Återupplivning -upplevelser och erfarenheter kring beslutsfattandet om hjärt- lungräddning ur sjuksköterskors, patienters och närståendes perspektiv.

Syftet med föreliggande studie var att beskriva sjuksköterskors, patienters och närståendes upplevelser och erfarenheter kring beslutsfattandet om återupplivning. Vidare var syftet att beskriva hur och i vilken utsträckning patienter och deras närstående gavs möjlighet till delaktighet i beslutet om återupplivning. Resultatet av denna systematiska litteraturstudie visade att sjuksköterskors upplevelser och erfarenheter kring beslutsfattandet om hjärt-lung räddning har utforskats av flera forskare. Trots att både Hälso- och sjukvårdslagen i Sverige samt lagar och förordningar i andra länder anger att patienten har rätt till delaktighet och självbestämmande kring beslutsfattandet om sin vård och behandling, så engagerades patienten och dess närstående sällan eller inte alls. Majoriteten av respondenterna/informanterna i flertalet studier ansåg att hänsyn skulle tas till patientens egna önskemål och vara delaktiga i beslutet kring isättande av hjärt- lungräddning eller ej, men i realiteten fattades besluten oftast utan patienten eller de närståendes medverkan. Flera studiers resultat visade vidare att sjuksköterskor upplevde en rad etiska dilemman när det gäller beslutsprocessen kring återupplivning. Vad gäller patienters och närståendes möjlighet till delaktighet var det betydligt färre studier genomförda som belyste frågan ur deras perspektiv. De studier som fanns visade att patienter och närstående har en önskan om möjlighet till delaktighet, att få ta del av information och fatta egna beslut. Patienternas uppfattning stämde väl överens med hur deras närstående resonerade.

Vårdpersonalens kunskapsläge i hjärtlungräddning samt följsamhet till det svenska hjärtlungräddningsregistret på ett länssjukhus i Mellansverige : En kvantitativ tvärsnittsstudie

Syfte: Att kartlägga vårdpersonalens kunskapsläge samt utbildningsfrekvens i hjärtlungräddning på ett länssjukhus i Mellansverige, samt beskriva följsamheten till att registrera behandlade hjärtstopp till det svenska hjärt-lungräddningsregistret. Metod: Enkätstudie med kvantitativ ansats bestående av 177 respondenter samt även som en retrospektiv observationsstudie. Huvudresultat: Enskilda personer svarade rätt på alla kunskapsfrågorna men som grupp fanns det brister i kunskapen i hjärtlungräddning. Då man jämförde vårdpersonalens kunskap påvisades att i fyra av sju kunskapsfrågor fanns en signifikant skillnad i kunskap mellan den vårdpersonal som har mer regelbunden utbildning, än den som har mindre. De som hade mer regelbunden utbildning hade flera rätt. En signifikant skillnad påvisades även beroende på när man hade haft sin senaste HLR-utbildning, där de som haft sin utbildning nyligen hade flera rätt. Följsamheten hos vårdpersonalen till att registrera patienter som behandlats för hjärtstopp på sjukhus till det svenska hjärt-lungräddningsregistret, kan sammanfattas med att det brister i rapporteringen. Konklusion: Det är viktigt att skapa förutsättningar för frekventa utbildningar till vårdpersonal för att öka kunskap och beredskap i hjärt- och lungräddning, vilket även kan ses som ett kvalitetssäkringsarbete. Ett förbättringsarbete är nödvändigt för att förbättra följsamheten till registreringen.

Sjuksköterskestudenters upplevelse av förberedelse inför hjärtstopp : En empirisk studie

