Sediment resuspension as a water quality regulator in lakes

Sediment resuspension, the return of the bottom material into the water column, is an important process that can have various effects on a lake ecosystem. Resuspension caused by wind-induced wave disturbance, currents, turbulent fluctuations and bioturbation affects water quality characteristics such as turbidity, light conditions, and concentrations of suspended solids (SS) and nutrients. Resuspension-mediated increase in turbidity may favour the dominance of phytoplankton over macrophytes. The predator-prey interactions contributing to the trophic state of a lake may also be influenced by increasing turbidity. Directly, the trophic state of a lake can be influenced by the effect of sediment resuspension on nutrient cycling. Resuspension enhances especially the cycling of phosphorus by bringing the sedimentary nutrients back into the water column and may thereby induce switches between phosphorus and nitrogen limitation. The contribution of sediment resuspension to gross sedimentation, turbidity, and concentration of SS and nutrients was studied in a small, deep lake as well as in a multibasin lake with deep and shallow areas. The effect of ice cover on sediment resuspension and thereby on phosphorus concentrations was also studied. The rates of gross sedimentation and resuspen¬sion were estimated with sediment traps and the associations between SS and nutrients were considered. Sediment resuspension, caused by wind activity, comprised most of the gross sedimenta¬tion and strongly contributed to the concentration of SS and turbidity in the lakes studied. Additionally, via the influence on SS, resuspension affected the concentration of total phosphorus (TP) and soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP), as well as the total nitrogen to total phosphorus (TN:TP) ratio. Although contrasting results concerning the dependence between the SS and SRP concentrations were observed, it could be concluded that sediment resuspension during strong algal blooms (pH > 9) led to aerobic release of P. The main findings of this thesis were that in the course of the growing season, sediment resuspension coupled with phytoplankton succession led to liberation of P from resuspended particles, which in turn resulted in high TP concentrations and low TN:TP ratios. This development was likely a cause of strong cyanobacterial blooms in midsummer.

Ion-regulatory proreins in neuronal development and communication

Brain function is critically dependent on the ionic homeostasis in both the extra- and intracellular compartment. The regulation of brain extracellular ionic composition mainly relies on active transport at blood brain and at blood cerebrospinal fluid interfaces whereas intracellular ion regulation is based on plasmalemmal transporters of neurons and glia. In addition, the latter mechanisms can generate physiologically as well as pathophysiologically significant extracellular ion transients. In this work I have studied molecular mechanisms and development of ion regulation and how these factors alter neuronal excitability and affect synaptic and non-synaptic transmission with a particular emphasis on intracellular pH and chloride (Cl-) regulation. Why is the regulation of acid-base equivalents (H+ and HCO3-) and Cl- of such interest and importance? First of all, GABAA-receptors are permeable to both HCO3- and Cl-. In the adult mammalian central nervous system (CNS) fast postsynaptic inhibition relies on GABAA-receptor mediated transmission. Today, excitatory effects of GABAA-receptors, both in mature neurons and during the early development, have been recognized and the significance of the dual actions of GABA on neuronal communication has become an interesting field of research. The transmembrane gradients of Cl- and HCO3- determine the reversal potential of GABAA-receptor mediated postsynaptic potentials and hence, the function of pH and Cl- regulatory proteins have profound consequences on GABAergic signaling and neuronal excitability. Secondly, perturbations in pH can cause a variety of changes in cellular function, many of them resulting from the interaction of protons with ionizable side chains of proteins. pH-mediated alterations of protein conformation in e.g. ion channels, transporters, and enzymes can powerfully modulate neurotransmission. In the context of pH homeostasis, the enzyme carbonic anhydrase (CA) needs to be taken into account in parallel with ion transporters: for CO2/HCO3- buffering to act in a fast manner, CO2 (de)hydration must be catalyzed by this enzyme. The acid-base equivalents that serve as substrates in the CO2 dehydration-hydration reaction are also engaged in many carrier and channel mediated ion movements. In such processes, CA activity is in key position to modulate transmembrane solute fluxes and their consequences. The bicarbonate transporters (BTs; SLC4) and the electroneutral cation-chloride cotransporters (CCCs; SLC12) belong the to large gene family of solute carriers (SLCs). In my work I have studied the physiological roles of the K+-Cl- cotransporter KCC2 (Slc12a5) and the Na+-driven Cl--HCO3- exchanger NCBE (Slc4a10) and the roles of these two ion transporters in the modualtion of neuronal communication and excitability in the rodent hippocampus. I have also examined the cellular localization and molecular basis of intracellular CA that has been shown to be essential for the generation of prolonged GABAergic excitation in the mature hippocampus. The results in my Thesis provide direct evidence for the view that the postnatal up-regulation of KCC2 accounts for the developmental shift from depolarizing to hyperpolarizing postsynaptic EGABA-A responses in rat hippocampal pyramidal neurons. The results also indicate that after KCC2 expression the developmental onset of excitatory GABAergic transmission upon intense GABAA-receptor stimulation depend on the expression of intrapyramidal CA, identified as the CA isoform VII. Studies on mice with targeted Slc4a10 gene disruption revealed an important role for NCBE in neuronal pH regulation and in pH-dependent modulation of neuronal excitability. Furthermore, this ion transporter is involved in the basolateral Na+ and HCO3- uptake in choroid plexus epithelial cells, and is thus likely to contribute to cerebrospinal fluid production.

