E-PORT. Improving efficiency of Finnish port community by intelligent systems Final report of the Mobile Port project

The management of port-related supply chains is challenging due to the complex and heterogeneous operations of the ports with several actors and processes. That is why the importance of information sharing is emphasised in the ports. However, the information exchange between different port-related actors is often cumbersome and it still involves a lot of manual work and paper. Major ports and port-related actors usually have advanced information systems in daily use but these systems are seldom interoperable with each other, which prevents economies of scale to be reached. Smaller ports and companies might not be equipped with electronic data transmission at all. This is the final report of the Mobile port (MOPO) project, which has sought ways to improve the management and control of port-related sea and inland traffic with the aid of ICT technologies. The project has studied port community systems (PCS) used worldwide, evaluated the suitability of a PCS for the Finnish port operating environment and created a pilot solution of a Finnish PCS in the port of HaminaKotka. Further, the dry port concept and its influences on the transportation system have been explored. The Mobile Port project comprised of several literature reviews, interviews of over 50 port-related logistics and/or ICT professionals, two different kinds of simulation models as well as designing and implementing of the pilot solution of the Finnish PCS. The results of these multiple studies are summarised in this report. Furthermore, recommendations for future actions and the topics for further studies are addressed in the report. The study revealed that the information sharing in a typical Finnish port-related supply chain contains several bottlenecks that cause delays in shipments and waste resources. The study showed that many of these bottlenecks could be solved by building a port community system for the Finnish port community. Almost 30 different kinds of potential services or service entities of a Finnish PCS were found out during the study. The basic requirements, structure, interfaces and operation model of the Finnish PCS were also defined in the study. On the basis of the results of the study, a pilot solution of the Finnish PCS was implemented in the port of HaminaKotka. The pilot solution includes a Portconnect portal for the Finnish port community system (available at https://www.portconnect.fi) and two pilot applications, which are a service for handling the information flows concerning the movements of railway wagons and a service for handling the information flows between Finnish ports and Finland-Russian border. The study also showed that port community systems can be used to improve the environmental aspects of logistics in two different ways: 1) PCSs can bring direct environmental benefits and 2) PCSs can be used as an environmental tool in a port community. On the basis of the study, the development of the Finnish port community system should be continued by surveying other potential applications for the Finnish PCS. It is also important to study if there is need and resources to extend the Finnish PCS to operate in several ports or even on a national level. In the long run, it could be reasonable to clarify whether there would be possibilities to connect the Finnish PCS as a part of Baltic Sea wide, European-wide or even worldwide maritime and port-related network in order to get the best benefit from the system

Public and Private Sector Decision Makers Within the Rail Baltica Growth Corridor

Transport volumes have increased and will continue to increase in European Union. Even though the growth has not been equal between different transport modes. Most of the growth has been faced on road transport. European Union aims to balance the unbalanced market shares between the modes by gaining and supporting the competitiveness of railway and waterway transport. In EU railway transportation is seen as solution to increase safety in traffic and decrease the environmental impacts of transportation. The aim of this research is to figure out how it is possible to decrease the environmental impacts by the technology already in use. Main focus of this research is in intermodality and combining the road and railway transportation. This study aims also to figure out demands and expectations towards new Rail Baltica railway route connecting Tallinn and Berlin. The research is conducted by performing a literature review about decreasing environmental impacts and combining road and rail transport. Another viewpoint is taken from the possible effects of tourism to the passenger transport on rails. Knowledge gained by literature review is deepened by additional internet questionnaire study and expert interview study. In decreasing the environmental impacts of transportation electric trains are definitely the best option providing that the electricity is generated from renewable or carbon dioxide free sources. Decrease of environmental impacts has been reached also with acceptance of larger road transport vehicles. According to interviewed passenger transport experts, the whole route from Tallinn to Berlin may not be convenient to be used in passenger transport, just because the route is too long.. In EU freight is transported mainly with semi-trailer combinations, and that is why it could be logical if huckepack trains would be used on Rail Baltica. Huckepack train allows semi-trailers to be transported on rails with time efficient loading-unloading process. Overall, Rail Baltica project is experienced as a future-oriented one and new railway alignment is seen as great alternative option for transport modes using fossil fuels.