Introduktion: Årligen drabbas cirka 15 000 personer av hjärtstopp i Sverige. Sjuksköterskanhar ett stort i ansvar i omvårdnaden vid hjärtstopp. Sjuksköterskeutbildningen strävar efter attförbereda studenterna inför omvårdnad vid hjärtstopp. Syfte: Att belysasjuksköterskestudenters upplevelse av förberedelse inför att utöva omvårdnad av patienter samband med hjärtstopp. Metod: Kvalitativ design med semistrukturerade intervjuer. Undersökningsgruppen bestämdes av bekvämlighetsurval. 16 sjuksköterskestudenter i termin 6 intervjuades och data analyserades med hjälp av innehållsanalys. Resultat: Resultatet avstudien visade på att informanterna kände en otrygghet i sig själva, och var osäkra inför attutföra hjärt- och lungräddning för första gången på grund av bristande erfarenhet samt för litekunskap. Informanterna upplevde dock trygghet när de hade erfarna kollegor runt omkring sigsamt när de hade upplevt en riktig hjärtstoppssituation själva. Slutsats: Utifrån studiens resultatbedöms att sjuksköterskestudenter inte känner sig trygga i sig själva och i sin förmåga att utföraadekvat S-HLR, samt inte upplever sig vara förberedda inför att hantera en hjärtstoppssituation.

Information och undervisning vid omvårdnad av patient med hjärt- kärlsjukdomar : En Litteraturstudie

Syfte: Syftet med denna litteraturstudie var att undersöka hur information når fram till patienter med hjärt-kärlsjukdomar. Metod: Systematisk litteraturstudie. 15 artiklar, både kvalitativa och kvantitativa, granskades till resultatsdelen efter sökningar genom databaserna Academic Search Elite, CINAHL och PubMed, samt sökmotorn Elin@Dalarna. Artiklarna som använts är från 2002 och framåt. De hade en kvalitet som var antingen medel eller hög efter en granskning med hjälp av granskningsmallar för kvalitetsbedömning.Huvudresultat: Det fanns behov för patienter och deras anhöriga att få information om patientens tillstånd och kommande besvär. Riskuppfattning, riskbearbetning, känslor, personliga värderingar, social press, miljö och ekonomiska förutsättningar bidrog som barriärer för att få informationen att nå fram till patienterna. Patienterna uppgav att det behövdes förbättringar angående information och undervisning. Det fanns många områden där förbättringar kunde göras angående information och undervisning vid hjärt- och kärlsjukdomar. Ibland ges inte den informationen som patienterna tycker att de behöver.

Upplevelser av 0-HLR i hemsjukvård : - Distriktssköterskors och sjuksköterskors perspektiv

Abstact Introduktion: Beslut om 0-HLR kan tas av ansvarig läkare gällande patienter som inte bedöms ha förutsättningar att återfå spontan cirkulation och andningsfunktion vid ett hjärtstopp. Dessa beslut har visat sig utgöra grund för oenighet och osäkerhet hos vårdpersonal, anhöriga och patienter på sjukhus. Dock saknas forskning gällande distriktssköterskors och sjuksköterskors upplevelser av 0-HLR i hemsjukvård.. Syfte: Syftet var att undersöka distriktssköterskors och sjuksköterskors upplevelser av 0-HLR i hemsjukvård samt att identifiera förbättringsåtgärder. Metod: Kvalitativ intervjudesign med beskrivande karaktär utgjorde metoden där elva informanter från ett län i Mellansverige ingick. Data analyserades genom kvalitativ innehållsanalys. Resultat: Av resultatet framkom att det saknas tydliga rutiner för hur 0-HLR ska diskuteras och beslutas om i hemsjukvård. Personliga egenskaper hos vårdpersonal, patient och anhöriga styrde huruvida 0-HLR diskuterades eller ej. Man arbetade med 0-HLR i hemsjukvård fast på ett outtalat sätt och patienter visste inte alltid vad begreppet innebar. Behov att utveckla information och rutiner angående 0-HLR förelåg eftersom det rådde osäkerhet när akuta situationer uppstod.  Konklusion: Det framkom att 0-HLR är ett ämne som behöver lyftas för att undvika osäkerhet och otrygghet hos patienter, anhöriga och vårdpersonal gällande multisjuka patienter. Information, kunskapsuppdatering och rutiner behöver ses över och utformas för att bättre kunna följa med i utvecklingen av den personcentrerade vården.

