Nurse Rostering with Genetic Algorithms

In recent years genetic algorithms have emerged as a useful tool for the heuristic solution of complex discrete optimisation problems. In particular there has been considerable interest in their use in tackling problems arising in the areas of scheduling and timetabling. However, the classical genetic algorithm paradigm is not well equipped to handle constraints and successful implementations usually require some sort of modification to enable the search to exploit problem specific knowledge in order to overcome this shortcoming. This paper is concerned with the development of a family of genetic algorithms for the solution of a nurse rostering problem at a major UK hospital. The hospital is made up of wards of up to 30 nurses. Each ward has its own group of nurses whose shifts have to be scheduled on a weekly basis. In addition to fulfilling the minimum demand for staff over three daily shifts, nurses’ wishes and qualifications have to be taken into account. The schedules must also be seen to be fair, in that unpopular shifts have to be spread evenly amongst all nurses, and other restrictions, such as team nursing and special conditions for senior staff, have to be satisfied. The basis of the family of genetic algorithms is a classical genetic algorithm consisting of n-point crossover, single-bit mutation and a rank-based selection. The solution space consists of all schedules in which each nurse works the required number of shifts, but the remaining constraints, both hard and soft, are relaxed and penalised in the fitness function. The talk will start with a detailed description of the problem and the initial implementation and will go on to highlight the shortcomings of such an approach, in terms of the key element of balancing feasibility, i.e. covering the demand and work regulations, and quality, as measured by the nurses’ preferences. A series of experiments involving parameter adaptation, niching, intelligent weights, delta coding, local hill climbing, migration and special selection rules will then be outlined and it will be shown how a series of these enhancements were able to eradicate these difficulties. Results based on several months’ real data will be used to measure the impact of each modification, and to show that the final algorithm is able to compete with a tabu search approach currently employed at the hospital. The talk will conclude with some observations as to the overall quality of this approach to this and similar problems.

Motivação para amamentação em função da escolaridade materna

Enquadramento: Atualmente a prevalência da amamentação à saída da maternidade é elevada, no entanto não temos valores semelhantes quanto ao aleitamento materno exclusivo, nem no seu prolongamento até aos dois anos. Objetivos: Verificar as relações entre a motivação das puérperas para a amamentação e variáveis sociodemográficas e obstétricas e analisar a influência das variáveis sociodemográficas e obstétricas na motivação para a amamentação quando mediadas pela escolaridade da puérpera. Material e métodos: Estudo não experimental, quantitativo, descritivo correlacional e analítico. O tipo de amostragem é não probabilístico por conveniência. O instrumento de colheita de dados foi o questionário, aplicado a 479 puérperas (média de idade 30,56 anos) no dia da alta hospitalar. O questionário permitiu fazer a caracterização da amostra em termos sociodemográficos e obstétricos. Foi ainda utilizada a escala de Motivação para Amamentação de Nelas, Ferreira & Duarte (2008). Resultados: Os resultados obtidos revelam que 86,6% são casadas ou vivem em união de fato e pertencem a uma família nuclear (89,1%). Na amostra, 59,5% tem o Ensino Superior e 73.9% encontra-se empregada e 55,3% reside em meio urbano. A maioria (43,0%), esteve grávida só uma vez e 34.4% já tinha tido uma gestação anterior. São mães pela primeira vez 48,0%, 79,3% realizou seis ou mais consultas tal como o preconizado, e 92,4% planeou a gravidez. A maioria dos partos foi de termo (68,4%). A quase totalidade (9 em cada 10) revela elevada motivação para amamentar. A idade, o estado civil, a residência e as habilitações literárias não influenciam a motivação geral para a amamentação As puérperas desempregadas são as mais motivadas. As puérperas mais motivadas tiveram duas ou mais gestações, e são multíparas. Não foi provada a relação entre as outras variáveis obstétricas e a motivação para a amamentação. A variável mediadora apenas teve impacto com o local de residência, onde as participantes residentes em meio urbano e com ensino superior são as mais motivadas na dimensão fisiológica, seguidas das residentes em meio urbano e com habilitações literárias até ao ensino secundário. Conclusões: Sugerimos a criação de um grupo de trabalho com atuação na comunidade escolar para capacitar os jovens sobre a importância do aleitamento materno, recriando uma 8 cultura de amamentação assente nas orientações emanadas na política de aleitamento materno dos Hospitais amigos dos bebés. Palavras-chave: Amamentação, Motivação, Escolaridade.

