Spirituality of Finnish peacekeepers

The previous academic research on Finnish peacekeeping has clarified the operative and historical aspects of Finnish peacekeeping lacking the view of an individual who does the actual peacekeeping work. This research is based on the underlying theoretical assumption of human beings possessing different kinds of talents and intelligences creating a holistic entity. In this broad perspective spirituality was explored as an umbrella concept, as a holistic ability or talent, that can be explored as the deepest aspect of defining what it means to be human. The theoretical framework incorporated the concept of an intelligence, which is defined in Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences as the ability to solve problems, or to create products, that are valued within one or more cultural settings (Gardner, 1993, x). The viability of this theory was studied in the sample of Finnish peacekeepers. Spirituality in the theoretical and conceptual horizon was viewed as an extension of Gardner's theory of intelligences as one potential Gardnerian intelligence candidate. In addition to Gardner's theory, spirituality was explored as sensitivity which includes capacities such as sensing awareness, sensing mystery and sensing value (Hay, 1998). Also the practical aspects of spirituality were taken in account as shown in our everyday lives giving us the direction and influencing our social responsibilities and concerns (Bradford, 1995). Spirituality was explored also involving the element of the peacekeepers' community, the element of personal moral orientations and in the domain of religion and coping. The purpose of this research aimed in two dimensions. First, the aim was to outline the intelligence profile and the spiritual sensitivity profile of peacekeepers. Second, the aim was to understand qualitatively the nature of peacekeepers' spirituality The research interests were studied with different kinds of peacekeepers. Applying the mixed methods approach the research was conducted in two phases: first the former SFOR peacekeepers (N=6) were interviewed and the data was analysed. Inspired by the primary findings of these interviews, the data for the case-study of one peacekeeper was collected in co-operation with one former SFOR peacekeeper (N=1). In the second phase the data was collected from KFOR peacekeepers through the quantitative MI-Survey and the spiritual sensitivity survey (N=195). The quantitative method was used to outline the intelligence profile and the spiritual sensitivity profile of peacekeepers (N=195). In the mixed methods approach this method highlighted the general overview of intelligence traits and spiritual sensitivity of peacekeepers. In the mixed methods approach the qualitative method including interviews (N=6) and a case-study of one peacekeeper (N=1) increased subjective, qualitative information of spirituality of peacekeepers. The intelligence profile of peacekeepers highlighted the bodily-kinesthetic and interpersonal dimensions as the practical and social aspects of peacekeepers. Strong inter-item dependencies in the intrapersonal intelligence profile meant that peacekeepers possess a self-reflection and self-knowledge component and they reflect on deep psychological and philosophical issues. Regarding the spiritual sensitivity, peacekeepers found awareness-sensing, mystery-sensing, value-sensing and community-sensing important. The community-sensing emphasised a strong will to advance peace and to help people who are in need: things that are close to the heart of the peacekeepers. These results depicted practicality, being socially capable, and reflecting one's inner world as essential to peacekeepers. Moreover, spirituality as peacekeepers' moral endeavour became clearer because the sub-model of their community-sensing described morally charged destinations: advancing peace and helping people in need. In the qualitative findings peacekeepers articulated justice orientation and rule-following characterising the nature of peacekeepers' moral attitude and moral call (Kohlberg, 1969). An ethic of care (Gilligan, 1982) describes mainly female moral orientation, but the findings revealed that an ethic of care is also an important agent supporting strongly male peacekeepers in their aim to carry out qualitatively good peacekeeping work. The moral endeavour was voiced, when the role of religion in coping meant the assessment of the a way of life, a way of conduct, a way of being truthful to one's own values in confusing surroundings. The practical level of spiritual and religious contemplation was voiced as morally charged inner motivation to fulfil one's duties and at the same time to cope with various peacekeeping challenges. The results of different data sets were combined and interpreted as the moral endeavour, which characterises peacekeepers' spirituality. As the combining result, the perspective of peacekeepers' spirituality is considered moral or at least morally charged.

