Lärares syfte med laborativt arbete i NOundervisningen i årskurs 1-3 : En kvalitativ intervjustudie om sex lärares syfte med laborativt arbete i NO-undervisningen

Syftet med denna kvalitativa studie var att undersöka lärares syfte med laborativt arbete i årskurs 1-3 i NO-undervisningen samt vilka svårigheter som lärarna beskriver med det laborativa arbetssättet i NO-undervisningen. Studien har genomförts med hjälp av kvalitativa intervjuer av sex lärare som är verksamma i årskurserna 1-3. Alla tre årskurserna finns representerade i studien. De resultat som framkommit i studien är att lärare har flera olika syftet med det laborativa arbetet i NO-undervisningen. De syften som framkom var att öka förståelsen för naturvetenskapliga fenomen hos eleverna, öka elevernas motivation och intresse för naturvetenskap, erbjuda elever att uppleva naturvetenskap med händerna, erbjuda eleverna en möjlighet att träna på läroplanens mål, erbjuda eleverna en undervisning som utgår från varje elevs förutsättningar. Studiens frågeställningar berör även hur de intervjuade lärarna använder sig av laborativt arbete samt vilka svårigheter som lärarna uppger finnas med arbetssättet. Studien visar då att lärarna främst arbetar laborativt utomhus främst med biologi och att den svårigheten som flest lärare påpekade var avsaknaden av material.

Historiebruk kring Nådendal : och den kommemorativa anatomin av klostrets minnesplats

This thesis examines the ruins of the medieval Bridgettine (Birgittan) monastery of Naantali (Vallis Gratiae, f. 1443) in Finland and the transformation of the site into a national heritage and a memory landscape. It was archaeologically surveyed in the 19th century by Professor Sven Gabriel Elmgren (1817 1897). His work was followed by Dr. Reinhold Hausen (1850 1942), who excavated the site in the 1870s. During this time the memories of Saint Bridget (Birgitta) in Sweden were also invented as heritage. Hausen published his results in 1922 thus forming the connection with the next generation of actors involved with the Naantali site: the magnate Amos Anderson (1878 1961), the teacher Julius Finnberg (1877 1955) and the archaeologist Juhani Rinne (1872 1950). They erected commemorative monuments etc. on the Naantali site, thus creating a memory landscape there. For them, the site represented the good homeland in connection with a western-oriented view of the history of Finland. The network of actors was connected to the Swedish researchers and so-called Birgitta Friends, such as state antiquarian Sigurd Curman (1879 1966), but also to the members of the Societas Sanctae Birgittae and the Society for the Embellishment of Pirita, among others. Historical jubilees as manifestations of the use of history were also arranged in Naantali in 1943, 1993 and 2003. It seems as if Naantali is needed in Finnish history from time to time after a period of crisis, i.e. after the Crimean War in the 1850s, the civil war of 1918, during World War II and also after the economic crisis of the early 1990s. In 2003, there was a stronger focus on the international Saint Bridget Jubilee in Sweden and all over Europe. Methodologically, the thesis belongs to the history of ideas, but also to research on the use of history, invented traditions and lieux de mémoire. The material for the work consists of public articles and scholarly texts in books or newspapers and letters produced by the actors and kept in archives in Finland, Sweden and Estonia, in addition to pictures and erected commemorative monuments in situ in the Western Finnish region. Keywords: Nådendal, Naantali monastery, Bridgettines, St. Bridget, use of history, lieux de mémoire, invented traditions, commemorative anatomy, memory landscape, Saint Bridget jubilees , S. G. Elmgren, R. Hausen, A. Anderson, J. Finnberg, J. Rinne, S. Curman, High Church Movement, Pirita, Vadstena.