Investimento na vida pessoal da pessoa idosa institucionalizada

Enquadramento: Nas últimas décadas, tem-se assistido a um envelhecimento populacional crescente e a um progressivo aumento da institucionalização dos idosos. A institucionalização representa frequentemente para o idoso uma rutura com o seu passado, levando à perda da sua individualidade e consequentemente a um processo de isolamento que poderá contribuir para níveis elevados de insatisfação com a vida. O Investimento na vida pessoal remete-nos para a valorização e atribuição de objetivos de vida ao ser humano, naquela que é a última etapa da sua vida, em todos os seus atributos e caraterísticas, inclusive na sua complexa estrutura física, intelectual e espiritual. Objetivos: Avaliar o nível de Investimento na vida pessoal percecionado pelos idosos institucionalizados e analisar a sua relação com as variáveis socio demográficas, clínicas, e psicossociais. Métodos: Trata-se de um estudo não experimental, transversal, descritivo-correlacional e de caráter quantitativo, que foi realizado numa amostra não probabilística por conveniência, constituída por 90 pessoas idosas a residir nas ERPI do concelho de Vila Nova de Paiva. Para a mensuração das variáveis utilizou-se um instrumento de colheita de dados que integra uma secção de caraterização sócio demográfica, e uma secção de caraterização clínico-funcional (índice de Barthel), caraterização familiar (Escala de Apgar Familiar) e situacional, lazer (Índice de Atividades de Lazer), espiritualidade (Escala da Espiritualidade), perceção da vida atual (Escala de Satisfação com a Vida) e futura, e por fim a Escala de Avaliação de Investimento na Vida Pessoal. Resultados: Os dados mostram que a perceção dos idosos sobre o investimento na sua vida pessoal se distribui de uma forma relativamente equitativa por três níveis. Contudo, o maior grupo percentual (37,8%) perceciona o seu investimento como elevado, enquanto 32,2% o entende como baixo e o grupo mais reduzido (30,0%) o considera moderado. A análise por género mostra que os homens tendem a avaliar o investimento de uma forma mais positiva que as mulheres; também os idosos com habilitações académicas superiores (p= 0,041) e com maior nível de independência funcional (p= 0,037) são os que percecionam um maior investimento na vida pessoal. Constatamos ainda que a família tem um efeito significativo (p= 0,020) no nível do investimento na vida do idoso, à semelhança da existência de mais esperança (p= 0,002), maior satisfação com a vida (p= 0,013) e do desenvolvimento de planos para o futuro (p= 0,032). Conclusão: As evidências encontradas neste estudo mostram que há níveis diferenciados de Investimento na vida pessoal entre os idosos. Este Investimento correlaciona-se de forma significativa com diversas variáveis independentes que depois de devidamente identificadas devem ser promovidas para assegurar aos idosos um envelhecimento ativo e com qualidade. As competências atribuídas ao enfermeiro especialista em reabilitação são de uma mais-valia inegualável no desenvolvimento do referido envelhecimento com qualidade, quando inserido numa equipa multidisciplinar, nas Estruturas Residenciais Para Idosos. Palavras-chave: idosos, institucionalização, satisfação com a vida, investimento na vida pessoal.

Exploration des pratiques et des conceptions éthiques des enseignantes et des enseignants du collégial en lien avec la compétence éthique

