Aasian toinen todellisuus - Suomen suurlähetystöjen monikulttuurisen johtamisen haasteet

Monikulttuurinen johtaminen on globalisaation ja nopean kansainvälistymisen takia erittäin ajankohtainen aihe. Suomessa sitä on kuitenkin tutkittu vasta vähän. Tämän tutkimuksen tarkoituksena on tutkia Suomen suurlähetystöjenmonikulttuurista johtamista Aasian eri kohdemaissa ja kulttuureissa sekä ottaa osaa tieteelliseen keskusteluun monikulttuurisesta johtamisesta. Tutkimuksen kohdemaiksi on valittu neljä Aasian maata, jotka ovat tällä hetkellä hyvin ajankohtaisia nopean talouskasvunsa takia. Itä-Aasiasta mukana ovat Etelä-Korea (Korean tasavalta), Japani ja Kiinan kansantasavalta sekä Kaakkois-Aasiasta tutkimuksessa mukana on Malesia. Tämä tutkimus on laadullinen tutkimus, jonka aineisto koostuu kahdesta laadulliselle tutkimukselle poikkeuksellisesta avoimesta kyselystä, jotka on lähetetty edellä mainittujen maiden suurlähettiläille eri kohdemaihin. Analyysissä menetelmänä on käytetty teemoittelua, jonka avulla on voitu jäsentää saatua aineistoa. Näin teemojen vertailu on myös ollut helpompaa. Tutkimuksen tuloksista kävi ilmi, että monikulttuurinen johtaminen on erittäin haasteellista kansallisten kulttuurien eroista johtuen. Arvot ovat hyvin keskeisessä osassa kulttuuria tutkittaessa ja niiden erot voivat vaikeuttaa kanssakäymistä eri kulttuureista tulevien ihmisten kesken, koska asioiden merkitykset jäävät usein arvoituksiksi vieraasta kulttuurista tuleville henkilöille. Kansallisen kulttuurin tekijöistä kieli, arvot ja uskonto ovat merkittäviä monikulttuurisen johtamisen kannalta. Tutkimuksesta kävi myös ilmi, että Itä- Aasian maissa konfutselaisuudella on suuri merkitys yhteiskuntafilosofiana. Se on muokannut yhteiskunnan arvoja, tapoja ja rakenteita. Vanhempien ja ylempiarvoisten ihmisten arvostus ja vahvasti hierarkkinen yhteiskuntarakenne ovat tyypillisiä konfutselaisuuden piirteitä. Kulttuurin ulottuvuuksista merkityksellisempiä tämän tutkimuksen kannalta ovat yksilöllisyys vs. kollektiivisuus, valtaetäisyys ja konfutselaisuuden dynamiikka (lyhyen vs. pitkän aikavälin suuntautuminen). Kaikki tämän tutkimuksen maat ovat kollektiivisia sekä niissä valtaetäisyys on myös korkea. Tämä tuo haasteita monikulttuuriseen johtamiseen Suomen suurlähetystöissä, koska suomalainen kulttuuri on useimpien länsimaiden tapaan yksilöllinen ja valtaetäisyys on suhteellisen matala. Konfutselaisuuden dynamiikka vaikuttaa lähinnä vain Itä-Aasian maissa tuoden mukanaan erittäin vahvan hierarkian, jota ei voi sivuuttaa. Tutkimuksen aineistoa käsitellään näytenäkökulmasta, eikä sitä ei voisuoraan verrata muihin organisaatioihin tai kulttuureihin. Toisaalta jokaisen kansallisen kulttuurin ihmiset toimivat tietyllä tavalla tietyssä kontekstissa, riippumatta siitä, missä organisaatiossa he työskentelevät. Kulttuuri ohjaa ihmisen toimintaa ja kansallinen kulttuuri on yrityskulttuuria voimakkaampi tekijä.