Long-term clinical outcome after liver transplantation

With transplant rejection rendered a minor concern and survival rates after liver transplantation (LT) steadily improving, long-term complications are attracting more attention. Current immunosuppressive therapies, together with other factors, are accompanied by considerable long-term toxicity, which clinically manifests as renal dysfunction, high risk for cardiovascular disease, and cancer. This thesis investigates the incidence, causes, and risk factors for such renal dysfunction, cardiovascular risk, and cancer after LT. Long-term effects of LT are further addressed by surveying the quality of life and employment status of LT recipients. The consecutive patients included had undergone LT at Helsinki University Hospital from 1982 onwards. Data regarding renal function – creatinine and estimated glomerular filtration rate (GFR) – were recorded before and repeatedly after LT in 396 patients. The presence of hypertension, dyslipidemia, diabetes, impaired fasting glucose, and overweight/obesity before and 5 years after LT was determined among 77 patients transplanted for acute liver failure. The entire cohort of LT patients (540 patients), including both children and adults, was linked with the Finnish Cancer Registry, and numbers of cancers observed were compared to site-specific expected numbers based on national cancer incidence rates stratified by age, gender, and calendar time. Health-related quality of life (HRQoL), measured by the 15D instrument, and employment status were surveyed among all adult patients alive in 2007 (401 patients). The response rate was 89%. Posttransplant cardiovascular risk factor prevalence and HRQoL were compared with that in the age- and gender-matched Finnish general population. The cumulative risk for chronic kidney disease increased from 10% at 5 years to 16% at 10 years following LT. GFR up to 10 years after LT could be predicted by the GFR at 1 year. In patients transplanted for chronic liver disease, a moderate correlation of pretransplant GFR with later GFR was also evident, whereas in acute liver failure patients after LT, even severe pretransplant renal dysfunction often recovered. By 5 years after LT, 71% of acute liver failure patients were receiving antihypertensive medications, 61% were exhibiting dyslipidemia, 10% were diabetic, 32% were overweight, and 13% obese. Compared with the general population, only hypertension displayed a significantly elevated prevalence among patients – 2.7-fold – whereas patients exhibited 30% less dyslipidemia and 71% less impaired fasting glucose. The cumulative incidence of cancer was 5% at 5 years and 13% at 10. Compared with the general population, patients were subject to a 2.6-fold cancer risk, with non-melanoma skin cancer (standardized incidence ratio, SIR, 38.5) and non-Hodgkin lymphoma (SIR 13.9) being the predominant malignancies. Non-Hodgkin lymphoma was associated with male gender, young age, and the immediate posttransplant period, whereas old age and antibody induction therapy raised skin-cancer risk. HRQoL deviated clinically unimportantly from the values in the general population, but significant deficits among patients were evident in some physical domains. HRQoL did not seem to decrease with longer follow-up. Although 87% of patients reported improved working capacity, data on return to working life showed marked age-dependency: Among patients aged less than 40 at LT, 70 to 80% returned to work, among those aged 40 to 50, 55%, and among those above 50, 15% to 28%. The most common cause for unemployment was early retirement before LT. Those patients employed exhibited better HRQoL than those unemployed. In conclusion, although renal impairment, hypertension, and cancer are evidently common after LT and increase with time, patients’ quality of life remains comparable with that of the general population.

Determinants of Coronary and Carotid Atherosclerosis in Finnish Patients with Clinically Suspected Coronary Artery Disease. A Quantitative Angiography and Ultrasound Study

