Inpatient hospital care and its costs among type 1 diabetic patients in Finland : a nationwide longitudinal study

Background. In Finland, the incidence of type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) is the highest in the world, and it continues to increase steadily. No effective preventative interventions exist either for individuals at high risk or for the population as a whole. In addition to problems with daily lifelong insulin replacement therapy, T1DM patients with long-lasting disease suffer from various diabetes related complications. The complications can lead to severe impairments and reductions in functional capacity and quality of life and in the worst case they can be fatal. Longitudinal studies on the costs of T1DM are extremely rare, especially in Finland. Typically, in these studies, distinctions between the various types of diabetes have not been made, and costs have not been calculated separately for the sexes. Aims. The aim of this study was to describe inpatient hospital care and costs of inpatient care in a cohort of 5,166 T1DM patients by sex during 1973-1998 in Finland. Inpatient care and costs of care due to T1DM without complications, due to T1DM with complications and due to other causes were calculated separately. Material and Methods. The study population consisted of all Finnish T1DM patients diagnosed before the age of 18 years between January 1st in 1965 and December 31st in 1979 and derived from the Finnish population based T1DM register (N=5,120 in 1979 and N=4,701 in 1997). Data on hospitalisations were obtained from the Finnish Hospital Discharge Register. Results. In the early stages of T1DM, the majority of the use of inpatient care was due to the treatment of T1DM without complications. There were enormous increases in the use of inpatient care for certain complications when T1DM lasted longer (from 9.5 years to 16.5 years). For women, the yearly number of bed-days for renal complications increased 4.8-fold, for peripheral vascular disease 4.3-fold and for ophthalmic complications 2.5-fold. For men, the corresponding increases were as follows: 5-fold, 6.9-fold and 2.5-fold. The yearly bed-days for glaucoma increased 8-fold, nephropathy 7-fold and microangiopathy 6-fold in the total population. During these 7 years, the yearly numbers of bed-days for T1DM without complications dropped dramatically. The length of stay in inpatient care decreased notably, but hospital visits became more frequent when the length of duration of T1DM increased from 9.5 years to 16.5 years. The costs of treatments due to complications increased when T1DM lasted longer. Costs due to inpatient care of complications in the cohort 2.5-folded as duration of T1DM increased from 9.5 years to 16.5 years, while the total costs of inpatient care in the cohort dropped by 22% due to an 80% decrease in the costs of care of T1DM without complications. Treating complications of female patients was more expensive than treating complications of men when T1DM had lasted 9.5 years; the mean annual costs for inpatient care of a female diabetic (any cause) were 1,642 , and the yearly costs of care of complications were 237 . The corresponding yearly mean costs for a male patient were 1,198 and 167 . Treating complications of female patients was more expensive than that of male patients also when the duration of diabetes was 16.5 years, although the difference in average annual costs between sexes was somewhat smaller. Conclusions. In the early phases of T1DM, the treatment of T1DM without complications causes a considerable amount of hospital bed-days. The use of inpatient care due to complications of T1DM strongly increases with ageing of patients. The economic burden of inpatient care of T1DM is substantial.

Type 1 and type 2 diabetes among young adults in Finland : Incidence and perinatal exposures