Logistics of North-West Russia and Rail Baltica: Standpoints of Private Sector

The main aims of the present report are to describe the current state of railway transport in Russia, and to gather standpoints of Russian private transportation logistics sector towards the development of new railway connection called Rail Baltica Growth Corridor, connecting North-West Russia with Germany through the Baltic States and Poland. North-West Russia plays important role not only in Russian logistics, but also wider European markets as in container sea ports handling is approx. 2.5 mill. TEU p.a. and handling volume in all terminals is above 190 million tons p.a. The whole transportation logistics sector is shortly described as an operational environment for railways – this is done through technical and economic angles. Transportation development is always going in line with economics of the country, so the analysis on economical development is also presented. Logistics integration of the country is strongly influenced by its engagement in the international trade. Although, raw material handling at sea ports and container transports (imports) are blossoming, domestic transportation market is barely growing (in long-term perspective). Thus, recent entrance of Russia into World Trade Organization (WTO) is analyzed theme in this research, as the WTO is an important regulator of the foreign trade and enabler of volume growth in foreign trade related transportation logistics. However, WTO membership can influence negatively the development of Russia’s own industry and its volumes (these have been uncompetitive in global markets for decades). Data gathering in empirical part was accomplished by semi-structured case study interviews among North-West Russian logistics sector actors (private). These were conducted during years 2012-2013, and research compiles findings out of ten case company interviews. Although, there was no sea port involved in the study, most of the interviewed companies relied in European Logistics within significant parts in short sea shipping and truck combined transportation chains (in Russian part also using railways). As the results of the study, it could be concluded that Rail Baltica is seen as possible transport corridor in most of the interviewed companies, if there is enough cargo available. However, interviewees are a bit sceptical, because major and large-scale infrastructural improvements are needed. Delivery time, frequency and price level are three main factors influencing the attractiveness of Rail Baltica route. Price level is the most important feature, but if RB can offer other advantages such as higher frequency, shorter lead times or more developed set of value-added services, then some flexibility is possible for the price level. Environmental issues are not the main criteria of today, but are recognized and discussed among customers. Great uncertainty exists among respondents e.g. on forthcoming sulphur oxide ban on Baltic Sea shipping (whether or not it is going to be implemented in Russia). Rather surprisingly, transportation routes to Eastern Europe and Mediterranean area are having higher value and price space than those to Germany/Central Europe. Border crossing operations (traction monopoly at rails and customs), gauge widths as well as unclear decision-making processes (in Russia), are named as hindering factors. Performance standards for European connected logistics among Russian logistics sector representatives are less demanding as compared to neighbourhood countries belonging to EU.

Järjestelmätoimittajan kansainvälisen liiketoiminnan päätöksentekoa tukevien työkalujen kehittäminen

Kansainvälistyminen ja yritysten väliset kumppanuudet ovat muodostuneet Suomen yrityksille yhä tärkeämmiksi toiminnoiksi. Tämän tutkimuksen tavoitteena on selvittää minkälaiset työkalut ja tiedot tarvitaan kansainvälisten markkinoiden valinnan alkuvaiheessa sekä kumppanuuksien muodostamisessa rautatiejärjestelmiä toimittavalle yritykselle. Tarkasteltava perheyritys toimii PK-sektorilla. Tutkimus koostuu teoreettisesta katsauksesta kansainvälistymiseen ja kumppanuuksiin sekä empiirisestä osasta molempien aihepiirien soveltamisesta valitulla liiketoimintaalueella. Teoreettinen osuus tarkastelee kansainvälistymisen motivaatiotekijöitä ja erilaisia kansainvälistymisvaihtoehtoja paneutuen kansainvälistymisen prosessiin, riskeihin sekä riskien hallintaan. Tämän lisäksi teoriaosuudessa keskitytään yritysten välisiin kumppanuuksiin tarkastellen kumppanuuden muotoja, asemointia ja riskejä. Työn lopputuloksena syntyi hyvä näkemys rautatiemarkkinoiden toiminnasta, jonka tukemana pystyttiin valitsemaan tarkasteltavat arviointikohteet ja kehittämään työkalut kansainvälisten markkinoiden alkuvaiheen arviointiin sekä yrityksen tavoitteita tukevan kumppaniyrityksen valintaan. Nämä työkalut muodostavat pohjan kansainvälisten markkinoiden ja kumppanuuksien systemaattiseen tarkasteluun sekä tulosten jatkokäsittelyyn. Tulokset ja esitetyt kehitysehdotukset antavat hyvän lähtökohdan kansainvälisten markkinoiden ja yrityskumppanuuksien arvioinnin jatkokehittämiseen kohti kannattavampaa liiketoimintaa.