Differences in seasonal price patterns among second home rentals and hotels: Empirical evidence and practical implications

Hotels and second home rentals are two of the most important tourist accommodation options in Spain. In terms of seasonality, almost all previous studies have analysed tourism demand from the point of view either of total arrivals or the number of tourists lodged in a single accommodation type (hotels, rural accommodation, etc). However, there are no studies focusing on price seasonality orcomparing seasonality among different accommodation types. By using seasonality indicators and a price index constructed by means of hedonic methods, this paper aims to shed some light on seasonal pricing patterns among second home rentals and hotels. The paper relies on a 2004 database of 144 hotels and 1,002 apartments on the Costa Brava (northeast Spain). The results show that prices for second home rentals display a smoother seasonal pattern than hotels due to reduced price differences between shoulder (May and October) and peak periods (August)

Decreasing educational differences in mortality over 40 years: evidence from the Turin Longitudinal Study (Italy)

BACKGROUND: Recent studies suggest that inequalities in premature mortality have continued to rise over the last decade in most European countries, but not in southern European countries. METHODS: In this study, we assess long-term trends (1971-2011) in absolute and relative educational inequalities in all-cause and cause-specific mortality in the Turin Longitudinal Study (Turin, Italy), a record-linkage study including all individuals resident in Turin in the 1971, 1981, 1991 and 2001 censuses, and aged 30-99 years (more than 2 million people). We examined mortality for all causes, cardiovascular disease (CVD), all cancers and specific cancers (lung, breast), as well as smoking and alcohol-related mortality. RESULTS: Overall mortality substantially decreased in all educational groups over the study period, although cancer rates only slightly declined. Absolute inequalities decreased for both genders (SII=962/694 in men/women in 1972-1976 and SII=531/259 in 2007-2011, p<0.01). Among men, absolute inequalities for CVD and alcohol-related causes declined (p<0.05), while remaining stable for other causes of death. Among women, declines in absolute inequalities were observed for CVD, smoking and alcohol-related causes and lung cancer (p<0.05). Relative inequalities in all-cause mortality remained stable for men and decreased for women (RII=1.92/2.03 in men/women in 1972-1976 and RII=2.15/1.32 in 2007-2011). Among men, relative inequalities increased for smoking-related causes, while among women they decreased for all cancers, CVD, smoking-related causes and lung cancer (p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Absolute inequalities in mortality strongly declined over the study period in both genders. Relative educational inequalities in mortality were generally stable among men; while they tended to narrow among women. In general, this study supports the hypothesis that educational inequalities in mortality have decreased in southern European countries.

A qualitative study of adolescents with medically unexplained symptoms and their parents. Part 2: How is healthcare perceived?

Medically unexplained symptoms (MUS) are common among adolescents and an important cause of clinical visits. This study sought to understand the experiences with, and perceptions of, the healthcare of adolescents who have MUS and their parents. Using a qualitative approach, six focus groups and two individual interviews were conducted with a total of ten adolescents and sixteen parents. The participants were recruited in a university hospital in Switzerland. A thematic analysis was conducted in accordance with the Grounded Theory. Six main themes emerged: needing a label for the symptoms, seeking an etiology to explain the symptoms, negotiating the medical system, medication and treatments, interactions with doctors, and the inclusion of parents during consultations. Transcending these themes, however, was the need for good communication between the adolescents, their parents and the clinicians. When explaining the symptoms, clinicians should make sure to discuss the results, investigations and lack of organic origin.

A qualitative study of adolescents with medically unexplained symptoms and their parents. Part 1: Experiences and impact on daily life.

Medically unexplained symptoms (MUS) are common among adolescents and are frequently encountered in primary care. Our aim was to explore how these adolescents and their parents experience the condition and its impact on their daily lives and to provide recommendations for health professionals. Using a qualitative approach, six focus groups and two individual interviews were conducted. These involved a total of ten adolescents with different types of MUS and sixteen parents. The respondents were recruited in a university hospital in Switzerland. A thematic analysis was conducted according to the Grounded Theory. The analysis of the data highlighted four core themes: disbelief, being different, concealing symptoms, and priority to adolescent's health. Transcending these themes was a core issue regarding the discrepancy between the strategies that adolescents and their parents use to cope with the symptoms. Health professionals should be made aware of the emotional needs of these patients and their families.

Building legitimacy by criticising the pharmaceutical industry: a qualitative study among prescribers and local opinion leaders.