Konstruktioner och valens : Verbfraser med åt i ett jämförande perspektiv

Det har knappast undgått någon som är språkligt medveten att finlandssvenskan och sverigesvenskan skiljer sig åt till vissa delar. Olikheterna återfinns på olika språkliga nivåer. Mest kända och omskrivna är de lexikologiska skillnaderna, dvs. skillnaderna på ordplanet. Betydligt mindre uppmärksamhet har ägnats syntaktiska skillnader, dvs. skillnader i hur satser och meningar byggs upp. För att öka kunskapen om finlandssvensk syntax initierade Språkvetenskapliga nämnden vid Svenska litteratursällskapet i Finland projektet Svenskan i Finland – syntaktiska drag i ett jämförande perspektiv, som pågick åren 2004–2006. Min avhandling har kommit till inom ramen för det projektet. Prepositionerna (t.ex. av, i, på, för, till, åt osv.) är så kallade funktionsord som har till uppgift att binda samman de mer betydelsetunga orden till satser och meningar. Den finlandssvenska prepositionsanvändningen skiljer sig i viss mån från den sverigesvenska, och ”åt” är en av de prepositioner som ofta lyfts fram som exempel. Finlandssvenskarna säger t.ex. ”han gav en bok åt Lena” i stället för ”han gav en bok till Lena” eller ”han gav Lena en bok”. De säger ”berätta något åt någon” (i stället för ”för”) och de säger ”ringa åt någon” i stället för ”ringa någon”. Ett huvudsyfte med min undersökning är att ta reda på hur pass stora skillnaderna är om man ser till samtliga belägg på ”åt” i ett material och inte bara till sådana som man fäster sig vid för att man vet att de avviker i finlandssvenskan. Undersökningen är korpusbaserad. Det betyder att jag letat efter alla belägg på kombinationer av verb och prepositionen ”åt” i rätt stora textmassor som finns tillgängliga i elektronisk form. Materialet ligger i Språkbanken i Finland och omfattar huvudsakligen tidningstext och skönlitteratur. Jag har använt mig av en textmassa på sammanlagt ungefär 40 miljoner löpande ord, drygt 23 miljoner finlandssvenska och drygt 19 miljoner sverigesvenska. Det materialet gav ca 20 000 åt-belägg att studera, och det visade sig något oväntat att ”åt” inte alls är vanligare i finlandssvenskan än i sverigesvenskan när det gäller skriftspråk, åtminstone inte i professionella skribenters språk. Om man kompenserar för att den finlandssvenska och den sverigesvenska korpusen inte är helt lika i fråga om genrefördelning och ålder, kommer man fram till i stort sett samma frekvens för ”åt” i båda korpusarna. För den närmare analysen av vilka mönster åt-beläggen uppvisar har jag först och främst utnyttjat konstruktionsgrammatik men också ramsemantik och valensteori. Konstruktionsgrammatiken är ingen enhetlig teori, men tanken om grammatiska konstruktioner är gemensam. Konstruktioner representerar allt från generella syntaktiska mönster till specifika mönster för språkliga enskildheter. Uppfattningen om vad som ska inbegripas i begreppet varierar, men definitionen av ”konstruktion” som ”par (eller konstellationer) av form och betydelse” är gemensam. ”Konstruktion” avser aldrig konkreta belägg i texter eller yttranden utan alltid det abstrakta mönstret bakom dessa. Och varje yttrande är resultatet av att en stor mängd konstruktioner samverkar. I min analys har jag utgått ifrån att beläggen med ”åt” kan återföras på olika konstruktioner eller mönster utifrån vad som är gemensamt för grupper av belägg. Jag har sett på vad åt-frasen i samverkan med verbet har för funktion i beläggen. En åt-fras är syntaktiskt en prepositionsfras och består av en preposition och en rektion. Exempelvis utgör ordparet ”åt skogen” en prepositionsfras där ”skogen” är rektion. Ur mitt material har jag kunnat abstrahera fram fem övergripande mönster där referenten för rektionen har olika så kallade semantiska roller. Åt-frasen kan i kombination med verbet ange mål eller riktmärke, som i t.ex. svänga åt höger, dra åt helvete, ta sig åt hjärtat, luta åt en seger för IFK. Den kan för det andra ange mottagare (t.ex. ge varsin kaka åt hundarna, bygga en bastu åt sina svärföräldrar, skaffa biljetter åt en kompis). För det tredje kan åt-frasen avse en referent som har nytta (eller skada) av en aktion (t.ex. klippa häcken åt grannen, ställa in digitalboxen åt sin moster). Åt-frasen kan slutligen avse den eller det som är föremål antingen för en kommunikationsaktion (vinka åt sin son, skratta åt eländet) eller en attityd eller känsla (glädja sig åt framgången). Utöver dessa huvudmönster finns det ett antal smärre grupper av belägg som bildar egna mönster, men de utgör sammanlagt under 3 % i bägge korpusarna. Inom grupperna kan undermönster urskiljas. I t.ex. mottagargruppen representerar ”ge varsin kaka åt hundarna” överföringskonstruktion, ”bygga en bastu åt sina svärföräldrar” produktionskonstruktion och ”skaffa biljetter åt en kompis” ombesörjningskonstruktion. Alla typer är gemensamma för bägge materialen, men andelen belägg som representerar de olika typerna skiljer sig betydligt. I det sverigesvenska materialet står t.ex. det mönster där åt-frasen avser mål eller riktmärke för en mycket större andel av beläggen än i finlandssvenskan. Också andelen belägg där åt-frasen avser någon som har nytta (eller skada) av en aktion är mycket högre i det sverigesvenska materialet. I det finlandssvenska materialet står i gengäld mottagarbeläggen för över 50 % av beläggen medan andelen i det sverigesvenska materialet är bara 30 %. Inom gruppen utgör belägg av produktions- och ombesörjningstyp dessutom en mindre andel i det finlandssvenska materialet än i det sverigesvenska. Dessa står till sin funktion nära den typ som avser den som har nytta av aktionen. De konkreta beläggen på överföring (ge varsin kaka åt hundarna) utgör en större andel i det finlandssvenska materialet än i det sverigesvenska (ca 8 % mot 3 %), men typiskt för båda materialen är hög kollokationsgrad (”kollokation” avser par eller grupper av ord som uppträder oftare tillsammans än de statiskt sett skulle göra vid helt slumpmässig förekomst). Största delen av mottagarbeläggen utgörs av fraser av typen ”ge arbete åt någon, ge eftertryck åt något, ge liv åt något; ägna tid åt något, ägna sitt liv åt något, ägna uppmärksamhet åt något”. De här slutsatserna gäller alltså skriftspråk. I talspråk ser fördelningen annorlunda ut. Typiskt för prepositionen ”åt” är överhuvudtaget hög kollokationsgrad. Det förefaller som om språkanvändarna har tydliga, färdiga mallar för var ”åt” kan komma in. Det enda mönster som verkar helt produktivt, i den meningen att elementen är i stort sett fritt kombinerbara, är kombinationer av verb och åt-fras där åt-frasen avser den som har nytta av något. Att någon utför något för någons räkning verkar överlag kunna uttryckas med prepositionen ”åt”: t.ex. ”tvätta bilen åt pappa, ringa efter en taxi åt kunden”. Till och med belägg av typen ”hon drömde åt honom att bli ordinarie adjunkt” förekommer i någon mån. Konstruktionen är produktiv i båda språkvarieteterna men uppenbart är att konstruktion med mottagare har tolkningsföreträde i vissa fall i finlandssvenskan: ”Filip skrev ett brev åt sin syster” tolkas av sverigesvenskar som att Filip skrev brevet för systerns räkning, medan finlandssvenskar överlag uppenbarligen tolkar det som att Filip skrev till sin syster, att systern var mottagare av brevet. Ungefär 20 % av alla belägg i båda materialen representerar fall där ”åt” utgör partikel. Verb och ”åt” är närmare förbundna med varandra än när ”åt” utgör normal preposition. Exempel på partikelbelägg är ”han kom inte åt strömbrytaren, det gick åt mängder med saft, landet får dra åt svångremmen, de roffade åt sig de bästa platserna”. Också partikelmaterialet ser på ett generellt plan väldigt lika ut i båda språkvarieteterna. Den största skillnaden uppvisar den reflexiva typen ”roffa åt sig”. Medan typen är mycket homogen i det sverigesvenska materialet är variationen större i det finlandsvenska. Dels uppträder fler verb i kombinationen (han köpte åt sig ett par jeans), dels vacklar ordföljden (han nappade åt sig ett paraply ~ han nappade ett paraply åt sig). Att ”åt” används mer i vissa funktioner i finlandsvenskan brukar förklaras med påverkan från finskans allativ (ändelsen -lle: hän antoi kirjan Astalle > hon gav en bok åt Asta). Allt tyder dock på att den finlandssvenska åt-användningen delvis är en relikt. I äldre sverigesvenska källor träffar man på ”åt” i sådana kontexter som numera är typiska för finlandsvenskan. Det finlandssvenska språkområdet ligger ute i periferin i relation till det språkliga centrum som förändringar sprider sig från (för svenskans del främst Stockholmstrakten) och typiskt för perifera områden är att de uppvisar ålderdomliga drag också när inga kontaktfenomen spelar in. Allativen kan naturligtvis ha bidragit till att bevara användningen av ”åt” i finlandssvenskan. Att det är just ”åt” som används” beror antagligen på att prepositionen har flest funktioner gemensamt med allativen rent kognitivt om man jämför med de betydligt mer frekventa prepositionerna ”till” och ”för”. Uppenbart är också att åt-användningen därtill lever sitt eget liv i finlandssvenskan. I vissa varieteter av finlandssvenska kan man t.ex. höra yttranden av typ ”alla fiskarna dog åt dom”. Som språklig enskildhet har det ingen finsk förebild med allativ. Yttrandet är ett exempel på töjning av en svensk konstruktion. Modell finns dels i det mönster där åt avser den som har nytta eller skada av något, dels i relationell användning av ”åt”: han är hantlangare åt Eriksson ~ han är Erikssons hantlangare. Vid språkkontakt är det överlag konstruktioner som har förebild i det låntagande språket som lånas in från det långivande språket, medan konstruktioner som saknar förebild är betydligt mindre benägna att vinna insteg.