Background. Cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains the most serious threat to life and health in industrialized countries. Atherosclerosis is the main underlying pathology associated with CVD, in particular coronary artery disease (CAD), ischaemic stroke, and peripheral arterial disease. Risk factors play an important role in initiating and accelerating the complex process of atherosclerosis. Most studies of risk factors have focused on the presence or absence of clinically defined CVD. Less is known about the determinants of the severity and extent of atherosclerosis in symptomatic patients. Aims. To clarify the association between coronary and carotid artery atherosclerosis, and to study the determinants associated with these abnormalities with special regard to novel cardiovascular risk factors. Subjects and methods. Quantitative coronary angiography (QCA) and B-mode ultrasound were used to assess coronary and carotid artery atherosclerosis in 108 patients with clinically suspected CAD referred for elective coronary angiography. To evaluate anatomic severity and extent of CAD, several QCA parameters were incorporated into indexes. These measurements reflected CAD severity, extent, and overall atheroma burden and were calculated for the entire coronary tree and separately for different coronary segments (i.e., left main, proximal, mid, and distal segments). Maximum and mean intima-media thickness (IMT) values of carotid arteries were measured and expressed as mean aggregate values. Furthermore, the study design included extensive fasting blood samples, oral glucose tolerance test, and an oral fat-load test to be performed in each participant. Results. Maximum and mean IMT values were significantly correlated with CAD severity, extent, and atheroma burden. There was heterogeneity in associations between IMT and CAD indexes according to anatomical location of CAD. Maximum and mean IMT values, respectively, were correlated with QCA indexes for mid and distal segments but not with the proximal segments of coronary vessels. The values of paraoxonase-1 (PON1) activity and concentration, respectively, were lower in subjects with significant CAD and there was a significant relationship between PON1 activity and concentration and coronary atherosclerosis assessed by QCA. PON1 activity was a significant determinant of severity of CAD independently of HDL cholesterol. Neither PON1 activity nor concentration was associated with carotid IMT. The concentration of triglycerides (TGs), triglyceride-rich lipoproteins (TRLs), oxidized LDL (oxLDL), and the cholesterol content of remnant lipoprotein particle (RLP-C) were significantly increased at 6 hours after intake of an oral fatty meal as compared with fasting values. The mean peak size of LDL remained unchanged 6 hours after the test meal. The correlations between total TGs, TRLs, and RLP-C in fasting and postprandial state were highly significant. RLP-C correlated with oxLDL both in fasting and in fed state and inversely with LDL size. In multivariate analysis oxLDL was a determinant of severity and extent of CAD. Neither total TGs, TRLs, oxLDL, nor LDL size were linked to carotid atherosclerosis. Insulin resistance (IR) was associated with an increased severity and extent of coronary atherosclerosis and seemed to be a stronger predictor of coronary atherosclerosis in the distal parts of the coronary tree than in the proximal and mid parts. In the multivariate analysis IR was a significant predictor of the severity of CAD. IR did not correlate with carotid IMT. Maximum and mean carotid IMT were higher in patients with the apoE4 phenotype compared with subjects with the apoE3 phenotype. Likewise, patients with the apoE4 phenotype had a more severe and extensive CAD than individuals with the apoE3 phenotype. Conclusions. 1) There is an association between carotid IMT and the severity and extent of CAD. Carotid IMT seems to be a weaker predictor of coronary atherosclerosis in the proximal parts of the coronary tree than in the mid and distal parts. 2) PON1 activity has an important role in the pathogenesis of coronary atherosclerosis. More importantly, the study illustrates how the protective role of HDL could be modulated by its components such that equivalent serum concentrations of HDL cholesterol may not equate with an equivalent, potential protective capacity. 3) RLP-C in the fasting state is a good marker of postprandial TRLs. Circulating oxLDL increases in CAD patients postprandially. The highly significant positive correlation between postprandial TRLs and postprandial oxLDL suggests that the postprandial state creates oxidative stress. Our findings emphasize the fundamental role of LDL oxidation in the development of atherosclerosis even after inclusion of conventional CAD risk factors. 4) Disturbances in glucose metabolism are crucial in the pathogenesis of coronary atherosclerosis. In fact, subjects with IR are comparable with diabetic subjects in terms of severity and extent of CAD. 5) ApoE polymorphism is involved in the susceptibility to both carotid and coronary atherosclerosis.