Ketkä pääsevät taivaaseen? : Kirkon maahanmuuttajatyöntekijöiden uskontoteologia pelastuksen näkökulmasta

Tutkin tässä tutkielmassa Suomen evankelis-luterilaisen kirkon maahanmuuttajatyöntekijöiden uskontoteologiaa. Maahanmuuttajatyöntekijät ovat koulutukseltaan pappeja ja diakoniatyöntekijöitä. Uskontoteologia taas käsittelee sitä, miten maailman uskonnollinen moninaisuus hahmottuu tietyn uskonnon näkökulmasta. Tarkastelen uskontoteologiaa kristillisen pelastusopin näkökulmasta, koska oppi on keskeinen sekä luterilaisessa perinteessä että uskontoteologian teoreettisessa keskustelussa. Keräsin tutkimusaineiston sähköisen kyselyn avulla marraskuussa 2009. Kysely sisälsi 12 avointa kysymystä sekä monivalintatehtäviä. Kyselyyn vastasi 45 kirkon maahanmuuttajatyöntekijää. Analysoin aineiston laadullisen sisällönanalyysin avulla. Tutkimusaineisto kertoi monipuolisesti kirkon maahanmuuttajatyöstä. Työssä tavattiin monien uskontojen edustajia ja sitä toteutettiin eri tavoin seurakuntatyöstä yhteiskunnalliseen vaikuttamiseen. Työ koettiin hyvin käytännönläheiseksi. Pelastusta pohdittiin, mutta se ei useinkaan ollut keskustelunaiheena. Opillinen keskustelu nähtiin helpompana maahanmuuttajien kuin uskontokriittisten suomalaisten kanssa. Pelastusta pidettiin kuitenkin tärkeänä kristillisenä oppina. Opin koettiin olevan merkittävä sekä tämän- että tuonpuolisen elämän kannalta. Vastaajien näkemykset pelastumisen tavoista mukailivat luterilaista oppia, joskin erilaisia tulkintojakin esiintyi. Maailman uskonnollista moninaisuutta selitettiin ihmisen tai Jumalan ominaisuuksiin tai historiallisiin tekijöiden vedoten. Osa vastaajista näki pelastuksen mahdollisena myös kristinuskon ulkopuolella, osa ei. Joidenkin mukaan pelastus toteutuu eri tavalla tai vain osittain muissa uskonnoissa. Sekä muiden uskontojen edustajiin että uskonnottomiin ja ateisteihin haluttiin suhtautua kunnioittavasti ja rakastavasti. Oman vakaumuksen vaaliminen koettiin tärkeänä. Kristinuskoa haluttiin tuoda esiin sopivaksi katsotuissa tilanteissa ja tasa-arvoisessa vuoropuhelussa. Kiteytin kirkon maahanmuuttajatyöntekijöiden näkemykset pelastuksen tarpeesta ja mahdollisuudesta yhteys-käsitteen ympärille. Vastaajat näkivät ihmisen kaipaavan pelastusta erosta takaisin yhteyteen itsensä, muiden ihmisten ja Jumalan kanssa. Tätä prosessia kuvattiin erilaisin termein, esimerkiksi puhumalla Jeesuksesta tai mielenrauhasta. Lähes kaikki vastaajat korostivat ennemmin ihmisten kuin uskontojen kohtaamista. Niin taivasta kuin pääsemistä tärkeämpänä näyttäytyi yhteinen matkanteko.