PRINCIPLES: The literature has described opinion leaders not only as marketing tools of the pharmaceutical industry, but also as educators promoting good clinical practice. This qualitative study addresses the distinction between the opinion-leader-as-marketing-tool and the opinion-leader-as-educator, as it is revealed in the discourses of physicians and experts, focusing on the prescription of antidepressants. We explore the relational dynamic between physicians, opinion leaders and the pharmaceutical industry in an area of French-speaking Switzerland. METHODS: Qualitative content analysis of 24 semistructured interviews with physicians and local experts in psychopharmacology, complemented by direct observation of educational events led by the experts, which were all sponsored by various pharmaceutical companies. RESULTS: Both physicians and experts were critical of the pharmaceutical industry and its use of opinion leaders. Local experts, in contrast, were perceived by the physicians as critical of the industry and, therefore, as a legitimate source of information. Local experts did not consider themselves opinion leaders and argued that they remained intellectually independent from the industry. Field observations confirmed that local experts criticised the industry at continuing medical education events. CONCLUSIONS: Local experts were vocal critics of the industry, which nevertheless sponsor their continuing education. This critical attitude enhanced their credibility in the eyes of the prescribing physicians. We discuss how the experts, despite their critical attitude, might still be beneficial to the industry's interests.

Quality of Qualitative Research in the Health Sciences : Analysis of the Common Criteria Present in 58 Assessment Guidelines by Expert Users

The number of qualitative research methods has grown substantially over the last twenty years, both in social sciences and, more recently, in the health sciences. This growth came with questions on the quality criteria needed to evaluate this work, and numerous guidelines were published. The latters include many discrepancies though, both in their vocabulary and construction. Many expert evaluators decry the absence of consensual and reliable evaluation tools. The authors present the results of an evaluation of 58 existing guidelines in 4 major health science fields (medicine and epidemiology; nursing and health education; social sciences and public health; psychology / psychiatry, research methods and organization) by expert users (article reviewers, experts allocating funds, editors, etc.). The results propose a toolbox containing 12 consensual criteria with the definitions given by expert users. They also indicate in which disciplinary field each type of criteria is known to be more or less essential. Nevertheless, the authors highlight the limitations of the criteria comparability, as soon as one focuses on their specific definitions. They conclude that each criterion in the toolbox must be explained to come to broader consensus and identify definitions that are consensual to all the fields examined and easily operational.

Complexity of the Paradigms Present in Quality Criteria of Qualitative Research Grids

With qualitative methods being increasingly used in health science fields, numerous grids proposing criteria to evaluate the quality of this type of research have been produced. Expert evaluators deem that there is a lack of consensual tools to evaluate qualitative research. Based on the review of 133 quality criteria grids for qualitative research in health sciences, the authors present the results of a computerized lexicometric analysis, which confirms the variety of intra- and inter-grid constructions, including within the same field. This variety is linked to the authors' paradigmatic references underlying the criteria proposed. These references seem to be built intuitively, reflecting internal representations of qualitative research, thus making the grids and their criteria hard to compare. Consequently, the consensus on the definitions and the number of criteria becomes problematic. The paradigmatic and theoretical references of the grids should be specified so that users could better assess their contributions and limitations.

Sairaanhoitajan opiskelijaohjaustaidot sekä ohjaajakoulutuksen tarve ja hyöty hoitotyön ohjatun harjoittelun oppimisympäristössä