Acceleration of Solar Energetic Particles in coronal shocks through self-generated turbulence

The acceleration of solar energetic particles (SEPs) by flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs) has been a major topic of research for the solar-terrestrial physics and geophysics communities for decades. This thesis discusses theories describing first-order Fermi acceleration of SEPs through repeated crossings at a CME-driven shock. We propose that particle trapping occurs through self-generated Alfvén waves, leading to a turbulent trapping region in front of the shock. Decelerating coronal shocks are shown to be capable of efficient SEP acceleration, provided seed particle injection is sufficient. Quasi-parallel shocks are found to inject thermal particles with good efficiency. The roles of minimum injection velocities, cross-field diffusion, downstream scattering efficiency and cross-shock potential are investigated in detail, with downstream isotropisation timescales having a major effect on injection efficiency. Accelerated spectra of heavier elements up to iron are found to exhibit significantly harder spectra than protons. Accelerated spectra cut-off energies are found to scale proportional to (Q/A)^1.5, which is explained through analysis of the spectral shape of amplified Alfvénic turbulence. Acceleration times to different threshold energies are found to be non-linear, indicating that self-consistent time-dependent simulations are required in order to expose the full extent of acceleration dynamics. The well-established quasilinear theory (QLT) of particle scattering is investigated by comparing QLT scattering coefficients with those found via full-orbit simulations. QLT is found to overemphasise resonance conditions. This finding supports the simplifications implemented in the presented coronal shock acceleration (CSA) simulation software. The CSA software package is used to simulate a range of acceleration scenarios. The results are found to be in agreement with well-established particle acceleration theory. At the same time, new spatial and temporal dynamics of particle population trapping and wave evolution are revealed.

Turvallisuusjohtamisen vaatimukset rautatieympäristössä toimiville yrityksille

Diplomityön tavoitteena on selvittää rautatiealalla toimivien yritysten turvallisuuden hallinnan nykytilaa ja löytää keinoja sen parantamiseen. Tutkimuksen kannalta olennaisia teemoja ovat turvallisuuskulttuuri, turvallisuusjohtaminen ja turvallisuusvaatimukset. Työ tarkastelee rautatiealalla toimivia Liikenneviraston palveluntuottajayrityksiä ja heidän näkemyksiään turvallisuuden hallinnan nykytilanteesta edellä mainittujen teemojen ja työn teoriatutkimuksen avulla. Työn teoriaosuus esittelee laajasti rautatiealalla vallitsevia sääntöjä, määräyksiä, ohjeita ja standardeja. Näiden vaatimusten lisäksi teoriaosuus esittelee rautatiealan turvallisuusjohtamisjärjestelmää (TJJ), joka jaetaan turvallisuuden hallinnan osa-alueiksi. Näitä osa-alueita käytetään apuna tunnistettaessa rautatiealalla toimivien yritysten kannalta tärkeimmät turvallisuuden hallinnan osa-alueet. Työn empiirisessä osuudessa toteutetaan haastattelututkimus rautatiealalla toimiville yrityksille. Haastattelujen perusteella tunnistetaan turvallisuuden hallinnan kannalta tärkeitä kehittämiskohteita ja toimivia käytäntöjä turvallisuuteen liittyen. Näiden avulla luodaan kuva turvallisuuden nykytilasta, joka esitetään työn turvallisuusteemojen avulla. Työn tuloksena esitetään malli viidestä, rautatiealalla toimivien yritysten näkökulmasta keskeisestä, turvallisuuden hallinnan osa-alueesta. Mallia soveltamalla rautatiealalla toimivat yritykset pystyvät vastaamaan paremmin turvallisuusvaatimuksiin, kehittämään turvallisuustoimintojaan ja lisäämään koko yrityksen tietoisuutta turvallisuudesta rautatieympäristössä.