This study aimed to examine the incidence of young adult-onset T1DM and T2DM among Finns, and to explore the possible risk factors for young adult-onset T1DM and T2DM that occur during the perinatal period and childhood. In the studies I-II, the incidence of diabetes was examined among 15-39-year-old Finns during the years 1992-2001. Information on the new diagnoses of diabetes was collected from four sources: standardized national reports filled in by diabetes nurses, the Hospital Discharge Register, the Drug Reimbursement Register, and the Drug Prescription Register. The type of diabetes was assigned using information obtained from these four data sources. The incidence of T1DM was 18 per 100,000/year, and there was a clear male predominance in the incidence of T1DM. The incidence of T1DM increased on average 3.9% per year during 1992-2001. The incidence of T2DM was 13 per 100,000/year, and it displayed an increase of 4.3% per year. In the studies III-V, the effects of perinatal exposures and childhood growth on the risk for young adult-onset T1DM and T2DM were explored in a case-control setting. Individuals diagnosed with T1DM (n=1,388) and T2DM (n=1,121) during the period 1992-1996 were chosen as the diabetes cases for the study, and two controls were chosen for each case from the National Population Register. Data on the study subjects parents and siblings was obtained from the National Population Register. The study subjects original birth records and child welfare clinic records were traced nationwide. The risk for young adult-onset T2DM was the lowest among the offspring of mothers aged about 30 years, whereas the risk for T2DM increased towards younger and older maternal ages. Birth orders second to fourth were found protective of T2DM. In addition, the risk for T2DM was observed to decrease with increasing birth weight until 4.2 kg, after which the risk began to increase. A high body mass index (BMI) at the BMI rebound between ages 3-11 years substantially increased the risk for T2DM, and the excess weight gain in individuals diagnosed with T2DM began in early childhood. Maternal age, birth order, or body size at birth had no effect on the risk for young adult-onset T1DM. Instead, individuals with T1DM were observed to have a higher maximum BMI before the age of 3 than their control subjects. In conclusion, the increasing trend in the development of both T1DM and T2DM among young Finnish adults is alarming. The high risk for T1DM among the Finnish population extends to at least 40 years of age, and at least 200-300 young Finnish adults are diagnosed with T2DM every year. Growth during the fetal period and childhood notably affects the risk for T2DM. T2DM prevention should also target childhood obesity. Rapid growth during the first years of life may be a risk factor for late-onset T1DM.

On probability-based inference under data missing by design

Whether a statistician wants to complement a probability model for observed data with a prior distribution and carry out fully probabilistic inference, or base the inference only on the likelihood function, may be a fundamental question in theory, but in practice it may well be of less importance if the likelihood contains much more information than the prior. Maximum likelihood inference can be justified as a Gaussian approximation at the posterior mode, using flat priors. However, in situations where parametric assumptions in standard statistical models would be too rigid, more flexible model formulation, combined with fully probabilistic inference, can be achieved using hierarchical Bayesian parametrization. This work includes five articles, all of which apply probability modeling under various problems involving incomplete observation. Three of the papers apply maximum likelihood estimation and two of them hierarchical Bayesian modeling. Because maximum likelihood may be presented as a special case of Bayesian inference, but not the other way round, in the introductory part of this work we present a framework for probability-based inference using only Bayesian concepts. We also re-derive some results presented in the original articles using the toolbox equipped herein, to show that they are also justifiable under this more general framework. Here the assumption of exchangeability and de Finetti's representation theorem are applied repeatedly for justifying the use of standard parametric probability models with conditionally independent likelihood contributions. It is argued that this same reasoning can be applied also under sampling from a finite population. The main emphasis here is in probability-based inference under incomplete observation due to study design. This is illustrated using a generic two-phase cohort sampling design as an example. The alternative approaches presented for analysis of such a design are full likelihood, which utilizes all observed information, and conditional likelihood, which is restricted to a completely observed set, conditioning on the rule that generated that set. Conditional likelihood inference is also applied for a joint analysis of prevalence and incidence data, a situation subject to both left censoring and left truncation. Other topics covered are model uncertainty and causal inference using posterior predictive distributions. We formulate a non-parametric monotonic regression model for one or more covariates and a Bayesian estimation procedure, and apply the model in the context of optimal sequential treatment regimes, demonstrating that inference based on posterior predictive distributions is feasible also in this case.

Cereal alkylresorcinols as dietary biomarkers-absorption and occurrence in biological membranes

Several studies link the consumption of whole-grain products to a lowered risk of chronic diseases, such as certain types of cancer, type II diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases. However, the final conclusions of the exact protective mechanisms remain unclear, partly due to a lack of a suitable biomarker for the whole-grain cereals intake. Alkylresorcinols (AR) are phenolic lipids abundant in the outer parts of wheat and rye grains usually with homologues of C15:0- C25:0 alkyl chains, and are suggested to function as whole-grain biomarkers. Mammalian lignan enterolactone has also previously been studied as a potential whole-grain biomarker. In the present work a quantified gas chromatography-mass spectrometry method for the analysis of AR in plasma, erythrocytes, and lipoproteins was developed. The method was used to determine human and pig plasma AR concentrations after the intake of whole-grain wheat and rye products compared to low-fibre wheat bread diets to assess the usability of AR as biomarkers of whole-grain intake. AR plasma concentrations were compared to serum ENL concentrations. AR absorption and elimination kinetics were investigated in a pig model. AR occurrence in human erythrocyte membranes and plasma lipoproteins were determined, and the distribution of AR in blood was evaluated. Plasma AR seem to be absorbed via the lymphatic system from the small intestine, like many other lipophilic compounds. Their apparent elimination half-life is relatively short and is similar to that of tocopherols, which have a similar chemical structure. Plasma AR concentrations increased significantly after a one- to eight-week intake of whole-grain wheat and further on with whole-grain rye bread. The concentrations were also higher after habitual Finnish diet compared to diet with low-fibre bread. Inter-individual variation after a one-week intake of the same amount of bread was high, but the mean plasma AR concentrations increased with increasing AR intake. AR are incorporated into erythrocyte membranes and plasma lipoproteins, and VLDL and HDL were the main AR carriers in human plasma. Based on these studies, plasma AR could function as specific biomarkers of dietary whole-grain products. AR are exclusively found in whole-grains and are more suitable as specific biomarkers of whole-grain intake than previously investigated mammalian lignan enterolactone, that is formed from several plants other than cereals in the diet. Plasma AR C17:0/C21:0 -ratio could distinguish whether whole-grain products in the diet are mainly wheat or rye. AR could be used in epidemiological studies to determine whole-grain intake and to better assess the role of whole-grains in disease prevention.