Hematopoietic Stem Cell Development and Transcriptional Regulation

The continuous production of blood cells, a process termed hematopoiesis, is sustained throughout the lifetime of an individual by a relatively small population of cells known as hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). HSCs are unique cells characterized by their ability to self-renew and give rise to all types of mature blood cells. Given their high proliferative potential, HSCs need to be tightly regulated on the cellular and molecular levels or could otherwise turn malignant. On the other hand, the tight regulatory control of HSC function also translates into difficulties in culturing and expanding HSCs in vitro. In fact, it is currently not possible to maintain or expand HSCs ex vivo without rapid loss of self-renewal. Increased knowledge of the unique features of important HSC niches and of key transcriptional regulatory programs that govern HSC behavior is thus needed. Additional insight in the mechanisms of stem cell formation could enable us to recapitulate the processes of HSC formation and self-renewal/expansion ex vivo with the ultimate goal of creating an unlimited supply of HSCs from e.g. human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) or induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS) to be used in therapy. We thus asked: How are hematopoietic stem cells formed and in what cellular niches does this happen (Papers I, II)? What are the molecular mechanisms that govern hematopoietic stem cell development and differentiation (Papers III, IV)? Importantly, we could show that placenta is a major fetal hematopoietic niche that harbors a large number of HSCs during midgestation (Paper I)(Gekas et al., 2005). In order to address whether the HSCs found in placenta were formed there we utilized the Runx1-LacZ knock-in and Ncx1 knockout mouse models (Paper II). Importantly, we could show that HSCs emerge de novo in the placental vasculature in the absence of circulation (Rhodes et al., 2008). Furthermore, we could identify defined microenvironmental niches within the placenta with distinct roles in hematopoiesis: the large vessels of the chorioallantoic mesenchyme serve as sites of HSC generation whereas the placental labyrinth is a niche supporting HSC expansion (Rhodes et al., 2008). Overall, these studies illustrate the importance of distinct milieus in the emergence and subsequent maturation of HSCs. To ensure proper function of HSCs several regulatory mechanisms are in place. The microenvironment in which HSCs reside provides soluble factors and cell-cell interactions. In the cell-nucleus, these cell-extrinsic cues are interpreted in the context of cell-intrinsic developmental programs which are governed by transcription factors. An essential transcription factor for initiation of hematopoiesis is Scl/Tal1 (stem cell leukemia gene/T-cell acute leukemia gene 1). Loss of Scl results in early embryonic death and total lack of all blood cells, yet deactivation of Scl in the adult does not affect HSC function (Mikkola et al., 2003b. In order to define the temporal window of Scl requirement during fetal hematopoietic development, we deactivated Scl in all hematopoietic lineages shortly after hematopoietic specification in the embryo . Interestingly, maturation, expansion and function of fetal HSCs was unaffected, and, as in the adult, red blood cell and platelet differentiation was impaired (Paper III)(Schlaeger et al., 2005). These findings highlight that, once specified, the hematopoietic fate is stable even in the absence of Scl and is maintained through mechanisms that are distinct from those required for the initial fate choice. As the critical downstream targets of Scl remain unknown, we sought to identify and characterize target genes of Scl (Paper IV). We could identify transcription factor Mef2C (myocyte enhancer factor 2 C) as a novel direct target gene of Scl specifically in the megakaryocyte lineage which largely explains the megakaryocyte defect observed in Scl deficient mice. In addition, we observed an Scl-independent requirement of Mef2C in the B-cell compartment, as loss of Mef2C leads to accelerated B-cell aging (Gekas et al. Submitted). Taken together, these studies identify key extracellular microenvironments and intracellular transcriptional regulators that dictate different stages of HSC development, from emergence to lineage choice to aging.

The impact of the metabolic syndrome and parental risk factors in patients with type 1 diabetes