Mutations of mitochondrial DNA polymerase gamma: an important cause of neurological disorders

Thesis focuses on mutations of POLG1 gene encoding catalytic subunit polγ-α of mitochondrial DNA polymerase gamma holoenzyme (polG) and the association of mutations with different clinical phenotypes. In addition, particular defective mutant variants of the protein were characterized biochemically in vitro. PolG-holoenzyme is the sole DNA polymerase found in mitochondria. It is involved in replication and repair of the mitochondrial genome, mtDNA. Holoenzyme also includes the accessory subunit polγ-β, which is required for the enhanced processivity of polγ-α. Defective polγ-α causes accumulation of secondary mutations on mtDNA, which leads to a defective oxidative phosphorylation system. The clinical consequences of such mutations are variable, affecting nervous system, skeletal muscles, liver and other post-mitotic tissues. The aims of the studies included: 1) Determination of the role of POLG1 mutations in neurological syndromes with features of mitochondrial dysfunction and an unknown molecular cause. 2) Development and set up of diagnostic tests for routine clinical purposes. 3) Biochemical characterization of the functional consequences of the identified polγ-α variants. Studies describe new neurological phenotypes in addition to PEO caused by POLG1 mutations, including parkinsonism, premature amenorrhea, ataxia and Parkinson s disease (PD). POLG1 mutations and polymorphisms are both common and/or potential genetic risk factors at least among the Finnish population. The major findings and applications reported here are: 1) POLG1 mutations cause parkinsonism and premature menopause in PEO families in either a recessive or a dominant manner. 2) A common recessive POLG1 mutations (A467T and W748S) in the homozygous state causes severe adult or juvenile-onset ataxia without muscular symptoms or histological or mtDNA abnormalities in muscles. 3) A common recessive pathogenic change A467T can also cause a mild dominant disease in heterozygote carriers. 4) The A467T variant shows reduced polymerase activity due to defective template binding. 5) Rare polyglutamine tract length variants of POLG1 are significantly enriched in Finnish idiopathic Parkinson s disease patients. 6) Dominant mutations are clearly restricted to the highly conserved polymerase domain motifs, whereas recessive ones are more evenly distributed along the protein. The present results highlight and confirm the new role of mitochondria in parkinsonism/Parkinson s disease and describe a new mitochondrial ataxia. Based on these results, a POLG1 diagnostic routine has been set up in Helsinki University Central Hospital (HUSLAB).

Leukoencephalopathies in childhood : Delineation of phenotypes

Within the last 15 years, several new leukoencephalopathies have been recognized. However, more than half of children with cerebral white matter abnormalities still have no specific diagnosis. Our aim was to classify unknown leukoencephalopathies and to identify new diseases among them. During the study, three subgroups of patients were delineated and examined further. First, we evaluated 38 patients with unknown leukoencephalopathy. Brain MRI findings were grouped into seven categories according to the predominant location of the abnormalities. The largest subgroups were myelination abnormalities (n=20) and periventricular white matter abnormalities (n=12). Six patients had uniform MRI findings with signal abnormalities in hemispheric white matter and in selective brain stem and spinal cord tracts. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) showed elevated lactate and decreased N-acetylaspartate in the abnormal white matter. The patients presented with ataxia, tremor, distal spasticity, and signs of dorsal column dysfunction. This phenotype - leukoencephalopathy with brain stem and spinal cord involvement and elevated white matter lactate (LBSL) - was first published elsewhere in 2003. A new finding was development of a mild axonal neuropathy. The etiopathogenesis of this disease is unknown, but elevated white matter lactate in MRS suggests a mitochondrial disorder. Secondly, we studied 22 patients with 18q deletions. Clinical and MRI findings were correlated with molecularly defined size of the deletion. All patients with deletions between markers D18S469 and D18S1141 (n=18) had abnormal myelination in brain MRI, while four patients with interstitial deletions sparing that region, had normal myelination pattern. Haploinsufficiency of myelin basic protein is suggested to be responsible for this dysmyelination. Congenital aural atresia/stenosis was found in 50% of the cases and was associated with deletions between markers D18S812 (at 18q22.3) and D18S1141 (at q23). Last part of the study comprised 13 patients with leukoencephalopathy and extensive cerebral calcifications. They showed a spectrum of findings, including progressive cerebral cysts, retinal telangiectasias and angiomas, intrauterine growth retardation, skeletal and hematologic abnormalities, and severe intestinal bleeding, which overlap with features of the previously reported patients with "Coats plus" syndrome and "leukoencephalopathy with calcifications and cysts", suggesting that these disorders are related. All autopsied patients had similar neuropathologic findings showing calcifying obliterative microangiopathy. Our patients may represent an autosomally recessively inherited disorder because there were affected siblings and patients of both sexes. We have started genealogic and molecular genetic studies of this disorder.

Determinants of Coronary and Carotid Atherosclerosis in Finnish Patients with Clinically Suspected Coronary Artery Disease. A Quantitative Angiography and Ultrasound Study