Railways, Airports and Sea Container Operators as Publicly Listed Companies – Financial Performance and Shareholder Value Creation Perspective

Logistics infrastructure and transportation services have been the liability of countries and governments for decades, or these have been under strict regulation policies. One of the first branches opened for competition in EU as well as in other continents, has been air transports (operators, like passenger and freight) and road transports. These have resulted on lower costs, better connectivity and in most of the cases higher service quality. However, quite large amount of other logistics related activities are still directly (or indirectly) under governmental influence, e.g. railway infrastructure, road infrastructure, railway operations, airports, and sea ports. Due to the globalization, governmental influence is not that necessary in this sector, since transportation needs have increased with much more significant phase as compared to economic growth. Also freight transportation needs do not correlate with passenger side, due to the reason that only small number of areas in the world have specialized in the production of particular goods. Therefore, in number of cases public-private partnership, or even privately owned companies operating in these sub-branches have been identified as beneficial for countries, customers and further economic growth. The objective of this research work is to shed more light on these kinds of experiments, especially in the relatively unknown sub-branches of logistics like railways, airports and sea container transports. In this research work we have selected companies having public listed status in some stock exchange, and have needed amount of financial scale to be considered as serious company rather than start-up phase venture. Our research results show that railways and airports usually need high fixed investments, but have showed in the last five years generally good financial performance, both in terms of profitability and cash flow. In contrary to common belief of prosperity in globally growing container transports, sea vessel operators of containers have not shown that impressive financial performance. Generally margins in this business are thin, and profitability has been sacrificed in front of high growth – this also concerns cash flow performance, which has been lower too. However, as we examine these three logistics sub-branches through shareholder value development angle during time period of 2002-2007, we were surprised to find out that all of these three have outperformed general stock market indexes in this period. More surprising is the result that financially a bit less performing sea container transportation sector shows highest shareholder value gain in the examination period. Thus, it should be remembered that provided analysis shows only limited picture, since e.g. dividends were not taken into consideration in this research work. Therefore, e.g. US railway operators have disadvantage to other in the analysis, since they have been able to provide dividends for shareholders in long period of time. Based on this research work we argue that investment on transportation/logistics sector seems to be safe alternative, which yields with relatively low risk high gain. Although global economy would face smaller growth period, this sector seems to provide opportunities in more demanding situation as well.

Joukkoliikenteen hiljaisen ajan palvelutaso Keski-Uudellamaalla

Joukkoliikenteen palvelutasomäärittely perustuu vuonna 2009 voimaan astuneeseen joukkoliikennelakiin, joka velvoitti toimivaltaisia viranomaisia määrittelemään toimivalta-alueensa joukkoliikenteelle tavoitteellisen palvelutason vuoden 2011 loppuun mennessä. Palvelutaso määriteltiin Liikenneviraston kriteeristön mukaisesti. Määrittelytyön aikana Keski-Uudellamaalla nousi esiin hiljaisen ajan liikenteen tarjonnan heikkous palvelutasotavoitteisiin nähden. Hiljaisena aikana liikenteen kysyntä on vähäistä. Liikenteen hoitaminen on kuitenkin kallista eikä se onnistu nykyisin ilman yhteiskunnan tukea. Tämän työn tarkoituksena oli selvittää hiljaisen ajan merkitystä joukkoliikenteen käyttöön yleensä, kustannustehokkainta tapaa hoitaa joukkoliikenne hiljaisena aikana ja sitä miten palvelutasotavoitteita tulee miettiä tarkemmin hiljaisen ajan osalta. Työssä tarkasteltiin kolmea Keski-Uudenmaan taajamaa, ja esitettiin näille ratkaisut hiljaisen ajan liikenteen hoitamisesta. Nykyiset palvelutasokriteerit on määritetty ruuhkalähtöisesti. Tämän tutkimuksen perusteella voidaan suositella, että liikenteen suunnittelussa olisi syytä siirtyä runkoajatteluun. Suunnittelun tulisi lähteä välttämättömistä vuoroista eli vuoroista, joilla taataan sujuva arki joukkoliikennettä käyttämällä. Lähtökohtana tulisi siis olla hiljaisin aika eli keskikesä. Tämän liikenteen rungon päälle voidaan rakentaa täydentävää liikennettä tarpeen eli kysynnän mukaan. Keski-Uudellamaalla hiljaisen ajan liikenteen ja myös liikenteen rungon tulisi muodostua juna-asemille ajettavasta liityntäliikenteestä. Johtopäätöksissä esitetään tarpeet palvelutasokriteerien tarkistamisesta ja lisätutkimuksista. Suurimmat tarkistustarpeet ovat määrällisissä kriteereissä, mutta hiljaisena aikana korostuvat myös laadulliset kriteerit: informaatio ja yhtenäinen lippujärjestelmä.