L’actualité est dominée par les questions d’éthique, dans le secteur économique entre autres où les actions des investisseurs comme celles des dirigeants d’organisations doivent répondre aux normes éthiques de leur domaine. C’est le cas aussi en éducation où l’attention est portée sur la professionnalisation de l’enseignement. Celle-ci est axée sur la formation et le travail des enseignantes et des enseignants. Elle vise à les former à des normes éthiques élevées et aux compétences professionnelles spécifiques au travail. L’une des composantes de la professionnalisation est l’éthique. L’éthique de la profession enseignante sous-tend les actions de l’enseignante et de l’enseignant dans sa pratique en ce qui a trait au contenu enseigné, aux étudiantes et aux étudiants, aux collègues et à soi. Or, la formation en éthique et en pédagogie n’est pas une condition à l’embauche des enseignantes et des enseignants des secteurs pré-universitaires et techniques du collégial qui sont recrutés comme des professionnels ou des spécialistes disciplinaires. Cette recherche vise à explorer sur le terrain les pratiques et les conceptions éthiques des enseignantes et des enseignants au collégial. Il s’agit de répertorier les pratiques éthiques en vue de connaître les raisons sur lesquelles ces derniers se basent pour les justifier. Pour situer le contexte de la problématique à l’origine de cette recherche, les facteurs suivants ont été pris en considération : les réductions des ressources financières qui caractérisent le milieu professionnel collégial depuis plus d’une décennie, les changements organisationnels et pédagogiques importants tels que l’approche-programme, la finalité de l’éducation, la nature de la tâche enseignante, le manque de formation en éthique et en pédagogie, l’insuffisance de l’encadrement des nouveaux enseignantes et enseignants qui arrivent en grand nombre, session après session, au collégial. Pour rendre compte des pratiques et des conceptions éthiques des enseignantes et des enseignants, il a été nécessaire de considérer et de préciser les éléments qui constituent le cadre de référence. Il s’agit de l’éthique, de la compétence éthique (MEQ, 2001), de l’éthique appliquée, de l’éthique réflexive, de la finalité de l’éducation, de la complexité de la tâche d’enseignement, de la compétence professionnelle au collégial (Dorais, Laliberté, 1999), des principales préoccupations éthiques au collégial (Desautels, Gohier, Jutras, 2009) et du cycle de vie de la carrière enseignante. Étant donné que la recherche porte sur les pratiques et les conceptions éthiques des enseignantes et des enseignants en lien avec la compétence éthique, une méthodologie qualitative a été utilisée. Un questionnaire de renseignements sociodémographiques et une entrevue semi-dirigée ont permis d’obtenir des données qualitatives à partir desquelles les récits des enseignantes et des enseignants ont été analysés afin de dresser un répertoire de leurs pratiques éthiques. Cette méthodologie a été privilégiée puisqu’elle permet de comprendre la signification que donnent les enseignantes et les enseignants à leurs pratiques et à leurs conceptions éthiques. L’interprétation des résultats comprend une analyse descriptive et une analyse compréhensive des données. Le travail a d’abord consisté à regrouper les données selon les principaux enjeux éthiques qui sont en fait des thèmes relevant de la compétence éthique. Par exemple, la préparation des cours, l’évaluation des apprentissages des étudiantes et des étudiants, les préoccupations éthiques des enseignantes et des enseignants en rapport aux collègues, etc. Une fois le portrait d’un thème fait, une analyse compréhensive est réalisée pour en trouver le sens à partir de l’explication des pratiques professionnelles des enseignantes et des enseignants. Les résultats de la recherche ont permis de constater la présence constante chez les enseignantes et les enseignants du souci d’amener les étudiantes et les étudiants à la réussite scolaire. Cela se traduit par la recherche de l’amélioration des moyens d’enseignement, les mises à jour des contenus enseignés, la recherche d’activités d’apprentissage qui ont un sens pour les étudiantes et les étudiants et le courage professionnel (essayer de nouvelles pratiques professionnelles). Les résultats montrent aussi que, malgré l’absence d’une structure permanente pour développer la compétence éthique, c’est-à-dire l’absence de balises administratives en matière d’éthique, les enseignantes et enseignantes développent bien la compétence éthique. Parmi les moyens qu’ils se donnent pour améliorer le développement de l’éthique, ils privilégient la sensibilisation à travers des groupes de discussion avec les pairs.