My Fair Lady på skandinaviska : En studie i funktionell sångöversättning

The dissertation presents a functional model for analysis of song translation. The model is developed on the basis of an examination of theatrical songs and a comparison of three translations: the songs of the Broadway musical My Fair Lady (Lerner and Loewe, 1956), made for the premiere productions (1959–1960) in Swedish, Danish, and Norwegian. The analysis explores the three challenges of a song translator: the fitting of a text to existing music, the consideration of a prospective sung performance, and the verbal approximation of the content of the source lyric. The theoretical foundation is based on a functional approach to translation studies (Christiane Nord) and a structuralist/semiotic analysis of a theatrical message (Ivo Osolsobě, building on Roman Jakobson). Thus, three functional levels in the fitting of a text to music are explored: first, a prosodic/phonetic format; secondly, a poetic/rhetoric format; and thirdly, semantic/reflexive values (verbalizing musical expression). Similarly, three functional levels in the textual connections to a prospective performance are explored: first, a presentational goal; secondly, the theatrical potential; and thirdly, dramaturgic values (for example dramatic information and linguistic register). The functionality of Broadway musical theatre songs is analyzed, and the song score of My Fair Lady, source and target lyrics, is studied, with an in-depth analysis of seven of the songs. The three translations were all considered very well-made and are used in productions of the musical to this day. The study finds that the song translators appear to have worked from an understanding of the presentational goal, designed their target texts on the prosodic and poetic shape of the music, and pursued the theatrical functionality of the song, not by copying, but by recreating connections to relevant contexts, partly independently of the source lyrics, using the resources of the target languages. Besides metaphrases (closest possible transfer), paraphrases and additions seem normally to be expected in song translation, but song translators may also follow highly individual strategies – for example, the Norwegian translator is consistently more verbally faithful than the Danish and Swedish translators. As a conclusion, it is suggested that although linguistic and cultural difference play a significant role, a translator’s solution must nevertheless be arrived at, and assessed, in relation to the song as a multimedial piece of material. As far as a song can be considered a theatrical message – singers representing the voice, person, and situation of the song – the descriptive model presented in the study is also applicable to the translation of other types of song.