A Nurse's Preceptorship Skills of Guiding Students and the Need for and Benefit from Preceptorship Education Guided practical training in units of health services is an essential part of the education of nurses. Nurses take care of a student's preceptorship during these periods, and their role in supporting a student's learning has been shown to be the most important factor in the learning environment of guided practical training. Education for preceptors in various educational units has been organized to develop their skills of guiding students. The aim of this study was both to investigate preceptors' skills of guiding students, the differences in the student guiding skills of those who have and who have not received preceptorship education and to describe their experiences of their own need for preceptorship education and of the benefit of such education. Any activities that promote a student's learning were included in nurses' preceptorship skills. On the basis of research knowledge, the preceptorship skills were divided into the following subdomains: proficiency in nursing; creation of a preceptorship relationship; planning of preceptorship; implementation of preceptorship; combination of theory and practice; and evaluation. The target group comprised all those nurses (n=128) in a hospital in southern Finland who guided future nurses. The material was gathered by means of a questionnaire with structural and open questions. Preceptorship skills were studied with the structured questions and the need for and benefit from preceptorship education with the open questions. The material was interpreted by means of a statistical SAS programme and qualitative content analysis. The preceptorship skills in all domains of guiding skills proved good. Those who had received preceptorship education had better skills than those who had not received such education in all domains but “creation of a preceptorship relationship”. However, the differences were not statistically significant. The need for preceptorship education was highest in evaluation and in setting goals for a student. To support these, the preceptors wanted information on education and students' requirements. Most of all, preceptorship education had benefited the creation of a preceptorship relationship and the implementation of evaluation. The preceptors were of the opinion that their skills of guiding students were good. However, education is needed, which makes the results inconsistent in this respect. The results can be used in developing preceptorship skills and in planning preceptorship education.

Nutritional behaviour and beliefs of ski-mountaineers: a semi-quantitative and qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: Endurance athletes are advised to optimize nutrition prior to races. Little is known about actual athletes' beliefs, knowledge and nutritional behaviour. We monitored nutritional behaviour of amateur ski-mountaineering athletes during 4 days prior to a major competition to compare it with official recommendations and with the athletes' beliefs. METHODS: Participants to the two routes of the 'Patrouille des Glaciers' were recruited (A, 26 km, ascent 1881 m, descent 2341 m, max altitude 3160 m; Z, 53 km, ascent 3994 m, descent 4090 m, max altitude 3650 m). Dietary intake diaries of 40 athletes (21 A, 19 Z) were analysed for energy, carbohydrate, fat, protein and liquid; ten were interviewed about their pre-race nutritional beliefs and behaviour. RESULTS: Despite belief that pre-race carbohydrate, energy and fluid intake should be increased, energy consumption was 2416 ± 696 (mean ± SD) kcal · day(-1), 83 ± 17 % of recommended intake, carbohydrate intake was only 46 ± 13 % of minimal recommended (10 g · kg(-1) · day(-1)) and fluid intake only 2.7 ± 1.0 l · day(-1). CONCLUSIONS: Our sample of endurance athletes did not comply with pre-race nutritional recommendations despite elementary knowledge and belief to be compliant. In these athletes a clear and reflective nutritional strategy was lacking. This suggests a potential for improving knowledge and compliance with recommendations. Alternatively, some recommendations may be unrealistic.

Price differences between domestic and international air markets : an empirical application to routes from Gran Canaria

In this paper we examine whether airline prices on national routes are higher than those charged on international routes. Drawing on a database prepared specifically for this study, we estimate a pricing equation for all routes originating from Gran Canaria, Canary Islands, Spain; differentiating between national and international routes. A key difference between these two route types is that island residents benefit from discounts on domestic flights. When controlling for variables related to airline characteristics, market structure and demand, we find that national passengers who are non-residents on the islands are paying higher prices than international passengers.

Personality effects and sex differences on the international affective picture system (IAPS) : a Spanish and Swiss study

The present study analyses the relationship between Anxiety and Impulsivity personality factors and emotions, by controlling for country and sex effects in a sample of Spanish and Swiss university students. Emotions were assessed through the International Affective Picture System (IAPS) of pictures (valence/arousal) using the Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM) procedure. The mixed valence/arousal groups' pictures were formed according to Tok, Koyuncu, Dural and Catikkas procedure (2010). Results showed that females scored significantly higher in Anxiety factor and men in Impulsivity factor in both countries. The effect of sex was highly significant for Anxiety (ŋ2: 0.12), but there was no significant effect of the country. Also, females obtained higher scores in the four valence/arousal pictures groups. The sex effect was particularly robust for negative valence-high arousal (ŋ2: 0.13). Impulsivity correlated with high ratings of positive valence-high arousal while Anxiety correlated with high ratings of negative valence-high arousal and with high ratings of negative valence-low arousal in both sexes, although scores were higher for females. Structural Equation Modelling confirmed these relationships. Nevertheless, Anxiety and Impulsivity explained only a small amount of the accounted variance of the self-reported valence and arousal of the pictures.