Conception d’une épreuve terminale de cours pour évaluer une compétence en éducation physique au collégial

Au Québec, il existe une réalité différente d’ailleurs dans le monde, en ce qui concerne le parcours scolaire des étudiantes et étudiants. C’est ainsi que la création, dans les années 1960, des collèges d’enseignement général et professionnel (CEGEP) a marqué cette différence. Quelque trente ans plus tard, un changement des programmes demandait aux enseignantes et aux enseignants de passer d’une évaluation par objectifs à une autre qui met l’accent sur l’approche par compétences (APC). Au collégial, les enseignantes et les enseignants se sont donc approprié cette approche et ont adapté leur enseignement et leurs méthodes d’évaluation. Aujourd’hui, afin de soutenir les professionnelles et les professionnels de l’éducation dans cette démarche, les cégeps fournissent un guide nommé Politique institutionnelle d’évaluation des apprentissages (PIEA), ce dernier s’inscrivant dans un cadre législatif et réglementaire. Cet essai de maîtrise traite précisément de l’évaluation au collégial. Il découle d’un questionnement sur l’épreuve terminale de cours en éducation physique en ensemble I au Cégep de Saint-Jérôme. Cette problématique a d’abord nécessité la recherche d’informations sur le sujet. Malheureusement, très peu d’écrits ont été répertoriés. C’est ainsi que les théories sur les concepts de compétence, d’évaluation des compétences et d’une épreuve terminale pour évaluer une compétence en éducation physique nous ont aidé à cerner la problématique et ont constitué notre cadre de référence. Afin de traiter adéquatement du sujet, nous nous devions aussi de recueillir des informations sur les cours d’éducation physique au collégial et leurs évaluations. Le but de cet essai est de proposer une épreuve terminale de cours pour évaluer la compétence de l’ensemble I en éducation physique au collégial, et ce, suivant deux objectifs : créer une nouvelle épreuve terminale de cours, et la validation de cette dernière auprès d’expertes et d’experts par le biais d’un questionnaire et d’une entrevue téléphonique. Le type de cette recherche en est donc une de développement et s’appuie sur les écrits de Van der Maren (2014). L’approche méthodologique qualitative/interprétative définit aussi cet essai, puisque les expertes et experts ressources nous ont fait part de leurs observations et de leur réalité sur le terrain. La conception d’un outil d’évaluation pour vérifier la progression des apprentissages de l’étudiante et l’étudiant en situation de tâche complexe et authentique prend la forme d’un portfolio nommé Carnet sportif. Celui dernier est accompagné d’un guide de réalisation et permet à l’étudiante ou l’étudiant de laisser des traces de sa démarche durant la session. Ainsi, il s’assure de jouer un rôle actif dans ses apprentissages. Le portfolio conçu pour cet essai se rapporte aux évaluations formatives, sommatives et certificatives effectuées par les étudiantes et les étudiants tout au long de la session. L’expertise de quatre expertes et experts, toutes et tous faisant partie du monde collégial, a été essentielle. Ces quatre personnes-ressources ont eu à répondre à un questionnaire dont toutes les questions étaient reliées à une ou des composantes de l’épreuve terminale de cours en éducation physique en ensemble I au Cégep de Saint-Jérôme. Cette étape était nécessaire puisqu’elle nous a permis de répondre à un des deux objectifs de cet essai, soit de valider l’épreuve terminale de cours. À la suite des recommandations et aux commentaires écrits et verbaux des quatre expertes et experts, nous avons modifié l’outil d’évaluation. L’originalité de cet essai repose donc sur la conception de ce nouvel outil d’évaluation pour l’épreuve terminale de cours en éducation physique de l’ensemble I au collégial qui pourrait éventuellement être utilisé par des enseignantes et des enseignants.

Estado emocional e satisfação com o suporte social após uma interrupção voluntária da gravidez

Dissertação de Mestrado apresentada no Instituto Superior de Psicologia Aplicada para obtenção de grau de Mestre na especialidade de Psicologia Clínica

The background impact in HEI math lectures: an experience in math in the 1st year of Accounting and Management Degree