Efraim Syyrialaisen luostari: Tapausesimerkkejä munkkien luostariin vetäytymisen syistä

Tutkielma on kaksivaiheinen. Ensin esittelen apostolisen, Syyrialaisortodoksisen kirkon historiaa ja luostariperinnettä. Toisen osan tarkoitus on selvittää, liittyykö Pyhän Efraim Syyrialaisen luostarin munkkien luostariinjäämispäätökseen yhteiskunnallisia syitä ja mitä muita mahdollisia syitä voidaan löytää. Vertailen lopuksi varhaisia, 400-luvulla eläneiden kilvoittelijoiden Pyhän Efraim Syyrialaisen, Antonius Suuren ja Simeon Pylväspyhimyksen motiiveita nykykilvoittelijoiden motiiveihin, sikäli kuin se on mahdollista. Selvitän myös, onko Efraim Syyrialaisen esimerkillä ollut merkitystä nykykilvoittelijoille. Empiirinen aineisto kerättiin kahtena vuotena v. 2002 ja 2003. Tutkielmaa varten haastattelin kolmea Efraim Syyrialaisen luostarin munkkia. Pääinformanttini oli ko. luostarin seminaarin teologiopiskelija. Heidän kotitaustansa on syyrialaisortodoksinen, voimakkaasti uskonnollinen. Spiritualiteettia harjoitettiin jo lapsuudessa sekä kotona että kirkossa. Tutkielmani näkökulma on uskontohistoriallinen ja uskontososiologinen. Tutkin miten varhaiset- sekä nykypäivän kilvoittelijat ovat suhtautuneet yhteiskuntaan ja miten he ovat integroituneet luostariinsa. Kysymyksessä on nykypäivän osalta laadullinen tapaustutkimus, jonka metodeina ovat teemahaastattelu, jonka yhtenä osana olivat argumentit ja osallistruva havainnointi. Analysoin vastaukset sisällön analyysiä käyttäen. Haastatellut munkit korostivat syyrian kielen ja tradition opiskelun ja sen siirtämisen tärkeyttä seminaariin opiskelemaan hakeutumisensa, ja sen jälkeen munkiksi jäämisensä perusteluna. Pyhän Efraim Syyrialaisen esimerkin munkit kokivat olevan heille hyvin tärkeän tradition siirtäjän. Opiskelemisen ja matkustamisen mahdollisuus munkkina koettiin myös tärkeänä ja siitä syystä luostariin jäätiin, eli yhteiskunnallinen syy löytyi. Sisällön analyysissä ilmeni, että alkujaan koti edusti munkille primaarista tekijää. Sekundääristä tekijää edustivat kirkkoon kuuluva ryhmä, munkit ja luostari. Kodin ja kirkossa käynnin seurauksena tradition ja syyrian kielen oppimisen halu korostui ja niitä haluttiin lähteä opiskelemaan. Positiiviseksi viiteryhmäksi tällöin muodostuivat seminaariopiskelun aikana munkit ja muut luostarin asukkaat. Luostariin jäämisensä jälkeen primaarin tekijän voidaan huomata vaihtuneen luostariksi ja kodin asema on jäänyt sekundaariseksi. Yhteys luostarin ja ympäröivän yhteiskunnan kanssa tapahtui varhaisena aikana pääasiallisesti siten, että ihmiset tulivat kilvoittelijan luokse. Nykymunkit puolestaan käyvät niiden seurakuntalaisten kotona, jotka eivät pääse yhteisiin jumalanpalveluksiin ja auttavat heitä sielunhoidollisesti ja tarvittaessa taloudellisesti. Kirkon patriarkka Mar Ignatios Zakka I Iwasilla ja metropoliitta Eusthatios Matta Rohamilla on paljon yhteyksiä myös islaminuskoiseen väestönosaa Syyriassa. Ekumeenisia yhteyksiä on munkeillakin runsaasti. Ne mahdollistuvat erilaisissa kirkon kokouksissa ja konferensseissa sekä opiskelupaikkakunnalla Kreikassa.