Background. Cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains the most serious threat to life and health in industrialized countries. Atherosclerosis is the main underlying pathology associated with CVD, in particular coronary artery disease (CAD), ischaemic stroke, and peripheral arterial disease. Risk factors play an important role in initiating and accelerating the complex process of atherosclerosis. Most studies of risk factors have focused on the presence or absence of clinically defined CVD. Less is known about the determinants of the severity and extent of atherosclerosis in symptomatic patients. Aims. To clarify the association between coronary and carotid artery atherosclerosis, and to study the determinants associated with these abnormalities with special regard to novel cardiovascular risk factors. Subjects and methods. Quantitative coronary angiography (QCA) and B-mode ultrasound were used to assess coronary and carotid artery atherosclerosis in 108 patients with clinically suspected CAD referred for elective coronary angiography. To evaluate anatomic severity and extent of CAD, several QCA parameters were incorporated into indexes. These measurements reflected CAD severity, extent, and overall atheroma burden and were calculated for the entire coronary tree and separately for different coronary segments (i.e., left main, proximal, mid, and distal segments). Maximum and mean intima-media thickness (IMT) values of carotid arteries were measured and expressed as mean aggregate values. Furthermore, the study design included extensive fasting blood samples, oral glucose tolerance test, and an oral fat-load test to be performed in each participant. Results. Maximum and mean IMT values were significantly correlated with CAD severity, extent, and atheroma burden. There was heterogeneity in associations between IMT and CAD indexes according to anatomical location of CAD. Maximum and mean IMT values, respectively, were correlated with QCA indexes for mid and distal segments but not with the proximal segments of coronary vessels. The values of paraoxonase-1 (PON1) activity and concentration, respectively, were lower in subjects with significant CAD and there was a significant relationship between PON1 activity and concentration and coronary atherosclerosis assessed by QCA. PON1 activity was a significant determinant of severity of CAD independently of HDL cholesterol. Neither PON1 activity nor concentration was associated with carotid IMT. The concentration of triglycerides (TGs), triglyceride-rich lipoproteins (TRLs), oxidized LDL (oxLDL), and the cholesterol content of remnant lipoprotein particle (RLP-C) were significantly increased at 6 hours after intake of an oral fatty meal as compared with fasting values. The mean peak size of LDL remained unchanged 6 hours after the test meal. The correlations between total TGs, TRLs, and RLP-C in fasting and postprandial state were highly significant. RLP-C correlated with oxLDL both in fasting and in fed state and inversely with LDL size. In multivariate analysis oxLDL was a determinant of severity and extent of CAD. Neither total TGs, TRLs, oxLDL, nor LDL size were linked to carotid atherosclerosis. Insulin resistance (IR) was associated with an increased severity and extent of coronary atherosclerosis and seemed to be a stronger predictor of coronary atherosclerosis in the distal parts of the coronary tree than in the proximal and mid parts. In the multivariate analysis IR was a significant predictor of the severity of CAD. IR did not correlate with carotid IMT. Maximum and mean carotid IMT were higher in patients with the apoE4 phenotype compared with subjects with the apoE3 phenotype. Likewise, patients with the apoE4 phenotype had a more severe and extensive CAD than individuals with the apoE3 phenotype. Conclusions. 1) There is an association between carotid IMT and the severity and extent of CAD. Carotid IMT seems to be a weaker predictor of coronary atherosclerosis in the proximal parts of the coronary tree than in the mid and distal parts. 2) PON1 activity has an important role in the pathogenesis of coronary atherosclerosis. More importantly, the study illustrates how the protective role of HDL could be modulated by its components such that equivalent serum concentrations of HDL cholesterol may not equate with an equivalent, potential protective capacity. 3) RLP-C in the fasting state is a good marker of postprandial TRLs. Circulating oxLDL increases in CAD patients postprandially. The highly significant positive correlation between postprandial TRLs and postprandial oxLDL suggests that the postprandial state creates oxidative stress. Our findings emphasize the fundamental role of LDL oxidation in the development of atherosclerosis even after inclusion of conventional CAD risk factors. 4) Disturbances in glucose metabolism are crucial in the pathogenesis of coronary atherosclerosis. In fact, subjects with IR are comparable with diabetic subjects in terms of severity and extent of CAD. 5) ApoE polymorphism is involved in the susceptibility to both carotid and coronary atherosclerosis.

IL-10 in Human Newborns : Ontogeny of IL-10 secretion and relation to the secretion of IFN-g, immunoglobulin M, G, and A, and mononuclear cell composition in newborns

The purpose of this work was to elucidate the ontogeny of interleukin-10 (IL-10) secretion from newborn mononuclear cells (MCs), and to examine its relation to the secretion of interferon-g (IFN-g) and immunoglobulins (Igs). The initial hypothesis was that the decreased immunoglobulin (Ig) synthesis of newborn babies was the result of immature cytokine synthesis regulation, which would lead to excessive IL-10 production, leading in turn to suppressed IFN-g secretion. Altogether 57 full-term newborns and 34 adult volunteers were enrolled. Additionally, surface marker compositions of 29 premature babies were included. Enzyme-linked immunoassays were used to determine the amount of secreted IL-10, IFN-g, and Igs, and the surface marker composition of MC were analyzed with a FACScan flow cytometer. The three most important findings were: 1. Cord blood MC, including CD5+ B cells, are able to secrete IL-10. However, when compared with adults, the secretion of IL-10 was decreased. This indicates that reasons other than excessive IL-10 secretion are responsible of reduced IFN-g secretion in newborns. 2. As illustrated by the IL-10 and IFN-g secretion pattern, newborn cytokine profile was skewed towards the Th2 type. However, approximately 25% of newborns had an adult like cytokine profile with both good IL10 and IFN-g secretion, demonstrating that fullterm newborns are not an immunologically homogenous group at the time of birth. 3. There were significant differences in the surface marker composition of MCs between individual neonates. While gestational age correlated with the proportion of some MC types, it is evident that there are many other maternal and fetal factors that influence the maturity and nature of lymphocyte subpopulations in individual neonates. In conclusion, the reduced ability of neonates to secrete Ig and IFN-g is not a consequence of high IL-10 secretion. However, individual newborns differ significantly in their ability to secrete cytokines as well as Igs.