Tidigt fullständigt svenskt språkbad i Esbo

Avhandlingen behandlar tidigt fullständigt svenskt språkbad i Esbo. Arbetet utreder vad tidigt fullständigt språkbad innebär samt vad språkbadsföräldrars och språkbadslärares åsikter om språkbadet i Esbo är. Undersökningen omfattar 60 familjer samt samtliga lärare (14 st) som arbetar med språkbad i Esbo. Undersökningen består av två enkäter; en till språkbadsföräldrar och en tillspråkbadslärare. Av de 60 enkäter som sändes ut till språkbadsföräldrarna besvarades 45, dvs. 75%. 12 lärare av 14, dvs. 86%, besvarade den andra enkäten. Det är viktigt att känna till centrala begrepp i anslutning till tvåspråkighet, då man talar om andraspråkstillägnandet i språkbad. I detta arbete presenteras en modell (Sahi, 1999) som åskådliggör centrala begrepp i anslutning till tvåspråkighet. Tidigtfullständigt språkbad är ett program som är planerat att omfatta hela grundskolan. Språkbad är ämnat för enspråkiga majoritetsbarn i ett tvåspråkigt land. Dessa barn tillägnar sig minoritetsspråket i skolan. Språkbadet är inte enbart ett program, utan även en metod. Skillnaden mellan språkbad och traditionell undervisning i språk är att man i språkbadet betonar kommunikation framom grammatik. Målet medspråkbadet är funktionell tvåspråkighet. Många faktorer inverkar på andraspråkstillägnandet i språkbadet. I detta arbete betonas attitydernas och motivationens betydelse. Språkbad kräver en medveten och aktiv insats av föräldrarna. Vidare betonar litteraturen som behandlar språkbad undervisningsmetodernas betydelse samt språkbadslärarens viktiga roll. Föräldrarna är nöjda med språkbadsprogrammet, eftersom det givit goda resultat och motsvarat förväntningarna. Enligt föräldrarna är språkbad ett mjukt, modernt och effektivt program. Föräldrarna anser att barnen lär sig badspråket på ett naturligt sätt och även får en öppnare inställning till språk och kulturer. Föräldrarna betonar lärarnas viktiga insatser samt kontinuitetens betydelse. Vidare tycker föräldrarna att språkbadet borde inledas i ett tidigare skede och att eleverna borde ha mera kontakt med badspråket utanför skolan. Målet med att barnen går i språkbad är, enligt föräldrarna, att barnen ska förstå och tala språket flytande samtkänna kulturen som hör ihop med språket. Både föräldrarna och lärarna tycker att språkbadsklasserna är för stora och att det är brist på material. Lärarna anser att man mer än tidigare borde informera allmänheten, beslutsfattare samt föräldrar om verksamheten. Därtill tycker lärarna att samarbetet mellan daghem och skola samt specialundervisningen borde utvecklas. Lärarna betonar att språkbad inte lämpar sig för alla barn. Lärarna anser sig främst behöva praktiska råd av andra som arbetar med språkbad samt teoretisk kunskap. Både föräldrarna och lärarna tycker att språkbadsverksamheten i Esbo borde koordineras och att språkbadselevernas prestationer noggrant borde följas upp. Nyckelord: Tvåspråkighet, Språkbad, Andraspråkstillägnande Keywords: Bilingualism, Immersion, Second Language Aquisition.

Datorstödda studier i hälso- och socialvård : MuPSiNet-projektet

The aim of the study was to explore why the MuPSiNet project - a computer and network supported learning environment for the field of health care and social work - did not develop as expected. To grasp the problem some hypotheses were formulated. The hypotheses regarded the teachers' skills in and attitudes towards computing and their attitudes towards constructivist study methods. An online survey containing 48 items was performed. The survey targeted all the teachers within the field of health care and social work in the country, and it produced 461 responses that were analysed against the hypotheses. The reliability of the variables was tested using the Cronbach alpha coefficient and t-tests. Poor basic computing skills among the teachers combined with a vulnerable technical solution, and inadequate project management combined with lack of administrative models for transforming economic resources into manpower were the factors that turned out to play a decisive role in the project. Other important findings were that the teachers had rather poor skills and knowledge in computing, computer safety and computer supported instruction, and that these skills were significantly poorer among female teachers who were in majority in the sample. The fraction of teachers who were familiar with software for electronic patient records (EPR) was low. The attitudes towards constructivist teaching methods were positive, and further education seemed to utterly increase the teachers' readiness to use alternative teaching methods. The most important conclusions were the following: In order to integrate EPR software as a natural tool in teaching planning and documenting health care, it is crucial that the teachers have sufficient basic skills in computing and that more teachers have personal experience of using EPR software. In order for computer supported teaching to become accepted it is necessary to arrange with extensive further education for the teachers presently working, and for that further education to succeed it should be backed up locally among other things by sufficient support in matters concerning computer supported teaching. The attitudes towards computing showed significant gender differences. Based on the findings it is suggested that basic skills in computing should also include an awareness of data safety in relation to work in different kinds of computer networks, and that projects of this kind should be built up around a proper project organisation with sufficient resources. Suggestions concerning curricular development and further education are also presented. Conclusions concerning the research method were that reminders have a better effect, and that respondents tend to answer open-ended questions more verbosely in electronically distributed online surveys compared to traditional surveys. A method of utilising randomized passwords to guarantee respondent anonymity while maintaining sample control is presented. Keywords: computer-assisted learning, computer-assisted instruction, health care, social work, vocational education, computerized patient record, online survey