Kun vaan rehtori on korvat auki. Koulun kehittämisellä pedagogista hyvinvointia

Tämän tutkimuksen tarkoituksena on tutkia perusopetuksen rehtoreiden käsityksiä siitä, miten rehtori johtaa opettajakuntaansa ja koulua oppivan organisaation suuntaan. Tutkimus etsii vastauksia koulun kehittämisen ja pedagogisen hyvinvoinnin yhtymäkohtiin. Tutkimus on perusopetuksen rehtoreiden keskuudessa Salossa tehty tapaustutkimus, jonka tiedonkeruu ajoittui vuosille 2008–2011. Tutkimuksen ensimmäinen osa oli tulevaisuusverstas (n=14). Verstaan pohjalta tutkimukselle syntyi teoreettinen viitekehys ja aineiston keräämistä jatkettiin puolistrukturoidulla teemahaastattelulla (n=14). Tulokset toimitettiin nettiportaaliin, jossa haastatteluun osallistuneilla rehtoreilla oli mahdollisuus kommentoida analyysia. Kun teoriaohjaava analyysi oli saatettu käsitekarttojen muotoon, rehtorit osallistuivat palauteverstaaseen, missä ryhmäkeskustelujen avulla validoitiin tutkimustuloksia. Tutkimuksen taustafilosofia on fenomenologia: se tutkii rehtoreiden havaintoihin ja kokemuksiin perustuvia käsityksiä tutkimusalueesta. Rehtoreiden käsitykset oman koulunsa osaamisen tasosta perustuivat kokemusperäiseen tunteeseen, joka syntyy oman joukon tuntemisesta. Rehtorit eivät pystyneet järjestelmällisesti selvittämään, millaista osaamista ja osaamisen tarvetta koulussa on. Omaan toimintatapaansa rehtorit liittivät tunneälyn, jonka avulla he kokivat voimaannuttavansa opettajakuntaansa opettajien itsensä ja koko kouluorganisaation kehittämisen suuntaan. Tutkimukseen osallistuneilla kouluilla ei ollut kirjoitettuja kehittämis-suunnitelmia ja -tavoitteita, mutta rehtorit sanoivat sellaisten olevan selvillä heillä itsellään. Rehtorit totesivat, että opettajien täydennyskouluttautuminen on lähinnä opettajien omista motivaatioista lähtöisin eikä se yksittäisenä tapahtumana kehitä koulun kollektiivista osaamista ja oppivan organisaation syntymistä. Varsinaisia toimenpiteitä oppivan organisaation kehittämiseksi ei tehty. Rehtorit kuitenkin katsoivat pedagogisen hyvinvoinnin kokemuksen kehittyvän koulussa. Rehtoreiden käsitysten mukaan esimiehen tuki sekä osaamisen kokemus vahvistavat hallinnan tunnetta, joka toimii hyvinvoinnin kokemuksen lähtökohtana. Pedagogisen hyvinvoinnin kokemukseen liittyy turvallinen ja avoin toimintakulttuuri. Rehtorit kuvailivat toimivansa eri opettajien kanssa eri tavoin. Rehtoreiden mukaan osaaminen, hallinnan tunne ja pedagoginen hyvinvointi muodostavat kolmikannan, mikä noudattaa myös aiempia DCS-teoriaan pohjautuvia tutkimustuloksia hallinnan tunteen ja hyvinvoinnin yhteydestä.