The role of mast cells in ischemic and hemorrhagic brain injury

Stroke, ischemic or hemorrhagic, belongs among the foremost causes of death and disability worldwide. Massive brain swelling is the leading cause of death in large hemispheric strokes and is only modestly alleviated by available treatment. Thrombolysis with tissue plasminogen activator (TPA) is the only approved therapy in acute ischemic stroke, but fear of TPA-mediated hemorrhage is often a reason for withholding this otherwise beneficial treatment. In addition, recanalization of the occluded artery (spontaneously or with thrombolysis) may cause reperfusion injury by promoting brain edema, hemorrhage, and inflammatory cell infiltration. A dominant event underlying these phenomena seems to be disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). In contrast to ischemic stroke, no widely approved clinical therapy exists for intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), which is associated with poor outcome mainly due to the mass effect of enlarging hematoma and associated brain swelling. Mast cells (MCs) are perivascularly located resident inflammatory cells which contain potent vasoactive, proteolytic, and fibrinolytic substances in their cytoplasmic granules. Experiments from our laboratory showed MC density and their state of granulation to be altered early following focal transient cerebral ischemia, and degranulating MCs were associated with perivascular edema and hemorrhage. (I) Pharmacological MC stabilization led to significantly reduced ischemic brain swelling (40%) and BBB leakage (50%), whereas pharmacological MC degranulation raised these by 90% and 50%, respectively. Pharmacological MC stabilization also revealed a 40% reduction in neutrophil infiltration. Moreover, genetic MC deficiency was associated with an almost 60% reduction in brain swelling, 50% reduction in BBB leakage, and 50% less neutrophil infiltration, compared with controls. (II) TPA induced MC degranulation in vitro. In vivo experiments with post-ischemic TPA administration demonstrated 70- to 100-fold increases in hemorrhage formation (HF) compared with controls HF. HF was significantly reduced by pharmacological MC stabilization at 3 (95%), 6 (75%), and 24 hours (95%) of follow-up. Genetic MC deficiency again supported the role of MCs, leading to 90% reduction in HF at 6 and 24 hours. Pharmacological MC stabilization and genetic MC deficiency were also associated with significant reduction in brain swelling and in neutrophil infiltration. Importantly, these effects translated into a significantly better neurological outcome and lower mortality after 24 hours. (III) Finally, in ICH experiments, pharmacological MC stabilization resulted in significantly less brain swelling, diminished growth in hematoma volume, better neurological scores, and decreased mortality. Pharmacological MC degranulation produced the opposite effects. Genetic MC deficiency revealed a beneficial effect similar to that found with pharmacological MC stabilization. In sum, the role of MCs in these clinically relevant scenarios is supported by a series of experiments performed both in vitro and in vivo. That not only genetic MC deficiency but also drugs targeting MCs could modulate these parameters (translated into better outcome and decreased mortality), suggests a potential therapeutic approach in a number of highly prevalent cerebral insults in which extensive tissue injury is followed by dangerous brain swelling and inflammatory cell infiltration. Furthermore, these experiments could hint at a novel therapy to improve the safety of thrombolytics, and a potential cellular target for those seeking novel forms of treatment for ICH.

Experimental studies on new particle formation and ions

Atmospheric aerosol particles have significant climatic effects. Secondary new particle formation is a globally important source of these particles. Currently, the mechanisms of particle formation and the vapours participating in this process are, however, not truly understood. The recently developed Neutral cluster and Air Ion Spectrometer (NAIS) was widely used in field studies of atmospheric particle formation. The NAIS was calibrated and found to be in adequate agreement with the reference instruments. It was concluded that NAIS can be reliably used to measure ions and particles near the sizes where the atmospheric particle formation begins. The main focus of this thesis was to study new particle formation and participation of ions in this process. To attain this objective, particle and ion formation and growth rates were studied in various environments - at several field sites in Europe, in previously rarely studied sites in Antarctica and Siberia and also in an indoor environment. New particle formation was observed at all sites were studied and the observations were used as indicatives of the particle formation mechanisms. Particle size-dependent growth rates and nucleation mode hygroscopic growth factors were examined to obtain information on the particle growth. It was found that the atmospheric ions participate in the initial steps of new particle formation, although their contribution was minor in the boundary layer. The highest atmospheric particle formation rates were observed at the most polluted sites where the role of ions was the least pronounced. Furthermore, the increase of particle growth rate with size suggested that enhancement of the growth by ions was negligible. Participation of organic vapours in the particle growth was supported by laboratory and field observations. It was addressed that secondary new particle formation can also be a significant source of indoor air particles. These results, extending over a wide variety of environments, give support to previous observations and increase understanding on new particle formation on a global scale.

Hybrid Modelling of Titan's Interaction with the Magnetosphere of Saturn

In this dissertation we study the interaction between Saturn's moon Titan and the magnetospheric plasma and magnetic field. The method of research is a three-dimensional computer simulation model, that is used to simulate this interaction. The simulation model used is a hybrid model. Hybrid models enable individual tracking or tracing of ions and also take into account the particle motion in the propagation of the electromagnetic fields. The hybrid model has been developed at the Finnish Meteorological Institute. This thesis gives a general description of the effects that the solar wind has on Earth and other planets of our solar system. Planetary satellites can also have similar interactions with the solar wind but also with the plasma flows of planetary magnetospheres. Titan is clearly the largest among the satellites of Saturn and also the only known satellite with a dense atmosphere. It is the atmosphere that makes Titan's plasma interaction with the magnetosphere of Saturn so unique. Nevertheless, comparisons with the plasma interactions of other solar system bodies are valuable. Detecting charged plasma particles requires in situ measurements obtainable through scientific spacecraft. The Cassini mission has been one of the most remarkable international efforts in space science. Since 2004 the measurements and images obtained from instruments onboard the Cassini spacecraft have increased the scientific knowledge of Saturn as well as its satellites and magnetosphere in a way no one was probably able to predict. The current level of science on Titan is practically unthinkable without the Cassini mission. Many of the observations by Cassini instrument teams have influenced this research both the direct measurements of Titan as well as observations of its plasma environment. The theoretical principles of the hybrid modelling approach are presented in connection to the broader context of plasma simulations. The developed hybrid model is described in detail: e.g. the way the equations of the hybrid model are solved is shown explicitly. Several simulation techniques, such as the grid structure and various boundary conditions, are discussed in detail as well. The testing and monitoring of simulation runs is presented as an essential routine when running sophisticated and complex models. Several significant improvements of the model, that are in preparation, are also discussed. A main part of this dissertation are four scientific articles based on the results of the Titan model. The Titan model developed during the course of the Ph.D. research has been shown to be an important tool to understand Titan's plasma interaction. One reason for this is that the structures of the magnetic field around Titan are very much three-dimensional. The simulation results give a general picture of the magnetic fields in the vicinity of Titan. The magnetic fine structure of Titan's wake as seen in the simulations seems connected to Alfvén waves an important wave mode in space plasmas. The particle escape from Titan is also a major part of these studies. Our simulations show a bending or turning of Titan's ionotail that we have shown to be a direct result of the basic principles in plasma physics. Furthermore, the ion flux from the magnetosphere of Saturn into Titan's upper atmosphere has been studied. The modelled ion flux has asymmetries that would likely have a large impact in the heating in different parts of Titan's upper atmosphere.