Background: One-third of patients with type 1 diabetes develop diabetic complications, such as diabetic nephropathy. The diabetic complications are related to a high mortality from cardiovascular disease, impose a great burden on the health care system, and reduce the health-related quality of life of patients. Aims: This thesis assessed, whether parental risk factors identify subjects at a greater risk of developing diabetic complications. Another aim was to evaluate the impact of a parental history of type 2 diabetes on patients with type 1 diabetes. A third aim was to assess the role of the metabolic syndrome in patients with type 1 diabetes, both its presence and its predictive value with respect to complications. Subjects and methods: This study is part of the ongoing nationwide Finnish Diabetic Nephropathy (FinnDiane) Study. The study was initiated in 1997, and, thus far, 4,800 adult patients with type 1 diabetes have been recruited. Since 2004, follow-up data have also been collected in parallel to the recruitment of new patients. Studies I to III have a cross-sectional design, whereas Study IV has a prospective design. Information on parents was obtained from the patients with type 1 diabetes by a questionnaire. Results: Clustering of parental hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes (type 1 and type 2) was associated with diabetic nephropathy in patients with type 1 diabetes, as was paternal mortality. A parental history of type 2 diabetes was associated with a later onset of type 1 diabetes, a higher prevalence of the metabolic syndrome, and a metabolic profile related to insulin resistance, despite no difference in the distribution of human leukocyte antigen genotypes or the presence of diabetic complications. A maternal history of type 2 diabetes, seemed to contribute to a worse metabolic profile in the patients with type 1 diabetes than a paternal history. The metabolic syndrome was a frequent finding in patients with type 1 diabetes, observed in 38% of males and 40% of females. The prevalence increased with worsening of the glycemic control and more severe renal disease. The metabolic syndrome was associated with a 3.75-fold odds ratio for diabetic nephropathy, and all of the components of the syndrome were independently associated with diabetic nephropathy. The metabolic syndrome, independent of diabetic nephropathy, increased the risk of cardiovascular events and cardiovascular and diabetes-related mortality over a 5.5-year follow-up. With respect to progression of diabetic nephropathy, the role of the metabolic syndrome was less clear, playing a strong role only in the progression from macroalbuminuria to end-stage renal disease. Conclusions: Familial factors and the metabolic syndrome play an important role in patients with type 1 diabetes. Assessment of these factors is an easily applicable tool in clinical practice to identify patients at a greater risk of developing diabetic complications.

Arterial stiffness and cardiovascular risk factors

Background: As the human body ages, the arteries gradually lose their elasticity and become stiffer. Although inevitable, this process is influenced by hereditary and environmental factors. Interestingly, many classic cardiovascular risk factors affect the arterial stiffness. During the last decade, accelerated arterial stiffening has been recognized as an important cardiovascular risk factor associated with increased mortality as well as with several chronic disorders. Objectives: This thesis examines the role of arterial stiffness in relation to variations in a physiological feature in healthy individuals. In addition, the effect on arterial stiffness of an acute transitory disease and the effect of a chronic disease are studied. Furthermore, the thesis analyzes the prognostic value of a marker of arterial stiffness in individuals with chronic disease. Finally, a potential method of reducing arterial stiffness is evaluated. Material and study design: The first study examines pulse wave reflection and pulse wave velocity in relation to muscle fibre distribution in healthy middle-aged men. In the second study, pulse wave reflection in women with current or previous preeclampsia is compared to a healthy control group. The effect of aging on the different blood pressure indices in patients with type 1 diabetes is examined in the third study, whereas the fourth paper studies the relation between these blood pressure indices and mortality in type 2 diabetes. The fifth study evaluates how intake of a fermented milk product containing bioactive peptides affects pulse wave reflection in individuals with mild hypertension. Results and conclusions: Muscle fibre type distribution is not an independent determinant of arterial stiffness in middle-aged males. Pulse wave reflection is increased in pregnant women with preeclampsia, but not in previously preeclamptic non-pregnant women. Patients with type 1 diabetes have a higher and more rapidly increasing pulse pressure, which suggests accelerated arterial stiffening. In elderly type 2 diabetic patients, very high and very low levels of pulse pressure are associated with higher mortality. Intake of milk-derived bioactive peptides reduces pulse wave reflection in hypertensive males but not in hypertensive females.

The effect of blood glucose on the vasculature in young patients with type 1 diabetes