Function and regulation of Cdk7

Understanding the process of cell division is crucial for modern cancer medicine due to the central role of uncontrolled cell division in this disease. Cancer involves unrestrained proliferation as a result of cells loosing normal control and being driven through the cell cycle, where they normally would be non-dividing or quiescent. Progression through the cell cycle is thought to be dependent on the sequential activation of cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks). The full activation of Cdks requires the phosphorylation of a conserved residue (threonine-160 on human Cdk2) on the T-loop of the kinase domain. In metazoan species, a trimeric complex consisting of Cdk7, cyclin H and Mat1 has been suggested to be the T-loop kinase of several Cdks. In addition, Cdk7 have also been implicated in the regulation of transcription. Cdk7, cyclin H, and Mat1 can be found as subunits of general transcription factor TFIIH. Cdk7, in this context, phosphorylates the Carboxy-terminal domain (CTD) of the large subunit of RNA polymerase II (RNA pol II), specifically on serine-5 residues of the CTD repeat. The regulation of Cdk7 in these and other functions is not well known and the unambiguous characterization of the in vivo role of Cdk7 in both T-loop activation and CTD serine-5 phosphorylation has proved challenging. In this study, the fission yeast Cdk7-cyclin H homologous complex, Mcs6-Mcs2, is identified as the in vivo T-loop kinase of Cdk1(Cdc2). It also identifies multiple levels of regulation of Mcs6 kinase activity, i.e. association with Pmh1, a novel fission yeast protein that is the apparent homolog of metazoan Mat1, and T-loop phosphorylation of Mcs6, mediated by Csk1, a monomeric T-loop kinase with similarity to Cak1 of budding yeast. In addition, Skp1, a component of the SCF (Skp1-Cullin-F box protein) ubiquitin ligase is identified by its interactions with Mcs2 and Pmh1. The Skp1 association with Mcs2 and Pmh1 is however SCF independent and does not involve proteolytic degradation but may reflect a novel mechanism to modulate the activity or complex assembly of Mcs6. In addition to Cdk7, also Cdk8 has been shown to have CTD serine-5 kinase activity in vitro. Cdk8 is not essential in yeast but has been shown to function as a transcriptional regulator. The function of Cdk8 is unknown in flies and mammals. This prompted the investigation of murine Cdk8 and its potential role as a redundant CTD serine-5 kinase. We find that Cdk8 is required for development prior to implantation, at a time that is co-incident with a burst of Cdk8 expression during normal development. The results does not support a role of Cdk8 as a serine-5 CTD kinase in vivo but rather shows an unexpected requirement for Cdk8, early in mammalian development. The results presented in this thesis extends our current knowledge of the regulation of the cell cycle by characterizing the function of two distinct cell cycle regulating T-loop kinases, including the unambiguous identification of Mcs6, the fission yeast Cdk7 homolog, as the T-loop kinase of Cdk1. The results also indicate that the function of Mcs6 is conserved from fission yeast to human Cdk7 and suggests novel mechanisms by which the distinct functions of Cdk7 and Mcs6 could be regulated. These findings are important for our understanding of how progression of the cell cycle and proper transcription is controlled, during normal development and tissue homeostasis but also under condition where cells have escaped these control mechanisms e.g. cancer.

Agronomic challenges for organic crop husbandry

With respect to resource management and environmental impact, organic farming offers rationales for agricultural sustainability. However, agronomic productivity is usually higher with conventional farming. This work aimed at investigating two factors of major importance for the agronomic productivity of organic crop husbandry, nitrogen (N) supply through symbiotic N fixation (SNF) and weed occurrence. Perennial red clover-grass leys and spring cereal crops subjected to regular agricultural practices were studied on 34 organic farms located in the southern and the north-western coastal regions of Finland. Herbage growth, clover content as a proportion of the ley and extent of SNF in perennial leys, and the occurrence of weed species and weed-crop competition in spring cereal stands were related to climate conditions, soil properties, and management measures. The herbage accumulated from the first and the second cut of one- and two-year-old leys averaged 7.5 t DM ha-1 (SD ± 1.7 t DM ha-1); the clover content averaged 43.9% (SD ± 18.8%). Along with the clover content, herbage production decreased with ley age. Radiation use efficiency (RUE) correlated positively with clover proportion but despite low clover contents, three-year-old leys were still productive with regard to RUE. SNF in the accumulated annual growth of one- and two-year-old leys averaged 247.5 kg N ha-1 yr-1 (SD ± 114.4 kg N ha-1 yr-1). It was supposed that if red clover-grass leys constituted 40% of the rotation, then the mean N supply by SNF would be able to sustain two or three succeeding cereal crops (green manure and forage ley, respectively), yielding 3.0 to 4.0 t grain ha-1. Being a function of clover biomass, the SNF increased from the first to the second cut and thereafter declined with ley age. Coefficients of variation of clover contents (and SNF) between and within fields were around 50%, which was about twice as high as those of herbage production. The lower were the clover contents, the higher were the within-field variations of clover as a proportion of the ley. Low clover contents in one-year-old leys and increasing variability with ley age suggested that red clover growth was limited by poor establishment and poor overwintering. The proportions of clover in leys were lower and their variability was higher in the northwest than in the south. Soil properties, primarily texture and structure, had a major impact on clover proportion and herbage production, which largely explained regional differences in ley growth. Within-field variability of soil properties can be amended through site-specific measures, including drainage, liming, and applications of organic manures and mineral fertilizers. Overwintering and the persistence of leys can be improved by the choice of winter-hardy varieties, careful establishment and the appropriate harvest regime. Mean grain yields of spring cereal crops amounted to 3.2 t ha-1 in the south and 3.6 t ha-1 in the northwest. At 570 and 565 m-2 for the south and northwest respectively, mean weed densities did not differ between the regions, whereas the respective mean weed biomass of 697 and 1594 kg dry weight ha-1, respectively did differ. Weed abundance varied remarkably between single fields. The number of weed species was higher in the south than in the northwest. For example, Fumaria officinalis and Lamium spp. were found only in the south. Frequencies and abundances of Lapsana communis, Myosotis arvensis, Polygonum aviculare, Tripleurospermum inodorum, and Vicia spp. were higher in the south, whereas those of Elymus repens, Persicaria spp. and Spergula arvensis were higher in the northwest. The number of years since conversion to organic farming, i.e. long-term management, was one of the variables that explained the abundance of single weed species. E. repens was the weed species whose biomass increased most with the duration of organic farming. Another significant variable was crop biomass, which was affected by short-term management. The presence of different weed species was related to the duration of organic farming and to low crop yield. This finding demonstrated that it was not the organic farming regime per se, which resulted in high weed infestation and low yielding crops, but failures in the understanding and the management of organic farming systems. Successful weed control relies on farm- and field-specific long- and short-term management approaches. The agronomic productivity of ley and spring cereal crops managed by full-time farmers with an interest in organic farming was on the same level as of the mean for conventional farming. Given the many options for further improvements of the agronomic performance of organic arable systems, organic farming offers foundations for the development of sustainable agriculture. The main threat to the sustainability of farming in Finland, both conventional and organic, is the spatial separation of crop production and animal husbandry by region, along with the simplification of associated crop rotations.