Depression and Cognition in Type 2 Diabetes from a Life Course Perspective

Background: Type 2 diabetes is linked to several complications which add to both physical and mental distress. Depression is a common co-morbidity of diabetes which can occur both as a cause and a consequence of type 2 diabetes. Depression has been shown to correlate with glucose regulation and treating depression might prove beneficial for glucose regulation as well as for mental well being. Another complication which might affect diabetes management is cognitive decline. Several risk factors and complications of diabetes might modify the risk for developing cognitive impairment, which is increased 1.5 times among subjects with type 2 diabetes. Type 2 diabetes, depression and impaired cognitive performance have all been linked to low birth weight. This thesis aimed to explore the effects and interactions of birth weight, depression and cognitive ability in relation to type 2 diabetes from a life course perspective. Subjects and methods: Studies I, II and V were part of the Helsinki Birth Cohort Study. 2003 subjects participated in an extensive clinical examination at an average age of 61 years. A standard glucose tolerance test (OGTT) was performed and depressive symptoms were assessed using the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI). In addition data was obtained from child welfare clinics and national registers. A subset of the cohort (n=1247) also performed a test on cognitive performance (CogState ®) at the average age of 64. Studies III and IV were randomised clinical trials where mildly depressed diabetic subjects were treated with paroxetine or placebo and the effect on metabolic parameters and quality of life was assessed. The first trial included 14 women and lasted 10 weeks, while the second trial included 43 subjects, both men and women, and lasted 6 months. Results: Type 2 diabetes was positively associated with the occurrence of depressive symptoms. Among diabetic subjects 23.6% had depressive symptoms, compared to 16.7% of subjects with normal glucose tolerance (OR = 1.77, p<0.001). Formal mediation analysis revealed that cardiovascular disease (CVD) is likely to act as a mediator in the association. Furthermore, low birth weight was found to modify the association between type 2 diabetes, CVD and depression. The association between BDI score and having type 2 diabetes or CVD was twice as strong in the subgroup with low birth weight (≤ 2500g) compared with the group with birth weight > 2500g (p for interaction 0.058). In the six months long randomised clinical trial (study IV) paroxetine had a transient beneficial effect on glycosylated haemoglobin A1c (GHbA1c) and quality of life when compared to placebo after three months of treatment. In study V we found that subjects with known diabetes had a consistently poorer level of cognitive performance than subjects with normal glucose tolerance in most of the tested cognitive domains. This effect was further amplified among those born with a small birth weight (p for interaction 0.002). Conclusions: Type 2 diabetes is associated with a higher occurrence of depressive symptoms compared to subjects with normal glucose tolerance. This association is especially strong among subjects with CVD and those born with a low birth weight. Treating depressed diabetic subjects with paroxetine has no long term effect on glucose regulation. Physicians should be aware of depression as an important co-morbidity of type 2 diabetes. Both depression and the cognitive decline often seen among diabetic subjects are increased if the subject is born with a low birth weight. Physicians should recognise low birth weight as an additional risk factor and modifier of diabetic complications.

