in vivo. A further novel observation is that UVA induced both decline in the expression of E-cadherin adhesion molecule and increase in the expression of the N-cadherin adhesion molecule. In addition, a significant decline in homotypic melanoma-melanoma adhesion (clustering) was observed, which might result in the reduction of E-cadherin expression. The aim of the in vivo animal study was to confirm the physiological significance of previously obtained in vitro results and to determine whether UVA radiation might increase melanoma metastasis in vivo. The use of C57BL/6 mice and syngeneic melanoma cell lines B16-F1 and B16-F10 showed that mice, which were i.v. injected with B16-F1 melanoma cells and thereafter exposed to UVA developed significantly more lung metastases when compared with the non-UVA-exposed group. To study the mechanism behind this phenomenon, the direct effect of UVA-induced lung colonization capacity was examined by the in vitro exposure of B16-F1 cells. Alternatively, the UVA-induced immunosuppression, which might be involved in increased melanoma metastasis, was measured by standard contact hypersensitivity assay (CHS). It appears that the UVA-induced increase of metastasis in vivo might be caused by a combination of UVA-induced systemic immunosuppression, and to the lesser extent, it might be caused by the increased adhesiveness of UVA irradiated melanoma cells. Finally, the UVA effect on gene expression in mouse melanoma was determined by a cDNA array, which revealed UVA-induced changes in the 9 differentially expressed genes that are involved in angiogenesis, cell cycle, stress-response, and cell motility. These results suggest that observed genes might be involved in cellular response to UVA and a physiologically relevant UVA dose have previously unknown cellular implications. The novel results presented in this thesis offer evidence that UVA exposure might increase the metastatic potential of the melanoma cells present in blood circulation. Considering the wellknown UVA-induced deleterious effects on cellular level, this study further supports the notion that UVA radiation might have more potential impact on health than previously suggested. The possibility of the pro-metastatic effects of UVA exposure might not be of very high significance for daily exposures. However, UVA effects might gain physiological significance following extensive sunbathing or solaria tanning periods. Whether similar UVA-induced pro-metastatic effects occur in people sunbathing or using solaria remains to be determined. In the light of the results presented in this thesis, the avoidance of solaria use could be well justified.

Carbon balance and component CO2 fluxes in boreal Scots pine stands

The forest vegetation takes up atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) in photosynthesis. Part of the fixed carbon is released back into the atmosphere during plant respiration but a substantial part is stored as plant biomass, especially in the stems of trees. Carbon also accumulates in the soil as litter and via the roots. CO2 is released into the atmosphere from these carbon stocks in the decomposition of dead biomass. Carbon balance of a forest stand is the difference between the CO2 uptake and CO2 efflux. This study quantifies and analyses the dynamics of carbon balance and component CO2 fluxes in four Southern Finnish Scots pine stands that covered the typical economic rotation time of 80 years. The study was based on direct flux measurements with chambers and eddy covariance (EC), and modelling of component CO2 fluxes. The net CO2 exchange of the stand was partitioned into component fluxes: photosynthesis of trees and ground vegetation, respiration of tree foliage and stems, and CO2 efflux from the soil. The relationships between the component fluxes and the environmental factors (light, temperature, atmospheric CO2, air humidity and soil moisture) were studied with mathematical modelling. The annual CO2 balance varied from a source of about 400 g C/m2 at a recently clearcut site to net CO2 uptake of 200 300 g C/m2 in a middle-aged (40-year-old) and a mature (75-year-old) stand. A 12-year-old sapling site was at the turning point from source to a sink of CO2. In the middle-aged stand, photosynthetic production was dominated by trees. Under closed pine canopies, ground vegetation accounted for 10 20% of stand photosynthesis whereas at the open sites the proportion and also the absolute photosynthesis of ground vegetation was much higher. The aboveground respiration was dominated by tree foliage which accounted for one third of the ecosystem respiration. Rate of wood respiration was in the order of 10% of total ecosystem respiration. CO2 efflux from the soil dominated the ecosystem respiratory fluxes in all phases of stand development. Instantaneous and delayed responses to the environmental driving factors could predict well within-year variability in photosynthetic production: In the short term and during the growing season photosynthesis follows primarily light while the seasonal variation is more strongly connected to temperature. The temperature relationship of the annual cycle of photosynthesis was found to be almost equal in the southern boreal zone and at the timberline in the northern boreal zone. The respiratory fluxes showed instantaneous and seasonal temperature relationships but they could also be connected to photosynthesis at an annual timescale.