Studies of new inorganic species using relativistic quantum chemistry

In the present work the methods of relativistic quantum chemistry have been applied to a number of small systems containing heavy elements, for which relativistic effects are important. First, a thorough introduction of the methods used is presented. This includes some of the general methods of computational chemistry and a special section dealing with how to include the effects of relativity in quantum chemical calculations. Second, after this introduction the results obtained are presented. Investigations on high-valent mercury compounds are presented and new ways to synthesise such compounds are proposed. The methods described were applied to certain systems containing short Pt-Tl contacts. It was possible to explain the interesting bonding situation in these compounds. One of the most common actinide compounds, uranium hexafluoride was investigated and a new picture of the bonding was presented. Furthermore the rareness of uranium-cyanide compounds was discussed. In a foray into the chemistry of gold, well known for its strong relativistic effects, investigations on different gold systems were performed. Analogies between Au$^+$ and platinum on one hand and oxygen on the other were found. New systems with multiple bonds to gold were proposed to experimentalists. One of the proposed systems was spectroscopically observed shortly afterwards. A very interesting molecule, which was theoretically predicted a few years ago is WAu$_{12}$. Some of its properties were calculated and the bonding situation was discussed. In a further study on gold compounds it was possible to explain the substitution pattern in bis[phosphane-gold(I)] thiocyanate complexes. This is of some help to experimentalists as the systems could not be crystallised and the structure was therefore unknown. Finally, computations on one of the heaviest elements in the periodic table were performed. Calculation on compounds containing element 110, darmstadtium, showed that it behaves similarly as its lighter homologue platinum. The extreme importance of relativistic effects for these systems was also shown.

A quantum chemical investigation of the metal centres in cytochrome c oxidase

Quantum effects are often of key importance for the function of biological systems at molecular level. Cellular respiration, where energy is extracted from the reduction of molecular oxygen to water, is no exception. In this work, the end station of the electron transport chain in mitochondria, cytochrome c oxidase, is investigated using quantum chemical methodology. Cytochrome c oxidase contains two haems, haem a and haem a3. Haem a3, with its copper companion, CuB, is involved in the final reduction of oxygen into water. This binuclear centre receives the necessary electrons from haem a. Haem a, in turn, receives its electrons from a copper ion pair in the vicinity, called CuA. Density functional theory (DFT) has been used to clarify the charge and spin distributions of haem a, as well as changes in these during redox activity. Upon reduction, the added electron is shown to be evenly distributed over the entire haem structure, important for the accommodation of the prosthetic group within the protein. At the same time, the spin distribution of the open-shell oxidised state is more localised to the central iron. The exact spin density distribution has been disputed in the literature, however, different experiments indicating different distributions of the unpaired electron. The apparent contradiction is shown to be due to the false assumption of a unit amount of unpaired electron density; in fact, the oxidised state has about 1.3 unpaired electrons. The validity of the DFT results have been corroborated by wave function based coupled cluster calculations. Point charges, for use in classical force field based simulations, have been parameterised for the four metal centres, using a newly developed methodology. In the procedure, the subsystem for which point charges are to be obtained, is surrounded by an outer region, with the purpose of stabilising the inner region, both electronically and structurally. Finally, the possibility of vibrational promotion of the electron transfer step between haem a and a3 has been investigated. Calculating the full vibrational spectra, at DFT level, of a combined model of the two haems, revealed several normal modes that do shift electron density between the haems. The magnitude of the shift was found to be moderate, at most. The proposed mechanism could have an assisting role in the electron transfer, which still seems to be dominated by electron tunnelling.