Kahdestaan kotona : Tutkimus vanhoista pariskunnista

In this study, which pertains to the field of social gerontology and family research, I analyse the meaning of everyday life as perceived by elderly couples living at home. I use the ethnographic approach, with the aim of interpreting meanings from the elderly people s personal point of view and to increase understanding of their way of life. The study deepens our conception of what gives purpose to the everyday life of elderly people. The number of elderly couples is growing and, to an increasing extent, a couple will live and cope together to a ripe old age. Such coping can also be viewed as an important resource for society. Ethnography tries to get close to people's life practices. I examine the day-to-day life of elderly couples based on textual data, which I obtained by visiting the homes of 16 couples in a total of five small municipalities in Southern Finland. The couples had married soon after the war or in the early 1950s. I found that the aspiration towards continuity, which unites the concepts of place and home, housework and a long marriage, is the most important notion connecting the discussion themes. The results show that in the opinion of the elderly, the concept of a good life is intertwined with a long marriage spent at home, as well as its values. Old people find that they lead an independent life if they feel that they can hold on to the key features of their way of life. Elderly couples ability to cope with everyday life involves taking care of housework and other tasks around the home together. This means that they support one another and have common goals and aspirations. Daily tasks provide substance in the lives of elderly couples. Each day has its rhythm, and the pace of this rhythm is set by routine and habits. Satisfaction stems from the fact that you can do something you are good at. The couples have also revised the division of housework. Men have learned to perform new tasks around the house when their wives can no longer manage them by themselves. Some tasks are given up. Day-to-day life at home and around the house provides room for men s participation. Mutual support and care between husband and wife can also protect them from having to resort to outside or official help. Old couples integrate their life experiences and memories, as well as present and future risks and opportunities. They wish to carry on their lives as before, and still think that their present life corresponds with their idea of a good life. Key words: elderly couples, continuity theory of aging, everyday life, social gerontology, family research

The Relational Self, the Social Bond and the Dynamics of Personal Relationships : A Sociological Analysis

This study analyses personal relationships linking research to sociological theory on the questions of the social bond and on the self as social. From the viewpoint of disruptive life events and experiences, such as loss, divorce and illness, it aims at understanding how selves are bound to their significant others as those specific people ‘close or otherwise important’ to them. Who form the configurations of significant others? How do different bonds respond in disruptions and how do relational processes unfold? How is the embeddedness of selves manifested in the processes of bonding, on the one hand, and in the relational formation of the self, on the other? The bonds are analyzed from an anti-categorical viewpoint based on personal citations of significance as opposed to given relationship categories, such as ‘family’ or ‘friendship’ – the two kinds of relationships that in fact are most frequently significant. The study draws from analysis of the personal narratives of 37 Finnish women and men (in all 80 interviews) and their entire configurations of those specific people who they cite as ‘close or otherwise important’. The analysis stresses the subjective experiences, while also investigating the actualized relational processes and configurations of all personal relationships with certain relationship histories embedded in micro-level structures. The research is based on four empirical sub-studies of personal relationships and a summary discussing the questions of the self and social bond. Discussion draws from G. H. Mead, C. Cooley, N. Elias, T. Scheff, G. Simmel and the contributors of ‘relational sociology’. Sub-studies analyse bonds to others from the viewpoint of biographical disruption and re-configuration of significant others, estranged family bonds, peer support and the formation of the most intimate relationships into exclusive and inclusive configurations. All analyses examine the dialectics of the social and the personal, asking how different structuring mechanisms and personal experiences and negotiations together contribute to the unfolding of the bonds. The summary elaborates personal relationships as social bonds embedded in wider webs of interdependent people and social settings that are laden with cultural expectations. Regarding the question of the relational self, the study proposes both bonding and individuality as significant. They are seen as interdependent phases of the relationality of the self. Bonding anchors the self to its significant relationships, in which individuality is manifested, for example, in contrasting and differentiating dynamics, but also in active attempts to connect with others. Individuality is not a fixed quality of the self, but a fluid and interdependent phase of the relational self. More specifically, it appears in three formats in the flux of relational processes: as a sense of unique self (via cultivation of subjective experiences), as agency and as (a search for) relative autonomy. The study includes an epilogue addressing the ambivalence between the social expectation of individuality in society and the bonded reality of selves.