Meiotic behavior in wild and domesticated species of Passiflora

The meiotic behavior of fourteen Passiflora taxa was analyzed. The species were grouped according to the n value (6, 9 and 12) for statistical studies. Some species presented tetravalent associations or univalent chromosomes in diakinesis, bivalent formation prevailing. The qui-square test revealed significant differences in the chiasma frequency among species for n = 9 and n = 6 groups. There was predominance of interstitial chiasmata in almost all studied species. The n = 12 group was the only one whose meiotic behavior was considered similar due to the quantity of chiasmata per cell, tendency of interstitial chiasma localization. Some species presented meiotic irregularities, such as laggard and precocious chromosomes in meiosis I. In telophase II the percentages of meiotic irregularities was low. Irregularities in the spindle orientation were presented in higher percentages in the end of meiosis II, and were also responsible for post-meiotic abnormal products. The irregularities observed during meiosis can have influence on the percentage of sterile pollen grains and success of interspecific crossings in Passiflora species.

Hybridization among wild passionflower species

(Hybridization among wild passionflower species). Passion fruits are appreciated for their ornamental value, since their flowers are showy and display a wide variety of colors. In addition, many hybrids have been produced and used in other countries. The genotypes used in selection of plants with ornamental characteristics are hybrid progenies which are used in various crossing strategies. Thus, the aim of this work was to obtain interspecific hybrids, perform backcrossing and obtain progenies from crossings between hybrids, and to determine the reproductive compatibility between the progenitors involved. The percentage of fertilized flowers, germination, and the number of fruits, seeds and plants obtained through crossing were recorded. A series of 374 crossings involved seven species and two hybrids. Crossings such as Passiflora gibertii N. E. Brown vs. P. kermesina Link & Otto and P. gibertii vs. P. alata Curtis did not produce seeds. The largest percentage of fertilized flowers (86%) was recorded for the crossing P. gardneri Mast.vs. P. cincinnata Mast.; yet, the seeds produced did not show endosperm. Interspecific hybrids were obtained from the crossings P. gardneri vs. P. alata, P. watsoniana Mast.vs. P. alata, P. watsoniana vs. P. gardneri and P. gardneri vs. P. gibertii. Seeds generated from backcrossings involving the hybrids P. sublanceolata (sin. P. palmeri var. sublanceolata (Killip) J. M. MacDougal) vs. P. foetida var. foetida L. (HD13-133 and HD13-141) and F2 reached high germination percentages.

Self-, cross- and interspecific pollinations in Passiflora capsularis and P. rubra

This study aimed to characterize the reproductive system of Passiflora capsularis L. and P. rubra L. In vivo controlled pollinations, in vitro pollen germination and pollen-ovule (P:O) ratio evaluation were conducted. In self-pollination, intraspecific and interspecific pollination, P. capsularis showed means of 62.5, 68.7 and 48.4% of fertilized flowers, while in P. rubra, the averages were 67.2, 62.5 and 46.9%, respectively. For in vitro germination, 52.2% of P. capsularis pollen grains germinated while in P. rubra, the percentage was 64.4. The P:O ratio was 22.4 for P. capsularis, and 27.4 for P. rubra, which included them in the category of obligatory autogamous. Passiflora capsularis and P. rubra can reproduce both by self-pollination and cross-pollination, and crossings between the two species succeeded though the success rate was lower than 50%. The characteristics of the reproductive system of both species allow the use of greater range of options on breeding methods for production of ornamental Passiflora plants.

Involvement of hippocampal NMDA receptors in retention of shuttle avoidance conditioning in rats

The purpose of this research was to evaluate the role of hippocampal N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors in acquisition and consolidation of memory during shuttle avoidance conditioning in rats. Adult male Wistar rats were surgically implanted with cannulae aimed at the CA1 area of the dorsal hippocampus. After recovery from surgery, animals were trained and tested in a shuttle avoidance apparatus (30 trials, 0.5-mA footshock, 24-h training-test interval). Immediately before or immediately after training, animals received a bilateral intrahippocampal 0.5-µl infusion containing 5.0 µg of the NMDA competitive receptor antagonist aminophosphonopentanoic acid (AP5) or vehicle (phosphate-buffered saline, pH 7.4). Infusion duration was 2 min per side. Pre-training infusion of AP5 impaired retention test performance (mean ± SEM number of conditioned responses (CRs) during retention test session was 16.47 ± 1.78 in the vehicle group and 9.93 ± 1.59 in the AP5 group; P<0.05). Post-training infusion of AP5 did not affect retention (mean ± SEM number of conditioned responses during retention test session was 18.46 ± 1.94 in the vehicle group and 20.42 ± 2.38 in the AP5 group; P>0.10). This impairment could not be attributed to an effect on acquisition, motor activity or footshock sensitivity since AP5 affected neither training session performance measured by the number of CRs nor the number of intertrial crossings during the training session. These data suggest that NMDA receptors in the hippocampus are critical for retention of shuttle avoidance conditioning, in agreement with previous evidence showing a role of NMDA receptors in fear memory.