Diagnóstico prenatal : su relación con la prevención de enfermedades fundantes de discapacidad

Resumen: La prevención de enfermedades que fundan discapacidad es un tema central en las políticas de salud pública, y en la vida de las familias, dada la contribución de las mismas en la morbi-mortalidad perinatal. La implementación del diagnóstico prenatal genera, entonces, un dilema controversial. Por un lado, se interpreta que el diagnóstico temprano de la patología favorece el mejor desarrollo y adaptación del niño por nacer y sus familias, porque definen el estatuto moral del feto como inherente, por lo que deben recibir las mismas consideraciones morales que el niño ya nacido. Pero por otro, se asumen como medidas preventivas que disminuyen la prevalencia de enfermedades genéticas, al evitar el nacimiento de niños con estas patologías. El niño por nacer no es considerado como persona y la discapacidad se interpreta como un daño para el niño y su familia, y debe ser evitada. Tres conceptos se involucran en este conflicto: el de persona; el de discapacidad; y el de prevención de enfermedades. El objetivo del trabajo es realizar una reflexión acerca de la interpretación de estos conceptos en las diferentes visiones en bioética, que facilite una profundización de la compresión de los mismos y permita aplicar los avances tecnológicos de manera que respeten la condición humana.

O sistema bicameral sob a perspectiva da eficiência e rendimento do processo legislativo brasileiro nas casas revisoras - um estudo na área da saúde

Estudo sobre o processo legislativo e as proposições de iniciativa dos deputados que tramitaram no sistema de revisão bicameral durante o período de 2007 a 2011. Concentra-se na análise do sistema bicameral brasileiro, sob a perspectiva dos projetos de lei de iniciativa parlamentar na Câmara dos Deputados de matérias concernentes à saúde, com o propósito de observar o desempenho legiferante da Casa revisora. O estudo se desenvolveu em dois momentos: primeiro, sob o aspecto da análise das alterações demandadas no Senado e segundo, com a observação do tempo demandado para a revisão bicameral neste sistema de ¿idas e vindas¿ entre as Casas. Foi avaliada a qualidade temática das matérias das proposições e identificada a preferência da demanda parlamentar por projetos de cunho simbólico/burocrático, precedendo a políticas que visam a prevenção de doenças, seguidos de medidas que objetivam reduzir os riscos à saúde. Classificou-se também projetos para regulamentação de acordos internacionais e doações e projetos que dispõem sobre a proteção de direitos na área da saúde.

Management of environmental issues for sustainable fisheries production from aquaculture in Nigeria

Aquaculture depends largely upon a good aquatic environment. The quality of the aquatic medium determines success to a large extent in aquaculture. The medium is particularly vulnerable to excessive abstraction (i.e surface or groundwater) and contamination from a range of sources (industrial, agricultural or domestic) as well as risks of self-pollution. Environmental management options proffered so far include: improvements in farming performance (especially related to feed and feeding strategies, stocking densities, water quality management, disease prevention and control, use of chemicals, etc.) and in the selection of sites and culturable species, treatment of effluents, sensitivity of recipient waters and enforcement of environmental regulations and guidelines specific to the culture system. There are presently conceptual frameworks for aquatic environment management backed by legal administrative tools to create or enforce rational system for water management, fisheries and aquaculture development strengthened by adaptive institutionalisation

As transformações da regulação em saúde suplementar no contexto das mudanças do papel do Estado

Esta tese analisa a trajetória, os desafios e as perspectivas da regulação em saúde suplementar, contextualizados num ambiente de grandes transformações do papel dos Estados nacionais e das relações entre a Economia e a Política no âmbito mundial e no Brasil. As interrelações entre economia e política são a base para importantes mudanças no papel do Estado brasileiro, do arcabouço regulatório e da regulação da saúde suplementar em particular. A tese tem início com o desenvolvimento de uma análise sobre o panorama político e econômico mundial, de modo a identificar suas influências sobre o Brasil e o setor de saúde brasileiro. À luz deste arcabouço analítico, é desenvolvido um detalhamento retrospectivo dos principais normativos que compuseram a regulação em saúde suplementar, editados por intermédio da Agência Nacional de Saúde Suplementar ANS. Para tanto, foi construído um banco de dados que servirá não apenas para a pesquisa da tese, mas para outros trabalhos a serem desenvolvidos posteriormente. O estudo desse material permitiu identificar uma trajetória da saúde suplementar marcada por três diferentes tônicas, que tem se desdobrado a partir da cena das grandes transformações mundiais. As conclusões aqui obtidas sobre a trajetória da regulação foram ainda apreciadas, por meio de pesquisa com todos os atuais e antigos dirigentes da ANS. Adiante, foi realizada uma breve análise dos efeitos produzidos por cada uma das tônicas anteriormente descritas, bem como discutidos os principais desafios que se colocam na ordem do dia na agenda da saúde suplementar no Brasil. É interessante destacar que discussão da perspectiva futura da regulação da saúde suplementar no Brasil se dá sobre um pano de fundo de profundas transformações no plano da política e das relações de hegemonia e poder na esfera global. Por fim, o trabalho aqui apresentado tem a finalidade de contribuir para o desenvolvimento do tema e sugerir aperfeiçoamentos de modo a aprimorar o planejamento, a gestão e a regulação da saúde suplementar, buscando relações público-privadas mais harmoniosas e eficientes no tocante à assistência e promoção da saúde.