Aza-Wittigringslutningar vid syntes av sammansmälta kväveheterocykler

Denna pro gradu avhandling är en litteraturstudie av intramolekylära aza-Wittigringslutningar vid syntes av sammansmälta kväveheterocykler. I arbetet behandlas material huvudsakligen från 1980 och framöver. Aza-Wittigreaktionen påminner om den analoga Wittigreaktionen. Aza-Wittigreaktioner har nästan uteslutande gjorts mellan karbonylgrupper och iminofosforaner. Reaktionsmekanismen sker enligt en tvåstegsaddition, som inleds av iminokvävets nukleofila attack till karbonylkolet och avslutas av att en zwitterjonisk betain bildar en azoxafosfetanintermediär. Intermediären sönderfaller spontant till en iminoprodukt och fosfinoxid. Reaktionen görs ofta under milda betingelser d.v.s. vid rumstemperatur och dessutom utan dyr arbetsutrustning Ett vanligt sätt att framställa iminofosforanen är från azid genom Staudingerreaktion och ofta kombineras Staudinger- och aza-Wittigreaktionerna så att iminofosforanen inte isoleras före ringslutningen. Alla andra ringslutningsreaktioner än aza-Wittig, såsom elektrocykliska ringslutningar, har uteslutits ur detta arbete. Materialet i litteraturstudien har indelats enligt vilken typ av karbonylgrupp iminofosforanen reagerar med. På så vis åskådliggörs hurudana typiska produktmolekyler som erhållits med ringslutning till en viss typ av karbonylgrupp. Det har visat sig att det är förmånligt om karbonylkolet har elektronunderskott och iminofosforanens kväve har elektronöverskott. Den ringslutande molekylens entropi och närbelägna substituenters elektroniska och steriska natur samt produktmolekylens termodynamiska fördelaktighet inverkar tillsammans på reaktionens gång. Ifall reaktionen förväntas ske långsamt är det bättre att använda sig av alkyliminofosforaner än aryliminofosforaner. Valet av lösningsmedel har nästan uteslutande lämnats oförklarat i de behandlade publikationerna men i de flesta fall har ortoxylen eller toluen varit goda lösningsmedel. Oönskad tetrazolbildning av aziden kan minimeras genom användning av opolärt lösningsmedel. Likaså kan förmånligt placerade kväveskyddsgrupper hindra intramolekylära vätebindningar. På senare tid har aza-Wittigreaktionen allt mera tillämpats vid framställning av farmakologiska produkter, vilket ökat intresset för att framställa stora mängder närbesläktade produktmolekyler. Dylika molekylbibliotek har med fördel framställts i fastfas varvid reningen av produkten underlättats märkbart. Ett nytt område inom aza-Wittigsyntetiken är asymmetriska reaktioner, vilka säkert kommer att få mera uppmärksamhet i framtiden. I denna litteraturstudie framkom det att många av de utförda synteserna på området kunde upprepas med större variation och systematik gällande reagens och reaktionsbetingelser.

Redox-linked proton transfer by cytochrome c oxidase

The respiratory chain is found in the inner mitochondrial membrane of higher organisms and in the plasma membrane of many bacteria. It consists of several membrane-spanning enzymes, which conserve the energy that is liberated from the degradation of food molecules as an electrochemical proton gradient across the membrane. The proton gradient can later be utilized by the cell for different energy requiring processes, e.g. ATP production, cellular motion or active transport of ions. The difference in proton concentration between the two sides of the membrane is a result of the translocation of protons by the enzymes of the respiratory chain, from the negatively charged (N-side) to the positively charged side (P-side) of the lipid bilayer, against the proton concentration gradient. The endergonic proton transfer is driven by the flow of electrons through the enzymes of the respiratory chain, from low redox-potential electron donors to acceptors of higher potential, and ultimately to oxygen. Cytochrome c oxidase is the last enzyme in the respiratory chain and catalyzes the reduction of dioxygen to water. The redox reaction is coupled to proton transport across the membrane by a yet unresolved mechanism. Cytochrome c oxidase has two proton-conducting pathways through which protons are taken up to the interior part of the enzyme from the N-side of the membrane. The K-pathway transfers merely substrate protons, which are consumed in the process of water formation at the catalytic site. The D-pathway transfers both substrate protons and protons that are pumped to the P-side of the membrane. This thesis focuses on the role of two conserved amino acids in proton translocation by cytochrome c oxidase, glutamate 278 and tryptophan 164. Glu278 is located at the end of the D-pathway and is thought to constitute the branching point for substrate and pumped protons. In this work, it was shown that although Glu278 has an important role in the proton transfer mechanism, its presence is not an obligatory requirement. Alternative structural solutions in the area around Glu278, much like the ones present in some distantly related heme-copper oxidases, could in the absence of Glu278 support the formation of a long hydrogen-bonded water chain through which proton transfer from the D-pathway to the catalytic site is possible. The other studied amino acid, Trp164, is hydrogen bonded to the ∆-propionate of heme a3 of the catalytic site. Mutation of this amino acid showed that it may be involved in regulation of proton access to a proton acceptor, a pump site, from which the proton later is expelled to the P-side of the membrane. The ion pair that is formed by the ∆-propionate of heme a3 and arginine 473 is likely to form a gate-like structure, which regulates proton mobility to the P-side of the membrane. The same gate may also be part of an exit path through which water molecules produced at the catalytically active site are removed towards the external side of the membrane. Time-resolved optical and electrometrical experiments with the Trp164 to phenylalanine mutant revealed a so far undetected step in the proton pumping mechanism. During the A to PR transition of the catalytic cycle, a proton is transferred from Glu278 to the pump site, located somewhere in the vicinity of the ∆-propionate of heme a3. A mechanism for proton pumping by cytochrome c oxidase is proposed on the basis of the presented results and the mechanism is discussed in relation to some relevant experimental data. A common proton pumping mechanism for all members of the heme-copper oxidase family is moreover considered.