Interculturality in Theory and Practice in the Master's Programme of Intercultural Bilingual Education in Bolivia

Tämän tutkielman aiheena on kulttuurienvälisyys kulttuurienvälisessä kaksikielisessä opetuksessa (Educación Intercultural Bilingüe, EIB) Boliviassa ja erityisesti kulttuurienvälisen kaksikielisen koulutuksen maisteriohjelmassa (Maestría en Educación Intercultural Bilingüe), jota koordinoi PROEIB Andes -järjestö yhteistyössä Cochabamban Universidad Mayor de San Simónin kanssa. Tutkielman tarkoituksena on selvittää, miten kulttuurienvälisyys määritellään ja mitä se käytännössä merkitsee opetuksen eri osa-alueilla: sisällöissä, opetusmetodeissa ja -materiaaleissa sekä arvioinnissa. Koska kulttuurienvälisen kaksikielisen opetuksen toteutus ja tutkiminen eri Latinalaisen Amerikan maissa on tähän asti painottunut lähes yksinomaan perusopetukseen, pyrin työssäni keskittymään kulttuurienvälisyyden ilmentymiin nimenomaan bolivialaisessa korkeakoulukontekstissa. Tutkielman aineistona on käytetty kahdeksaa EIB -asiantuntijoiden teemahaastattelua, jotka FM Eila Isotalus on tehnyt Boliviassa vuonna 2004. Haastatteluaineisto analysoitiin teoriasidonnaista eli abduktiivista sisällönanalyysiä käyttäen. Tutkielman teoriatausta koostuu yhtäältä kulttuurienvälisyyteen ja monikulttuurisuuteen liittyvien käsitteiden määrittelystä, ja toisaalta kulttuurienväliseen opetukseen liittyvien mallien esittelystä. Aineiston analyysissä avuksi on ollut etenkin James A. Banksin teoria monikulttuurisen opetuksen viidestä ulottuvuudesta, joiden kautta on voitu pohtia kulttuurienvälisyyden toteutumista opetuksen eri osa-alueilla ja nostaa esille bolivialaisen kulttuurienvälisen opetuksen erityispiirteitä. Aineiston analyysissä ilmenee, että kulttuurienvälisyyden käsitteen määrittely on vahvasti kontekstisidonnainen ja jatkuva prosessi, johon vaikuttavat eri toimijoiden näkemykset ja vaatimukset. EIB -asiantuntijoiden esittämät määrittelyt voidaan jakaa makro- ja mikrososiaaliseen kategoriaan sen mukaan, nähdäänkö kulttuurienvälisyys ensisijaisesti yhteiskunnallisena vai yksilötason käsitteenä. Aineistossa korostuu ajatus latinalaisamerikkalaisesta kulttuurienvälisyydestä poliittisena käsitteenä, jonka keskiössä on vaatimus yhteiskunnallisten valtasuhteiden muutoksesta. Yksi suurimmista haasteista kulttuurienvälisyyden toteuttamisessa bolivialaisessa korkeakouluopetuksessa ovat akateemiseen kulttuuriin liittyvät perinteet, jotka vaikeuttavat uusien toimintatapojen omaksumista. Kulttuurienvälisyys opetuksessa on toistaiseksi tarkoittanut etupäässä sisältöjen monipuolistamista lisäämällä opetusohjelmiin elementtejä paikallisista kulttuureista. Tärkeänä askeleena EIB:n kehityksessä voidaan pitää painopisteen siirtymistä sisältökysymyksistä kulttuurienvälisten opetusmetodien luomiseen. Näiden opetusmenetelmien tulisi pohjautua ymmärrykseen oppimisesta kokonaisvaltaisena, yhteisöllisenä prosessina ja siten kuroa umpeen kuilua koulun ja yhteisöjen arkielämän välillä. Opetusmenetelmien ja -materiaalien suhteen keskeinen kulttuurienvälisyyteen liittyvä kysymys on intiaanikansojen suullisen kulttuurin ja tiedon jakamisen perinteiden hyödyntäminen opetuksessa. Maisteriohjelman opiskelijoiden arvioinnissa pyritään huomioimaan yksilön kokonaisvaltainen kehitys pelkkien opintosuoritusten sijasta, mutta arvosanoihin pohjautuvasta arvostelukäytännöstä ei ole toistaiseksi voitu luopua yliopiston vaatimusten vuoksi. Kaiken kaikkiaan kulttuurienvälisyyden toteuttaminen EIB:ssä ja maisteriohjelmassa on pitkän tähtäimen prosessi, joka vaatii perinteisten opetuskäytäntöjen kyseenalaistamista ja korkeakouluopetuksessa myös akateemisen kulttuurin haastamista. On oleellisen tärkeää, että prosessiin osallistuvat asiantuntijoiden ohella myös esimerkiksi opiskelijat, intiaaniyhteisöt ja -järjestöaktiivit.

Pilkahduksia Pilkkeestä – tutkimus ikääntyvien päihteidenkäyttäjien päivätoimintaryhmistä