The role of probiotics in aquaculture in Nigeria - a review

Aquaculture is beset by many problems especially diseases caused by bacteria as the major deteriorating factors. The use of vaccines and antimicrobial agents have been centered on disease control, but are associated with problems The development of antibiotic resistance among the microorganisms have become a global concern as a result of indiscriminate use of antibiotics. Several alternative suggestions for disease prevention have been on probiotics for its efficacy, low cost, less side effects and accessible to farmers. Probiotics is gaining a high priority in the developed countries with the aim of replacing conventional drugs. The principal bacterial groups tested as probiotic bacteria in culture of shrimps, crabs, oysters, fish and humans are Vibrio, Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Bifidobacteria and several Lactobacilli. Experiments have mainly been conducted with fish larvae, adult fish, crustaceans and animals where significant reduction in mortalities has been obtained. The purpose of this review is to create awareness of the role of probiotics in disease control in aquaculture as alternative to antibiotics.

Sobrevida e fatores prognósticos para o câncer de mama em Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, na coorte diagnosticada entre 1998 e 2000

Este estudo teve como objetivo analisar a sobrevida e fatores prognósticos para o câncer de mama feminino, com ênfase no papel de variáveis relacionadas aos serviços de saúde. Foram analisadas 782 mulheres com câncer invasivo da mama e submetidas à cirurgia curativa, que realizaram tratamento cirúrgico e/ou terapia complementar no município de Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, com diagnóstico da doença entre 1998 e 2000. O recrutamento dos casos foi efetuado a partir de busca ativa nos registros médicos de todos os serviços de saúde que prestam atendimento em oncologia na cidade. O seguimento foi realizado mediante retorno aos prontuários e complementado por busca no banco do Sistema de Informação sobre Mortalidade (SIM), contato telefônico e consulta de situação cadastral no Cadastro de Pessoas Físicas (CPF). As principais variáveis analisadas foram: cor da pele, idade ao diagnóstico, tamanho do tumor, comprometimento de linfonodos, estadiamento, cidade de residência e variáveis relativas aos serviços de saúde, entre outras. As funções de sobrevida foram calculadas por meio do método de Kaplan-Meier. Foi utilizado o modelo de riscos proporcionais de Cox para avaliação dos fatores prognósticos. No primeiro artigo, foi observada taxa de sobrevida específica em cinco anos de 80,9%, sendo identificados tamanho tumoral e comprometimento de linfonodos axilares como importantes fatores prognósticos associados de forma independente à sobrevida pela doença na população de estudo (HR=1,99, IC95%: 1,27-3,10 e HR=3,92, IC95%: 2,49-6,16, respectivamente). No segundo artigo, quando consideradas as variáveis relativas aos serviços de saúde, foi verificada pior sobrevida para as mulheres assistidas no serviço público, embora com significância limítrofe (p=0,05), e para aquelas que não tinham plano privado de saúde, apesar de não significativa (p=0,1). As funções de sobrevida não ajustadas e estratificadas por natureza do serviço de saúde exibiram sobrevida mais desfavorável para as mulheres não brancas e para os casos com nenhum ou menos de 10 linfonodos isolados somente no serviço público, embora com significâncias estatísticas apenas marginais (p=0,09 e p=0,07, respectivamente). Na análise multivariada, foi observado maior risco de óbito nas mulheres que não fizeram uso de hormonioterapia apenas para os casos assistidos no serviço público (HR=1,56; IC95%: 1,01-2,41), independentemente do tamanho tumoral e do status ganglionar axilar. Tais achados sugerem desigualdades sociais e disparidades na prevenção primária e secundária da doença na região estudada, com desvantagem para o serviço público de saúde, enfatizando a maior necessidade de esclarecimento sobre a doença, assim como de diagnóstico e tratamento dos casos em estádios mais precoces. Destacou-se, ainda, o valor de se trabalhar com informações produzidas pelos serviços de saúde responsáveis pela assistência oncológica no país, possibilitando a caracterização do perfil e da sobrevida das pacientes assistidas e fornecendo subsídios aos órgãos competentes do setor saúde local para nortear a adoção de estratégias de prevenção direcionadas ao controle da doença na população avaliada.