Background. Patients with type 1 diabetes are at markedly increased risk of vascular complications. In this respect it is noteworthy that hyperglycaemia that is shown to cause endothelial dysfunction, has clearly been shown to be a risk factor for diabetic microvascular disease. However, the role of hyperglycaemia as a predictor of macrovascular disease is not as clear as for microvascular disease, although type 1 diabetes itself increases the risk of cardiovascular disease substantially. Furthermore, it is not known whether it is the short-term or the long-term hyperglycaemia that confers possible risk. In addition, the role of glucose variability as a predictor of complications is to a large extent unexplored. Interestingly, although hyperglycaemia increases the risk of pre-eclampsia in women with type 1 diabetes, it is unclear whether pre-eclampsia, a condition characterized by endothelial dysfunction, is also a risk factor for microvascular complication, diabetic nephropathy. Aims. This doctoral thesis investigated the role of acute hyperglycaemia and glucose variability on arterial stiffness and cardiac ventricular repolarisation in male patients with type 1 diabetes as well as in healthy male volunteers. The thesis also explored whether acute hyperglycaemia leads to an inflammatory response, endothelial dysfunction and oxidative stress. Finally, the role of pre-eclampsia, as a predictor of diabetic nephropathy in type 1 diabetes was examined. Subjects and methods. In order to study glucose variability and the daily glycaemic control, 22 male patients with type 1 diabetes, without any diabetic complications, were monitored for 72-h with a continuous glucose monitoring system. At the end of the 72-h glucose monitoring period a 2-h hyperglycaemic clamp was performed both in the patients with type 1 diabetes and in the 13 healthy age-matched male volunteers. Blood pressure, arterial stiffness and QT time were measured to detect vascular changes during acute hyperglycaemia. Blood samples were drawn at baseline (normoglycaemia) and during acute hyperglycaemia. In another patient sample, women with type 1 diabetes were followed during their pregnancy and restudied eleven years later to elucidate the role of pre-eclampsia and pregnancy-induced hypertension as potential risk factors for diabetic nephropathy. Results and conclusions. Acute hyperglycaemia increased arterial stiffness as well as caused a disturbance in the myocardial ventricular repolarisation, emphasizing the importance of a strict daily glycaemic control in male patients with type 1 diabetes. An inflammatory response was also observed during acute hyperglycaemia. Furthermore, a high mean daily blood glucose but not glucose variability per se is associated with arterial stiffness. While glucose variability in turn correlated with central blood pressure, the results suggest that the glucose metabolism is closely linked to the haemodynamic changes in male patients with uncomplicated type 1 diabetes. Notably, the results are not directly applicable to females. Finally, a history of a pre-eclamptic pregnancy, but not pregnancy-induced hypertension was associated with increased risk of diabetic nephropathy.

Cystatin C, a measure of renal function, as prognostic risk marker in acute heart failure : Studies on the cardiorenal syndrome

Acute heart failure (AHF) is a complex syndrome associated with exceptionally high mortality. Still, characteristics and prognostic factors of contemporary AHF patients have been inadequately studied. Kidney function has emerged as a very powerful prognostic risk factor in cardiovascular disease. This is believed to be the consequence of an interaction between the heart and kidneys, also termed the cardiorenal syndrome, the mechanisms of which are not fully understood. Renal insufficiency is common in heart failure and of particular interest for predicting outcome in AHF. Cystatin C (CysC) is a marker of glomerular filtration rate with properties making it a prospective alternative to the currently used measure creatinine for assessment of renal function. The aim of this thesis is to characterize a representative cohort of patients hospitalized for AHF and to identify risk factors for poor outcome in AHF. In particular, the role of CysC as a marker of renal function is evaluated, including examination of the value of CysC as a predictor of mortality in AHF. The FINN-AKVA (Finnish Acute Heart Failure) study is a national prospective multicenter study conducted to investigate the clinical presentation, aetiology and treatment of, as well as concomitant diseases and outcome in, AHF. Patients hospitalized for AHF were enrolled in the FINN-AKVA study, and mortality was followed for 12 months. The mean age of patients with AHF is 75 years and they frequently have both cardiovascular and non-cardiovascular co-morbidities. The mortality after hospitalization for AHF is high, rising to 27% by 12 months. The present study shows that renal dysfunction is very common in AHF. CysC detects impaired renal function in forty percent of patients. Renal function, measured by CysC, is one of the strongest predictors of mortality independently of other prognostic risk markers, such as age, gender, co-morbidities and systolic blood pressure on admission. Moreover, in patients with normal creatinine values, elevated CysC is associated with a marked increase in mortality. Acute kidney injury, defined as an increase in CysC within 48 hours of hospital admission, occurs in a significant proportion of patients and is associated with increased short- and mid-term mortality. The results suggest that CysC can be used for risk stratification in AHF. Markers of inflammation are elevated both in heart failure and in chronic kidney disease, and inflammation is one of the mechanisms thought to mediate heart-kidney interactions in the cardiorenal syndrome. Inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) correlate very differently to markers of cardiac stress and renal function. In particular, TNF-α showed a robust correlation to CysC, but was not associated with levels of NT-proBNP, a marker of hemodynamic cardiac stress. Compared to CysC, the inflammatory markers were not strongly related to mortality in AHF. In conclusion, patients with AHF are elderly with multiple co-morbidities, and renal dysfunction is very common. CysC demonstrates good diagnostic properties both in identifying impaired renal function and acute kidney injury in patients with AHF. CysC, as a measure of renal function, is also a powerful prognostic marker in AHF. CysC shows promise as a marker for assessment of kidney function and risk stratification in patients hospitalized for AHF.