Tutkimuskohteenani ovat Helsingin Diakonissalaitoksen Pilke-projektin päivätoimintaryhmät ikääntyville päihteidenkäyttäjille. Helsingin Diakonissalaitoksen Pilke-projekti on osa Sininauhaliiton Liika on aina liikaa – ikääntyminen ja alkoholi -hanketta ja sitä rahoittaa Raha-automaattiyhdistys. Idea tutkimuksen tekoon nousi Liika on aina liikaa – ikääntyminen ja alkoholi -hankkeen tutkimustarpeiden myötä, tarpeesta saada kuuluviin yhden osahankkeen asiakkaiden ääni ja nostaa esiin heidän näkemyksensä ja kokemuksensa ryhmätoiminnasta, johon he osallistuvat, ja jota ei ole tutkittu vielä. Yhtenä perusteluna tutkimuksen tekemiselle on myös se, että aihe on uusi ja sitä ei ole juurikaan tutkittu. Tutkimusotteeni on etnografinen. Olen havainnoinut kolmea, Helsingin Diakonissalaitoksen eri tiloissa kokoontuvaa Pilke-ryhmää reilun puolen vuoden ajan. Tämän lisäksi olen haastatellut ryhmien jäseniä ryhmähaastattelun keinoin. Tutkimusnäkökulmaani olen laajentanut koskemaan myös ohjaajien työtä, koska pidän heidän työnsä näkyväksi tekemistä tärkeänä. Analyysissä yhdistän etnografisen aineiston temaattista luentaa ja diskurssianalyyttisempää otetta kiinnittäen huomiota puheella tuotettuihin ja puheen tuottamiin merkityksiin, vuorovaikutukseen keskustelijoiden välillä sekä identiteetin rakentumiseen puheessa. Tutkimuksessa pyrin kuvaamaan ja ymmärtämään ikääntyvien päihteidenkäyttäjien ryhmätoimintaa ja sen merkitystä ikääntyville sekä sitä, miten ryhmään löydytään. Ryhmähaastatteluissa kiinnostukseni kohdistuu etenkin siihen, miten ikääntyvät kokevat Pilke-ryhmätoiminnan ja millaisia määrittelyjä he itsestään ja suhteestaan ryhmätoimintaan tai alkoholiin antavat. Tuon esiin myös sitä, millaisiin haasteisiin tutkija voi törmätä tutkiessa ikääntyneitä päihteidenkäyttäjiä. Pohdin esimerkiksi afaattisesti puhuvien ihmisten haastattelemista ryhmähaastattelun keinoin sekä miksi havainnointi on mielestäni hyvä tapa tutkia ikääntyneitä päihteidenkäyttäjiä. Tulo Pilkkeeseen alkaa etsivästä työstä. Verkostojen yhteistyöllä ryhmiin päätyvät sellaiset ikääntyvät, joista suurin osa ei olisi kotonaan aktiivisten eläkeläisten harrastuspiireissä, koska niissä ei ole totuttu käymään ja sosiaalinen elämä on rajoittunut esimerkiksi lähiöravintolaan. Puhutaan haastavanakin pidetystä vähemmistöstä ikääntyneiden joukossa. Alkoholia on käytetty jo pitkään, tai sitä on ryhdytty käyttämään runsaasti vasta iäkkäänä. Pilkkeeseen löytyvistä ikääntyvistä varsin suuri osa kuitenkin kiinnittyy ryhmään. Tähän syynä ovat uusien ihmiskontaktien saamisen tärkeys, ohjaajien persoona, keskustelumahdollisuus ja mahdollisuus tehdä käsillä jotain, mitä kenties ei koskaan tulisi kotona tehtyä. Kynnys osallistumiseen on matala ja vaatimuksia elämäntapoja muuttamiselle ei ole. Pilkkeen merkitys siihen osallistuville on tulosteni mukaan suuri. Pilke katkaisee usein yksinäiseksikin koettua arkea ja muut ryhmässä käyvät koetaan tärkeiksi. Pilke tarjoaa mahdollisuuden jakaa ajatuksiaan ja omaa elämäntarinaansa. Huumori kantaa Pilke-tapaamisia. Myös käsillä tekeminen koetaan tärkeäksi ja sen huomaaminen, että tekemisen taito on tallella, voimaannuttaa. Pilke luo uudenlaista järjestystä elämään ja sen myötä myös alkoholinkäyttö osalla vähenee. Etenkin pitkäaikaisille jäsenille Pilkkeen voi sanoa muodostuvan kiinnipitäväksi ympäristöksi, joka on tutkimukseni keskeinen, alun perin D.W. Winnicottin käyttämä käsite.

Aikuissosiaalityön asiakkaiden kokemuksia ja toiveita sosiaalityön tuesta ja avusta ja yhteistyöstä sosiaalityöntekijän kanssa

Tämä tutkielma käsittelee kunnallisen aikuissosiaalityön työikäisten asiakkaiden kokemuksia ja toiveita sosiaalityön tuesta ja avusta ja yhteistyöstä sosiaalityöntekijän kanssa. Tutkimus on laadullinen. Tutkimusaineisto on kerätty haastattelemalla yksilöhaastatteluna Helsingin kaupungin sosiaaliviraston sosiaaliaseman asiakkaita, jotka olivat sosiaalityöntekijän asiakkaina sosiaalityöntekijöiden työn painottuessa muuhun kuin toimeentulotukityöhön. Lähestymistapa on kuvaileva ja tulkitseva. Keskeisiä lähteitä ovat esimerkiksi Kirsi Juhilan teos Sosiaalityöntekijöinä ja asiakkaina (v. 2006) ja Kaarina Mönkkösen tutkimus Dialogisuus kommunikaationa ja suhteena (v. 2002) ja teos Vuorovaikutus – dialoginen asiakastyö (v. 2007). Asiakkaiden kokemukset tuesta ja avusta jäsentyivät neljäksi eri merkityskokonaisuudeksi, tuen muodoksi. Tuki näyttäytyi arjen sujumisen ja jäsentymisen tukemisena ja päihteettömän elämän tukemisena. Tuki oli myös aktivointia työn ja koulutuksen suuntaan sekä muuhun yhteisölliseen ja yhteiskunnalliseen osallisuuteen. Tuki näyttäytyi myös asianajona ja moniammatillisena tukena. Sosiaalityön toiminnallisilla ryhmillä sosiaalityöntekijän käyttäminä työmenetelminä oli merkitystä niin arjessa selviytymisen, päihteettömän elämän kuin yhteisöllisen ja yhteiskunnallisen osallisuuden tukemisessa. Asiakkaan ja sosiaalityöntekijän yhteistyö, asiakkaan kohtelu ja kokemukset saadusta tuesta ja avusta näyttäytyivät myönteisinä viime vuosien aikana. Asiakaslähtöinen, asiakkaan tilanteesta ja tarpeista lähtevä, asiakkaan omat näkemykset huomioiva, palvelu näytti hyvin pitkälle toteutuneen. Sosiaalityöntekijä nähtiin yleensä auttamishaluisena ja asiakasta ymmärtävänä ja sosiaalityöntekijältä myös toivottiin näitä asioita, samoin kuin asiakkaan puolella olemista, myötätuntoista asennetta ja yksilöllistä kohtelua. Asiakkaat kokivat sosiaalityöntekijän yleensä kuuntelevan heitä ja huomioivan heidän näkemyksensä omasta tilanteestaan. Asiakkaan kuuntelemista myös toivottiin. Asiakkaan ja työntekijän suhde näyttäytyi dialogisena suhteena. Sosiaalityöntekijää pidettiin rinnalla kulkijana, auttajana, asiakkaan palvelijana ja toivon ylläpitäjänä. Asiakassuhteen luottamuksellisuutta pidettiin tärkeänä. Sosiaalityö näyttäytyi lähes kaikilla suunnitelmallisena ja tavoitteellisena elämäntilanteen muutokseen tähtäävänä työskentelynä. Osalla työn painotus oli huolenpitotyössä. Yhteistyön onnistumista ja tuen saamista koettiin rajoittavan asiakkaasta itsestään johtuvat syyt ja juridishallinnollinen järjestelmä lakeineen ja ohjeineen. Asiakkaat näyttivät harjoittavan itsekontrollia eli yleensä hakivat sellaista tukea, etenkin taloudellista tukea, jota olettivat saavansa. Sosiaalityöntekijän toivottiin ottavan kantaa asioihin ja tuovan oman näkökulmansa keskusteluun, eli odotettiin dialogia ja työntekijän asiantuntemusta, jopa neuvoja. Toivottiin kokonaisvaltaista kohtaamista, missä näkyi tunnetason huomioimisen tärkeys asiatason lisäksi. Asiakkaan todellinen kyky muutokseen nousi esille asiana, joka sosiaalityössä tulisi huomioida. Asiakkaan tilanteen ymmärtämiseksi juuri tarvitaan yhteistyötä. Asiakkaan tukeminen toteutui asiakkaan ja sosiaalityöntekijän tapaamisissa ja muissa kohtaamisissa, mukaan lukien etuuksien myöntäminen. Tukeminen toteutui myös toiminnallisten ryhmien kautta ja moniammatillisena tukena.