It is a fact, and far from being a new one, that students have been entering Higher Education courses with many different backgrounds in terms of secondary school programs they attended. The impact of these basic skills is a general and worldwide challenge, fundamentally when facing some specific “constructive” subjects like foreign languages and Mathematics. Working with students with an extensive variety of Math qualifications is an outrageous challenge when they enter an advanced Math course, leading to an almost generalized expectations’ failure - from students enrolled in course and from their teachers, who feel powerless in trying to monitor knowledge construction from completely different “starting points”. If teachers’ "haste" is average, more than half of the students do not “go along” and give up, even before experiencing any kind of evaluation procedure. On the contrary, if the “speed” is too low, others are discouraged (feeling not progressing at all) and the teacher runs the risk of not meeting the minimum objectives (general and specific) of its course, which may have a negative impact on students’ future training development. Failure in Mathematics, despite being a recurrent and global issue, does not have any “magical solution”, however, in general, teachers in this area seem untiring, searching, investigating, trying and implementing new and old “recipes” to tackle and demystify this subject. In this article we describe a project developed in a Math course, with the first year students from an Accounting and Management bachelor degree, and its outcomes since it was brought to practice, revealing its impact in students’ success, from approval to dropout rates, in this course. We will shortly describe students’ differentiated Math backgrounds, their results in a pre-assessment analysis and how we try to deal with these differences and level them up, having in mind the same “finish line”. One should never forget that all these students where officially accepted in higher education institutions, so they are ones’ reality, the reality of institutions whose name one should value and strive to defend.

Un registre collaboratif (praticiens, chercheurs, étudiants, habitants) de penser et faire la ville

International audience

Urbanism as new corporatism

International audience

Depressão na pessoa idosa em diferentes contextos: Institucional, centro de dia, apoio domiciliário

Dissertação de Mestrado apresentada ao Instituto Superior de Psicologia Aplicada para obtenção de grau de Mestre na especialidade de Psicologia Clínica.

Qualidade dos empregos e a carcinicultura marinha nos laboratórios da praia de Barreta/RN

To present research had for objective to study the quality of the employment in the maturation Laboratories and larviculture of the Beach of Barreta/RN, adopting for so much the criteria used by Reinecke(1999) to characterize a quality employment: surrender, benefits non salary, regularity and work reliability and of the wage, contractual status, social protection, work day, intensity of the work, risk of accidents and of occupational diseases, involvement in linked decisions to the section work, possibility for the development of professional qualifications. Of the exam of the data it was verified that the generated employments are considered employments of good quality. However, this result should be analyzed to the light of a context of extreme informality and of precarization of the work. Therefore, the results should be relativized. He/she/you imports to retain that one of the limitations of the study resides in the impossibility of generalizing the data for the whole section of the sea carcinicultura. In spite of that fact, he/she is considered that the objectives of the research were assisted fully and that the characterization of the profile of the employment generated by the section of the shrimpculture it is extremely important for the drawing of public politics gone back to foment this activity.

Être médecin diplômé à l’étranger au Québec : des parcours contrastés d’intégration professionnelle