Caracterização fenotípica e molecular de amostras de Enterococcus isoladas em um hospital universitário da cidade do Rio de Janeiro

Os enterococos estão amplamente distribuídos no ambiente. Nos seres humanos, compõem a microbiota do trato gastrintestinal, da cavidade oral e do trato geniturinário. Nas últimas décadas, esses microrganismos se tornaram importantes agentes etiológicos de infecções hospitalares. Uma característica marcante desses microrganismos é a resistência intrínseca a vários antimicrobianos utilizados habitualmente no tratamento de infecções, além de alguns fatores que tem sido relacionado à virulência de enterococos. Este estudo investigou a presença de enterococos em amostras de infecção e colonização de pacientes hospitalizados, profissionais de saúde, dietas hospitalares e manipuladores de alimentos. Foram analisadas 276 amostras de colonização, de quadros de infecção, dietas orais e manipuladores de alimento. Não foram recuperadas amostras dos profissionais de saúde. Todas as amostras foram submetidas a testes convencionais de caracterização do gênero e espécies. Testes de susceptibilidade aos antimicrobianos foram empregados pelo método de disco difusão, além da CIM para vancomicina e teicoplanina. A produção de biofilme e a expressão da gelatinase também foram avaliadas. Os genes de resistência a gentamicina, estreptomicina e vancomicina e os genes de virulência cylA, esp e fsr foram pesquisados pela técnica de PCR. O polimorfismo genético foi determinado por PFGE. A espécie E. faecalis foi a prevalente nas amostras isoladas de colonização e infecção (42,2% e 81,9%, respectivamente). E. casseliflavus (58,9%) foi a mais freqüente dentre as amostras das dietas hospitalares e E. faecium (46,7%) de manipuladores. Dentre as amostras de colonização as maiores taxas de resistência foram observadas para eritromicina (76,3%) e ciprofloxacina (53,9%). Dentre as amostras de infecção, >70% foram resistentes a eritromicina, ciprofloxacina e tetraciclina. Resistência a níveis elevados de gentamcina (HLR-GE) e estreptomicina (HLR-ST) foi detectada em 24,6% e 20,4% das amostras, respectivamente, e todas foram portadoras dos respectivos genes. A maioria das amostras de colonização (52,6%) e infecção (55,7%) foram multirresistentes. A taxa para resistência a níveis elevados de vancomicina foi de 5,2% e todas eram portadoras do gene vanA. Em relação a formação de biofilme, 70,2% foram produtoras, com uma maior freqüência dentre as de infecção. A expressão de gelatinase foi detectada em 28,9% e 44,3% das amostras de colonização e infecção, respectivamente. Nenhuma das amostras isoladas das dietas hospitalares e de manipuladores expressou gelatinase. Nas amostras pertencentes as espécies E. faecalis e E. faecium (n=109) 16,5%, 51,4% e 48,6% apresentaram produtos de amplificação referentes aos genes cylA, esp e fsr, respectivamente. A análise do polimorfismo genético revelou uma extensa diversidade dentre as amostras pertencentes as espécies E. faecalis e E. faecium, não acarretando um perfil eletroforético prevalente. Entretanto, foi observado um perfil único dentre as amostras de E. gallinarum resistentes a vancomicina (vanA). Este estudo mostrou que amostras de enterococos isoladas de diferentes fontes, não só de quadros infecciosos, podem representar um risco para a população, apontando para uma maior reflexão quanto ao papel desses microrganismos nas infecções humanas, particularmente no ambiente hospitalar.