Maaseutupolitiikan YTR. Itsearviointitutkimus 2010

Maaseutupolitiikan yhteistyöryhmä on pääosin poliittis-hallinnollisessa tilassa toimiva, uusi verkostomainen hallintasommitelma, jossa on mukana myös hallinnon ulkopuolisia toimijoita ja tahoja. Kokonaisuutta nimitetään tässä YTR-verkostoksi. Itsearvioinnin tarkoituksena oli argumentoida esiin YTR-verkoston toiminnan kriittiset kohdat. Arviointitutkimuksesta vastasi Helsingin yliopiston Ruralia-instituutti ja sen toteutti 25.8. – 31.12.2010 välisenä aikana tutkimusjohtaja, dosentti Torsti Hyyryläinen. Itsearviointiin osallistui valtioneuvoston viisivuotiseksi toimikaudeksi (2008-2013) nimeämän maaseutupolitiikan yhteistyöryhmän jäseniä ja varajäseniä. Kokoavana tuloksena esitetään seuraava analyysi: 1. YTR-verkoston tiedollinen kapasiteetti on vahva. 2. YTR-verkostolla on potentiaalisesti laajat suhderesurssit mutta ne ovat alihyödynnettyjä. 3. YTR-verkostolla on mobilisoitikapasiteettia mutta sen omat voimavarat ovat niukat. YTR-verkostolla on ollut keskeinen rooli maaseutupolitiikan muotoutumisessa ja kehittymisessä. Keskustelu maaseudun kehittämistä olisi Suomessa ollut oleellisesti vähäisempää, heikommin jäsenneltyä ja tietopääomaltaan suppeampaa ilman YTR-verkostoa. Verkostossa on monialaista asiantuntemusta, jonka perusteella se on kyennyt vastaamaan laajoihin maaseutupoliittisiin kommunikaatiotarpeisiin. Tästä yhtenä esimerkkinä on maaseutupoliittisen selonteon perusteellinen valmistelu ja monivaiheinen käsittely eduskunnassa vuonna 2010. Verkostosuhteiden hallinnan kehittäminen nousee arvioinnissa tärkeimmäksi YTR-verkoston toimintakyvyn, tuloksellisuuden ja vaikuttavuuden kehittämisen painopisteeksi. Verkosto näyttää saavuttaneen tärkeän kehitysvaiheen, josta ei päästä eteenpäin ilman sen kysymyksen pohdintaa, miten YTR-verkoston suhdekapasiteettia, eli suhteita keskeisiin sidosryhmiin voitaisiin kehittää. Valta on YTR-verkostossa komplisoiduinta ja ongelmallisinta juuri suhderesurssien alueilla. Se kiteytyy kysymykseen poliittisesta valmistelu- ja päätösvallasta, eli kenellä on legitiimi asema toisaalta muotoilla poliittiseen päätöksentekoon etenevät aloitteet ja lopulta tehdä poliittisesti sitovia päätöksiä koskien maaseutua ja sen kehittämistä. Medioiden vaikutusvallan huomioiminen on entistä tärkeämpää. Niiden suuntaan vahvemmin kommunikoimalla YTR-verkosto voi tulevaisuudessa lisätä vaikutusvaltaansa. Toistaiseksi lähes täysin käyttämätön potentiaali on sosiaalisen median verkostoissa, joihin YTR:n säikeet eivät vielä juurikaan ulotu. Suhdepääomassa on siis YTR:n voima ja samalla sen heikkous. Tämä johtopäätös on merkittävä erityisesti valtioneuvoston asettaman yhteistyöryhmän itsensä kannalta. Yhteistyöryhmän tulisi itse vapautua komiteamaisista työtavoista ja kehittää niitä monimuotoisemmiksi. Paikallaan on myös kysyä: mitä yhteistyöryhmän jäsenet ja jäsenyhteisöt ovat valmiita tekemään YTR:n suhderesurssien kehittämiseksi?