Traditional medicinal uses and biological activities of some plant extracts of African Combretum Loefl., Terminalia L. and Pteleopsis Engl. species

In Africa various species of Combretum, Terminalia and Pteleopsis are used in traditional medicine. Despite of this, some species of these genera have still not been studied for their biological effects to validate their traditional uses. The aim of this work has been to document the ethnomedicinal uses of several species of Combretum and Terminalia in Mbeya region, south-western Tanzania, and to use this information for finding species with good antimicrobial and cytotoxic potential. During a five weeks expedition to Tanzania in spring 1999 sixteen different species of Combretum and Terminalia, as well as Pteleopsis myrtifolia were collected from various locations in the districts of Mbeya, Iringa and Dar-es-Salaam. Traditional healers in seven different villages in the Mbeya region were interviewed in Swahili and Nyakyusa on the medicinal uses of Combretum and Terminalia species shown to them. A questionnaire was used during the interviews. The results of the interviews correlated well between different villages, the same species being used in similar ways in different villages. Of the ten species shown to the healers six were frequently used for treatment of skin diseases, bacterial infections, diarrhea, oedema and wounds. The dried plants were most commonly prepared into hot water decoctions or mixed into maize porridge, Ugali. Infusions made from dried or fresh plant material were also common. Wounds and topical infections were treated with ointments made from the dried plant material mixed with sheep fat. Twenty-one extracts of six species of Combretum and four of Terminalia, collected from Tanzania, were screened for their antibacterial effects against two gram-negative and five gram-positive bacteria, as well as the yeast, Candida albicans, using an agar diffusion method. Most of the screened plants showed substantial antimicrobial activity. A methanolic root extract of T. sambesiaca showed the most potent antibacterial effects of all the plant species screened, and gave a MIC value of 0.9 mg/ml against Enterobacter aerogenes. Also root extracts of T. sericea and T. kaiserana gave excellent antimicrobial effects, and notably a hot water extract of T. sericea was as potent as extracts of this species made from EtOH and MeOH. Thus, the traditional way of preparing T. sericea into hot water decoctions seems to extract antimicrobial compounds. Thirty-five extracts of five species of Terminalia, ten of Combretum and Pteleopsis myrtifolia were screened for their antifungal effects against five species of yeast (Candida spp.) and Cryptococcus neoformans. The species differed from each other to their antifungal effects, some being very effective whereas others showed no antifungal effects. The most effective extracts showed antifungal effects comparable to the standard antibiotics itraconazol and amphotericin B. Species of Terminalia gave in general stronger antifungal effects than those of Combretum. The best effects were obtained with methanolic root extracts of T. sambesiaca, T. sericea and T. kaiserana, and this investigation indicates that decoctions of these species might be used for treatment of HIV-related fungal infections. Twenty-seven crude extracts of eight species of Combretum, five of Terminalia and Pteleopsis myrtifolia were evaluated for their cytotoxic effects against human cancer cell lines (HeLa, cervical carcinoma; MCF 7, breast carcinoma, T 24 bladder carcinoma) and one endothelial cell line (BBCE, bovine brain capillary endothelial cells). The most outstanding effects were obtained with a leaf extract of Combretum fragrans, which nearly totally inhibited the proliferation of T 24 and HeLa cells at a concentration of 25 ug/ml and inhibited 60 % of the growth of the HeLa cells at a concentration of 4.3 ug/ml. The species of Terminalia were less cytotoxically potent than the Combretum species, although T. sericea and T. sambesiaca gave good cytotoxic effects (< 30 % proliferation). In summary this study indicates that some of the species of Terminalia, Combretum and Pteleopsis, used in Tanzanian traditional medicine, are powerful inhibitors of both microbial and cancer cell growth. In depth studies would be needed to find the active compounds behind these biological activities.

Population dynamics of blue mussels in a variable environment at the edge of their range

Spatial and temporal variation in the abundance of species can often be ascribed to spatial and temporal variation in the surrounding environment. Knowledge of how biotic and abiotic factors operate over different spatial and temporal scales in determining distribution, abundance, and structure of populations lies at the heart of ecology. The major part of the current ecological theory stems from studies carried out in central parts of the distributional range of species, whereas knowledge of how marginal populations function is inadequate. Understanding how marginal populations, living at the edge of their range, function is however in a key position to advance ecology and evolutionary biology as scientific disciplines. My thesis focuses on the factors affecting dynamics of marginal populations of blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) living close to their tolerance limits with regard to salinity. The thesis aims to highlight the dynamics at the edge of the range and contrast these with dynamics in more central parts of the range in order to understand the potential interplay between the central and the marginal part in the focal system. The objectives of the thesis are approached by studies on: (1) factors affecting regional patterns of the species, (2) long-term temporal dynamics of the focal species spaced along a regional salinity gradient, (3) selective predation by increasing populations of roach (Rutilus rutilus) when feeding on their main food item, the blue mussel, (4) the primary and secondary effects of local wave exposure gradients and (5) the role of small-scale habitat heterogeneity as determinants of large-scale pattern. The thesis shows that populations of blue mussels are largely determined by large scale changes in sea water salinity, affecting mainly recruitment success and longevity of local populations. In opposite to the traditional view, the thesis strongly indicate that vertebrate predators strongly affect abundance and size structure of blue mussel populations, and that the role of these predators increases towards the margin where populations are increasingly top-down controlled. The thesis also indicates that the positive role of biogenic habitat modifiers increases towards the marginal areas, where populations of blue mussels are largely recruitment limited. Finally, the thesis shows that local blue mussel populations are strongly dependent on high water turbulence, and therefore, dense populations are constrained to offshore habitats. Finally, the thesis suggests that ongoing sedimentation of rocky shores is detrimental for the species, affecting recruitment success and post-recruit survival, pushing stable mussel beds towards offshore areas. Ongoing large scale changes in the Baltic Sea, especially dilution processes with attendant effects, are predicted to substantially contract the distributional range of the mussel, but also affect more central populations. The thesis shows that in order to understand the functioning of marginal populations, research should (1) strive for multi-scale approaches in order to link ecosystem patterns with ecosystem processes, and (2) challenge the prevailing tenets that origin from research carried out in central areas that may not be valid at the edge.