En 2015, il y aurait au Québec plus de 5 000 médecins diplômés à l’étranger, dont près de 2 500 travaillent comme médecins et possiblement autant qui ont emprunté d’autres voies professionnelles, momentanément ou durablement. Les migrants très qualifiés sont réputés faire face à de multiples barrières sur le marché du travail, particulièrement ceux membres de professions réglementées. Le cas des médecins est exemplaire compte tenu de sa complexité et de la multiplicité des acteurs impliqués au cours du processus de reconnaissance professionnelle. Ayant comme principal objectif de documenter les trajectoires d’intégration professionnelle de diplômés internationaux en médecine (DIM) et leurs expériences sur le marché du travail québécois, cette thèse s’attache à comprendre ce qui pourrait distinguer les trajectoires d’intégration en emploi pour un même groupe professionnel. En observant notamment les stratégies d’intégration et les ressources mobilisées, nous cherchons à mieux saisir les parcours des DIM qui se requalifient et qui exercent au Québec et ceux qui se réorientent vers d’autres secteurs d’activités. La démarche méthodologique est qualitative (terrain 2009 à 2012), le cœur des analyses étant basé sur 31 récits de vie professionnelle de DIM ayant migré au Québec principalement dans les années 2000. Les données secondaires incluent 22 entretiens non dirigés auprès d’acteurs clés de milieux institutionnels, communautaires ou associatifs ainsi qu’auprès de DIM très récemment immigrés ou ayant le projet d’immigrer. S’y ajoute l’observation ethnographique ponctuelle, telle que des activités associatives. La forme retenue pour cette thèse en est une par articles. Le fil directeur est l’exploration de l’interface entre les politiques, les pratiques et les individus au cœur des trajectoires d’intégration professionnelle. Les trois articles (chapitres 4 à 6) visent des focales complémentaires avec le même objectif : l’exploration de la complexité des trajectoires d’intégration professionnelle et la dialectique entre les niveaux micro, méso et macrosociaux. Ces derniers renvoient respectivement à la puissance d’agir des individus et leurs contraintes d’action, les relations sociales, les institutions et les pratiques organisationnelles et plus largement les structures sociopolitiques. Les résultats de cette thèse mettent en lumière des aspects complémentaires de l’intégration professionnelle et en interaction dynamique : 1) dimension macrosociale et politique; 2) dimensions institutionnelles et relations sociales; 3) identité professionnelle. Suite à l’introduction, la problématique (chap. 1) et la méthodologie (chap.2), le chapitre 3 expose les types des trajectoires d’intégration des DIM, leur hétérogénéité, et met en relief leurs récits de vie professionnelle. Le chapitre 4 soulève le paradoxe entre les politiques d’attraction de l’immigration déployés par les gouvernements canadien et québécois et les mécanismes de régulation opérant sur le marché du travail. Le chapitre 5 explore les stratégies et ressources mobilisées par les DIM et met en lumière l’effet positif des ressources symboliques. Les ressources institutionnelles de soutien, quoique élémentaires dans le processus de reconnaissance professionnelle, ne sont subjectivement pas considérées comme un élément central. Ce sont plutôt les ressources informelles qui jouent ce rôle d’appui significatif, en particulier les pairs DIM. Le chapitre 6 adopte une perspective microsociale et explore le caractère dynamique et relationnel de l’identité professionnelle, mais surtout, la puissance des conditions d’appartenance qui obligent à une flexibilité professionnelle et parfois au retrait de la profession ou du pays. Le chapitre 7 discute au plan théorique de l’intérêt d’une combinaison d’échelles analytiques et d’une ouverture disciplinaire afin de souligner les tensions et angles morts en ce qui concerne les mobilités de professionnels de la santé et leur intégration professionnelle. Cette thèse explore l’interrelation complexe entre les ressources économiques, sociales et symboliques, dans un contexte de fragmentation des ressources institutionnelles et de corporatisme.

Governing the transition to higher levels of education and differences between achievement and school grades by gender

The author will explore the performance of boys and girls in external examinations in Slovenia at the beginning of upper secondary and tertiary education. These are critical points in students’ educational career at which he/she has to choose a school/university. Since both transitions are managed centrally by appropriate authorities, this is also a question of Educational Governance. Transitions between levels of education should, above all, assure fairness in selection procedures. At the point of transition to upper secondary schools we will explore differences between students’ achievements in various school subjects tested at the national assessment of knowledge (NA), and their school grades by gender. Since only school grades are used as admission criteria to upper secondary schools, this comparison of school grades with external and more objective measure of students’ achievement will show possible bias. In Slovenia admission to tertiary education usually consists of (externally assessed) Matura results and school grades in the last two years of upper secondary school. The author will compare the effects of both most commonly used measures of academic achievement on admission in view of gender differences. Study courses where selection procedure was actually applied will be of specific interest since they can show signs of (un)fairness. Results show signs of bias and build case for better Educational Governance. (DIPF/Orig.)

Espionage against Poland in the Documents and Analyses of the Polish Special Services (1944 - 1989) - as Illustrated by the Intelligence Activities of the USA