Economic assessment of shrimp (Penaeus monodon) hatchery industry in Panay Island, Philippines

Results of the economic assessment of shrimp hatchery industry in Panay Island, Philippines are presented. In order to ensure continuous viability of hatcheries, the critical areas of concern are: financing of operating capital and improvement of facilities; collective marketing efforts through cooperatives; updating of technology especially in disease prevention and control; and diversification strategies.

Citotécnico: análise do processo de trabalho em laboratórios de citopatologia e anatomopatologia no Estado do Rio de Janeiro.

Trata-se de um estudo sobre o processo de trabalho dos citotécnicos que atuam em laboratórios de Anatomopatologia e Citopatologia no Estado do Rio de Janeiro, cujo objetivo geral é: analisar a percepção dos citotécnicos sobre as competências necessárias à execução de sua atividade laboral; e específicos: (1) descrever a atividade laboral do citotécnico; (2) identificar o modo de produção da atividade por meio das inter-relações de trabalho; (3) conhecer e compreender as implicações do trabalho do citotécnico nas ações de controle do câncer. A investigação foi de abordagem qualitativa, de natureza descritiva e social, realizada em três laboratórios de Anatomopatologia e Citopatologia no Estado do Rio de Janeiro, com a participação de 33 citotécnicos. Os dados foram obtidos pela técnica de entrevista semiestruturada, aplicação de questionário, e grupo focal, no período de janeiro a agosto de 2014, e analisados com base na Análise de Conteúdo de Bardin, tendo como unidade de registro o tema. Os resultados revelaram: dos 33 citotécnicos, 73% são do sexo feminino; 34% estão distribuídos em igual percentual para as faixas etárias entre 41 a 50 anos e 51 a 60 anos. Com relação à variável do grau de escolaridade, 43% possuem especialização e 24% concluíram o curso superior. Em relação ao cargo exercido, 73% atuam como citotécnicos e 70% são funcionários públicos. O trabalho do citotécnico tem especificidade única desse trabalhador de nível técnico, que é a realização da primeira análise do exame citopatológico, com ações articuladas e complementares de natureza técnica, de gestão, e educativas vinculadas à equipe, com ênfase nos princípios de prevenção e promoção da saúde. Por meio da escala de avaliação do contexto de trabalho, foram avaliadas as condições físicas, materiais e organizacionais do processo de trabalho. O quesito clareza, na definição das tarefas, foi o maior valorado com 4,7% de média, seguido das relações socioprofissionais com média de 4,0%. Os resultados da análise de conteúdo revelaram: na trajetória da atividade laboral, emergiram quatro categorias associadas à motivação e ao ingresso na ocupação por pessoas de referência na formação, acesso ao mercado de trabalho, busca pelo aperfeiçoamento profissional e aprendizagem prática no trabalho; no conceito de modo de produção, emergiram cinco categorias: responsabilidade de salvar vidas, crítica em relação ao próprio trabalho com qualidade, características físicas, atividades distintas do citotécnico e do histotécnico, visão do trabalho com otimismo; nas condições de trabalho, emergiram quatro categorias: trabalho em equipe e responsabilidade individual, ambiguidade em relação à autonomia, precarização do trabalho, esperança no reconhecimento da profissão. O trabalho do citotécnico é uma ocupação fracamente regulamentada, que se caracteriza por ausência de perfil profissional específico compatível com o escopo de prática real observada no trabalho levando a condições de trabalho precário. O reconhecimento ocorre entre os próprios trabalhadores que se valorizam por serem responsáveis pela promoção da saúde tornando seu trabalho socialmente útil.

Nutrigenómica

Projeto de Pós-Graduação/Dissertação apresentado à Universidade Fernando Pessoa como parte dos requisitos para obtenção do grau de Mestre em Ciências Farmacêuticas