Distribution of non-biting midges (Diptera, Chironomidae) in subarctic lakes of Finnish Lapland applications in lake classification and palaeolimnology

Climate change contributes directly or indirectly to changes in species distributions, and there is very high confidence that recent climate warming is already affecting ecosystems. The Arctic has already experienced the greatest regional warming in recent decades, and the trend is continuing. However, studies on the northern ecosystems are scarce compared to more southerly regions. Better understanding of the past and present environmental change is needed to be able to forecast the future. Multivariate methods were used to explore the distributional patterns of chironomids in 50 shallow (≤ 10m) lakes in relation to 24 variables determined in northern Fennoscandia at the ecotonal area from the boreal forest in the south to the orohemiarctic zone in the north. Highest taxon richness was noted at middle elevations around 400 m a.s.l. Significantly lower values were observed from cold lakes situated in the tundra zone. Lake water alkalinity had the strongest positive correlation with the taxon richness. Many taxa had preference for lakes either on tundra area or forested area. The variation in the chironomid abundance data was best correlated with sediment organic content (LOI), lake water total organic carbon content, pH and air temperature, with LOI being the strongest variable. Three major lake groups were separated on the basis of their chironomid assemblages: (i) small and shallow organic-rich lakes, (ii) large and base-rich lakes, and (iii) cold and clear oligotrophic tundra lakes. Environmental variables best discriminating the lake groups were LOI, taxon richness, and Mg. When repeated, this kind of an approach could be useful and efficient in monitoring the effects of global change on species ranges. Many species of fast spreading insects, including chironomids, show a remarkable ability to track environmental changes. Based on this ability, past environmental conditions have been reconstructed using their chitinous remains in the lake sediment profiles. In order to study the Holocene environmental history of subarctic aquatic systems, and quantitatively reconstruct the past temperatures at or near the treeline, long sediment cores covering the last 10000 years (the Holocene) were collected from three lakes. Lower temperature values than expected based on the presence of pine in the catchment during the mid-Holocene were reconstructed from a lake with great water volume and depth. The lake provided thermal refuge for profundal, cold adapted taxa during the warm period. In a shallow lake, the decrease in the reconstructed temperatures during the late Holocene may reflect the indirect response of the midges to climate change through, e.g., pH change. The results from three lakes indicated that the response of chironomids to climate have been more or less indirect. However, concurrent shifts in assemblages of chironomids and vegetation in two lakes during the Holocene time period indicated that the midges together with the terrestrial vegetation had responded to the same ultimate cause, which most likely was the Holocene climate change. This was also supported by the similarity in the long-term trends in faunal succession for the chironomid assemblages in several lakes in the area. In northern Finnish Lapland the distribution of chironomids were significantly correlated with physical and limnological factors that are most likely to change as a result of future climate change. The indirect and individualistic response of aquatic systems, as reconstructed using the chironomid assemblages, to the climate change in the past suggests that in the future, the lake ecosystems in the north do not respond in one predictable way to the global climate change. Lakes in the north may respond to global climate change in various ways that are dependent on the initial characters of the catchment area and the lake.

Reproduction and population structure in European aspen

The European aspen (Populus tremula) is a keystone species for biodiversity in boreal forests. However, the future of aspen may be threatened, because large aspens have mostly been removed from managed forests, whereas regeneration and the long-term persistence of mature trees are subjects of concern in protected areas. Aspen is a pioneer tree, and it can reproduce both sexually by seed and asexually by root suckers. Through asexual reproduction aspen forms clones, groups of genetically identical trees (ramets). In my thesis, I have studied the structure of aspen populations in terms of number, size, clonal and demographic properties. Additionally, I have investigated the emergence and survival of seedlings as well as the seed quantity and quality in crosses between the European and hybrid aspen. To study the regeneration and population structure, mature aspens were recorded in old-growth and managed forests in eastern Finland based on a large-scale inventory (11 400 ha). In addition, small aspen trees were surveyed on sample plots. Clonal structure was investigated both by morphological characters and by DNA-based markers (microsatellites). Seedling emergence and survival was studied with two sowing experiments. With crosses between European and hybrid aspens we wanted to study whether elevated temperatures due to climate change would benefit the different crosses of European and hybrid aspen unequally and thus affect the gene flow between the two species. The average volumes of mature aspen were 5.3 m3/ha in continuous old-growth, and 0.8 m3/ha in managed forests. Results indicate also that large aspen trees in managed forests are a legacy of the past less intensively managed forest landscapes. Long-term persistence of aspen in protected areas can only be secured by restoration measures creating sufficiently large gaps for regeneration. More emphasis should be given to sparing aspens in thinnings and to retaining of mature aspens in regeneration cutting in managed forests. Aspen was found to be spatially aggregated in the landscape. This could be explained by site type, disturbance history and / or limitations in seed dispersal. Clonal structure does not explain the spatial aggregation, since average size of the clones was only 2.3 ramets, and most clones (70 %) consisted of just one ramet. The small size of the clones suggests that most of them are relatively young. Therefore, sexual reproduction may be more common than has previously been thought. Seedling emergence was most successful in mineral soil especially, when the site had been burned. Only few seedlings occurred on humus. Survival of the seedlings was low, and strongly dependent on moisture, but also on seedbed conditions. The seeds were found to maintain their germinability longer than has earlier been thought to be possible. Interspecific crosses produced more seeds with higher quality than intraspecific crosses. When temperature was elevated, germination of hybrid aspen seeds increased more than seeds from P. tremula x P. tremula crosses. These results suggest that hybrid aspen may have a significant genetic impact on the European aspen, and this effect may become strengthened by climate warming.