The text analyses the intelligence activity against Poland in the period 1944-1989. The paper also contains a case study, i.e. an analysis of the American intelligence service activity held against Poland. While examining the research thesis, the author used the documents and analyses prepared by the Ministry of Internal Affairs. In order to best illustrate the point, the author presented a number of cases of persons who spied for the USA, which was possible thanks to the analysis of the training materials of the Ministry of Internal Affairs directed to the officers of the Security Service and the Citizens’ Militia. The text tackles the following issues: (1) to what extent did the character of the socio-political system influence the number of persons convicted for espionage against Poland in the period under examination?, (2) what was the level of interest of the foreign intelligence services in Poland before the year 1990?, (3) is it possible to indicate the specificity of the U.S. intelligence activity against Poland? 1) The analysis of data indicates that the period 1946-1956 witnessed a great number of convictions for espionage, which is often associated with the peculiar political situation in Poland of that time. Up to 1953, the countries of the Eastern bloc had reproduced the Stalin’s system, which only ceased due to the death of Stalin himself. Since then, the communist systems gradually transformed into the system of nomenklatura. Irrespective of these changes, Poland still witnessed a wave of repressions, which resulted from the threats continuously looming over the communist authorities – combating the anti-communist underground movement, fighting with the Ukrainian Insurgent Army, the Polish government-in-exile, possible revisionism of borders, social discontent related to the socio-political reforms. Hence, a great number of convictions for espionage at that time could be ascribed to purely political sentences. Moreover, equally significant was the fact that the then judicial practice was preoccupied assessing negatively any contacts and relations with foreigners. This excessive number of convictions could ensue from other criminal-law provisions, which applied with respect to the crimes against the State, including espionage. What is also important is the fact that in the Stalin’s period the judiciary personnel acquired their skills and qualifications through intensive courses in law with the predominant spirit of the theory of evidence and law by Andrey Vyshinsky. Additionally, by the decree of 1944 the Penal Code of the Polish Armed Forces was introduced; the code envisaged the increase in the number of offences classified as penalised with death penalty, whereas the high treason was subject to the military jurisdiction (the civilians were prosecuted in military courts till 1955; the espionage, however, still stood under the military jurisdiction). In 1946, there was introduced the Decree on particularly dangerous crimes in the period of the State’s recovery, which was later called a Small Penal Code. 2) The interest that foreign intelligence services expressed in relation to Poland was similar to the one they had in all countries of Eastern and Central Europe. In the case of Poland, it should be noted that foreign intelligence services recruited Polish citizens who had previously stayed abroad and after WWII returned to their home country. The services also gathered information from Poles staying in immigrant camps (e.g. in FRG). The activity of the American intelligence service on the territory of FRG and West Berlin played a key role. The documents of the Ministry of Internal Affairs pointed to the global range of this activity, e.g. through the recruitment of Polish sailors in the ports of the Netherlands, Japan, etc. In line with the development in the 1970s, espionage, which had so far concentrated on the defence and strategic sectors, became focused on science and technology of the People’s Republic of Poland. The acquisition of collaborators in academic circles was much easier, as PRL opened to academic exchange. Due to the system of visas, the process of candidate selection for intelligence services (e.g. the American) began in embassies. In the 1980s, the activity of the foreign intelligence services concentrated on the specific political situation in Poland, i.e. the growing significance of the “Solidarity” social movement. 3) The specificity of the American intelligence activity against Poland was related to the composition of the residency staff, which was the largest in comparison to other Western countries. The wide range of these activities can be proved by the quantitative data of convictions for espionage in the years 1944-1984 (however, one has to bear in mind the factors mentioned earlier in the text, which led to the misinterpretation of these data). Analysing the data and the documents prepared by the Ministry of Internal Affairs, one should treat them with caution, as, frequently, the Polish counter-intelligence service used to classify the ordinary diplomatic practice and any contacts with foreigners as espionage threats. It is clearly visible in the language of the training materials concerned with “secret service methods of the intelligence activity” as well as in the documents on operational activities of the Security Service in relation to foreigners. The level of interest the USA had in Poland was mirrored in the classification of diplomatic posts, according to which Warsaw occupied the second place (the so-called Group “B”) on the three-point scale. The CIA experienced spectacular defeats during their activity in Poland: supporting the Polish underground anti-communist organisation Freedom and Independence and the so-called Munich-Berg episode (both cases took place in the 1950s). The text focuses only on selected issues related to the espionage activities against Poland. Similarly, the analysis of the problem has been based on selected sources, which has limited the research scope - however, it was not the aim of the author to present the espionage activity against Poland in a comprehensive way. In order to assess the real threat posed by the espionage activity, one should analyse the case of persons convicted for espionage in the period 1944-1989, as the available quantitative data, mentioned in the text, cannot constitute an explicit benchmark for the scale of espionage activity. The inaccuracies in the interpretation of data and variables, which can affect the evaluation of this phenomenon, have been pointed out in the text.