Antidepressant-like effect of lead in adult mice

It has been reported that lead can cause behavioral impairment by inhibiting the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor complex. MK-801, a noncompetitive NMDA receptor antagonist, exhibits an antidepressant-like action in the forced swimming test. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether subacute lead exposure in adult male Swiss mice weighing 30-35 g causes an antidepressant-like action in a forced swimming test. Mice were injected intraperitoneally (ip) with 10 mg/kg lead acetate or saline daily for 7 consecutive days. Twenty-four hours after the last treatment, the saline and lead-treated mice received an injection of MK-801 (0.01 mg/kg, ip) or saline and were tested in forced swimming and in open-field tests. Immobility time was similarly reduced in the saline-MK-801, Pb-saline and Pb-MK-801 groups compared to the saline-saline group (mean ± SEM; 197.3 ± 18.5, 193.5 ± 15.8, 191.3 ± 12.3 and 264.0 ± 14.4 s, respectively; N = 9). These data indicate that lead may exert its effect on the forced swimming test by directly or indirectly inhibiting the NMDA receptor complex. Lead treatment caused no deficit in memory of habituation and did not affect locomotor activity in an open-field (N = 14). However, mice that received MK-801 after lead exhibited a deficit in habituation (22% reduction in rearing responses between session 3 and 1; N = 14) as compared to control (41% reduction in rearing responses; N = 15), further suggesting that lead may have affected the NMDA receptor activity. Forced-swim immobility in a basin in two daily consecutive sessions was also significantly decreased by lead exposure (mean ± SEM; day 1 = 10.6 ± 3.2, day 2 = 19.6 ± 3.6; N = 16) as compared to control (day 1 = 18.4 ± 3.8, day 2 = 34.0 ± 3.7; N = 17), whereas the number of crossings was not affected by lead treatment, further indicating a specific antidepressant-like action of lead.

Effect of acute treatment with a water-alcohol extract of Erythrina mulungu on anxiety-related responses in rats

We investigated the effect of acute oral treatment with a water-alcohol extract of the inflorescence of Erythrina mulungu (EM, Leguminosae-Papilionaceae) (100, 200 and 400 mg/kg) on rats submitted to different anxiety models: the elevated T-maze (for inhibitory avoidance and escape measurements), the light/dark transition, and the cat odor test. These models were selected for their presumed capacity to demonstrate specific subtypes of anxiety disorders as recognized in clinical practice. Treatment with 200 mg/kg EM impaired avoidance latencies (avoidance 1 - 200 mg/kg EM: 18 ± 7 s, control group: 40 ± 9 s; avoidance 2 - 200 mg/kg EM: 15 ± 4 s, control group: 110.33 ± 38 s) in a way similar to the reference drug diazepam (avoidance 1: 3 ± 0.79 s; avoidance 2: 3 ± 0.76 s), without altering escape. Additionally, the same treatments increased the number of transitions (200 mg/kg EM: 6.33 ± 0.90, diazepam: 10 ± 1.54, control group: 2.78 ± 0.60) between the two compartments and the time spent in the lighted compartment in the light/dark transition model (200 mg/kg EM: 39 ± 7 s; diazepam: 61 ± 9 s; control group: 14 ± 4 s). The dose of 400 mg/kg EM also increased this last measurement (38 ± 8 s). These results were not due to motor alterations since no significant effects were detected in the number of crossings or rearings in the arena. Furthermore, neither EM nor diazepam altered the behavioral responses of rats to a cloth impregnated with cat odor. These observations suggest that EM exerts anxiolytic-like effects on a specific subset of defensive behaviors, particularly those that have been shown to be sensitive to low doses of benzodiazepines.