The TRAM flap for breast reconstruction : Studies on perioperative cutaneous blood flow, vasoconstriction, and indices of obesity

Breast reconstruction is performed for 10-15 % of women operated on for breast cancer. A popular method is the TRAM (transverse rectus abdominis musculocutaneous) flap formed of the patient’s own abdominal tissue, a part of one of the rectus abdominis muscles and a transverse skin-subcutis area over it. The flap can be raised as a pedicled or a free flap. The pedicled TRAM flap, based on its nondominant pedicle superior epigastric artery (SEA), is rotated to the chest so that blood flow through SEA continues. The free TRAM flap, based on its dominant pedicle deep inferior epigastric artery (DIEA), is detached from the abdomen, transferred to the chest, and DIEA and vein are anastomosed to vessels on the chest. Cutaneous necrosis is seen in 5–60 % of pedicled TRAM flaps and in 0–15 % of free TRAM flaps. This study was the first one to show with blood flow measurements that the cutaneous blood flow is more generous in free than in pedicled TRAM flaps. After this study the free TRAM flap has exceeded the pedicled flap in popularity as a breast reconstruction method, although the free flap it is technically a more demanding procedure than the pedicled TRAM flap. In pedicled flaps, a decrease in cutaneous blood flow was observed when DIEA was ligated. It seems that SEA cannot provide sufficient blood flow on the first postoperative days. The postoperative cutaneous blood flow in free TRAM flaps was more stable than in pedicled flaps. Development of cutaneous necrosis of pedicled TRAM flaps could be predicted based on intraoperative laser Doppler flowmetry (LDF) measurements. The LDF value on the contralateral skin of the flap decreased to 43 ± 7 % of the initial value after ligation of the DIEA in flaps developing cutaneous necrosis during the next week. Endothelin-1 (ET-1) is a powerful vasoconstrictory peptide secreted by vascular endothelial cells. A correlation was found between plasma ET-1 concentrations and peripheral vasoconstriction developing during and after breast reconstructions with a pedicled TRAM flap. ET-1 was not associated with the development of cutaneous necrosis. Felodipine, a vasodilating calcium channel antagonist, had no effect on plasma ET-1 concentrations, peripheral vasoconstriction or development of cutaneous necrosis in free TRAM flaps. Body mass index and thickness of abdominal were not associated with cutaneous necrosis in pedicled TRAM flaps.

Immediate Breast Reconstructions in the Treatment of Breast Cancer

Breast cancer is the most common form of potentially fatal cancer in women in the Western world. Better understanding of the breast cancer disease process together with developments in treatments have led to improved survival and reduced risk of recurrence, significantly influencing the acceptance of breast reconstructions as part of breast cancer treatment. Skin-sparing mastectomy followed by immediate breast reconstruction has proved superior to other forms of breast reconstruction in terms of aesthetic outcome. However, due to the relatively recent introduction of skin-sparing mastectomy concerns on the surgical and oncological safety of the operation persist. The aim of the present study is to evaluate the surgical and oncological safety of skin-sparing mastectomy and immediate breast reconstruction in a consecutive patient series with ensuing follow-up. Subsequent aims of the study are to examine possibilities of reducing surgical complications of the operation and to assess the feasibility of sentinel node biopsy together with immediate breast reconstruction. The study population comprises a consecutive series of patients having undergone skin-sparing mastectomy followed by immediate breast reconstruction at the Helsinki University Central Hospital between 1992 and 2006. In Study I, the hospital records of 207 patients, operated between 1992 and 2001, were analyzed for surgical complications and recurrences of breast cancer during follow-up. In Study II, 60 consecutive patients were randomized into either conventional diathermy or radiofrequency coagulation groups to examine possibilities of reducing skin-flap complications. Study III consists of 62 consecutive breast cancer patients evaluated for the feasibility of sentinel node biopsy simultaneously with immediate breast reconstruction. In Study IV, hospital records were analyzed to examine local recurrence of breast cancer in a consecutive series of 146 patients with Stage I or II disease. Post-operative complications in Study I included native skin-flap necrosis (10.1%), hematoma (10.1%), anastomose thrombosis (5.3%), infection (3.4%), hernia (2.6%) and loss of one microvascular flap (0.7%). The Stage I and II patients in Study IV had a local recurrence rate of 2.7%, an isolated regional lymph node recurrence rate of 2.1% and a systemic recurrence rate of 2.7%, during a mean follow-up time of 51 months. The Stage III patients in study I had a locoregional recurrence rate of 31.3% during follow-up. Radiofrequency coagulation in Study II did not decrease skin-flap complications when compared with conventional diathermy. An increased skin-flap complication rate in Study II was associated with smoking and the type of skin incision used. In Study III, eleven patients had tumor positive sentinel nodes, nine of which were detected intraoperatively. Skin-sparing mastectomy followed by immediate breast reconstruction is a safe procedure both surgically and oncologically, especially for early stage breast cancer. Tennis racket type incision is associated with an increased skin-flap complication rate. Sentinel node biopsy with intraoperative assessment of sentinel node metastases is feasible in patients undergoing immediate breast reconstruction.