Harmoniaa ja riitasointuja : Yksilön ja yhteisön hyvinvointiin liittyvät ihanteet Syon Abbeyn luostarissa (1415-1539)

Tutkimus käsittelee hyvinvointiin liittyviä ihanteita yksilön ja yhteisön näkökulmasta Syon Abbeyn birgittalaisluostarissa myöhäiskeskiajalla. Vuonna 1415 perustettu Syon Abbey kuului Englannin varakkaimpien luostarien joukkoon. Se noudatti Birgitan (1302/1303–1373) luostarisääntöä (Regula Salvatoris) ja oli säännön mukaisesti kaksoisluostari, jossa eli nunnien lisäksi myös veljiä. Tutkimuksen päälähteinä käytetään Birgitan sääntöä täydentäviä Syon Abbeyn luostaria varten kirjoitettuja sääntölisäyksiä sekä kahta nunnia varten laadittua hengellistä opaskirjaa. Hyvinvointiin liittyvät ihanteet on tässä tutkimuksessa jaoteltu fyysiseen, sosiaaliseen ja henkis-hengelliseen osa-alueeseen. Fyysisen hyvinvoinnin osalta tarkastellaan luostarin omaisuutta ja työnjakoa sekä ravintoon, vaatetukseen ja terveyteen liittyviä kysymyksiä. Varakkaana luostarina Syon Abbey kykeni tarjoamaan asukkailleen tasokkaat elinolosuhteet. Luostaria johti abbedissa, joka jakoi harkintansa mukaan työtehtävät muille luostarin asukkaille. Nunnien vastuu luostarin talouden ja arkielämän järjestämisessä oli suuri. Veljien vastuulla oli sakramenttien toimittaminen, saarnaaminen ja hengellinen ohjaus. Monilla Syon Abbeyn asukkailla oli aristokraattinen syntyperä, ja tottumus korkeaan elintasoon näkyi muun muassa ruokahankinnoissa kalliina mausteina ja muina ylellisyystuotteina, vaikka ihanteena olikin kohtuullisuus. Fyysisiin tarpeisiin liittyviä säädöksiä perusteltiin terveellisyydellä ja tarkoituksenmukaisuudella. Nunnien henkinen työ edellytti, että he olivat hyvin ravittuja ja terveitä. Vaatetuksen tuli olla yhtenäinen, millä osoitettiin toisaalta yhteenkuuluvuutta, toisaalta erottauduttiin muista sääntökunnista ja maallikoista. Sosiaalinen hyvinvointi liittyy yksittäisen nunnan asemaan yhteisössä ja siihen, miten nunnien (sekä nunnien ja veljien) välistä kommunikaatiota säädeltiin. Lähteet osoittavat, että yhteisöelämän sujuvuutta pidettiin Syon Abbeyssä tärkeänä. Pahan puhuminen, toisten loukkaaminen, juoruilu, ylempien uhmaaminen ja puhuminen hiljaisuusaikoina oli kielletty. Toisia piti kohdella kunnioittavasti ja ystävällisesti, mutta kommunikointi olisi pitänyt rajoittaa välttämättömään. Kieltojen ja määräysten runsaslukuisuus nimenomaan kommunikointiin liittyen kertonee siitä, että näitä sääntöjä ei aina noudatettu. Erityisen tiukasti kontrolloitiin nunnien ja veljien keskinäistä yhteydenpitoa. Henkinen ja hengellinen hyvinvointi liittyy luostarin varsinaiseen tehtävään. Syon Abbeyllä oli maine oppineisuuden keskuksena. Kirjallisuuden rooli luostarin elämänihanteiden luojana oli merkittävä ja sen tarkoitus oli auttaa nunnia hoitamaan hyvin tärkeintä tehtäväänsä, yhteisten hetkipalvelusten toimittamista. Veljet ja ulkopuoliset käänsivät Syon Abbeyn nunnille kirjoja englanniksi, joten myös latinaa taitamattomilla oli mahdollisuus hankkia teologista tietämystä ja ymmärtää hetkipalvelusten sisältöä. Suuri kirjasto takasi hyvät lähtökohdat opiskelulle varsinkin, kun huomioidaan, että naisten mahdollisuudet saada opillista sivistystä olivat keskiajalla rajalliset. Yksilön hengellisen elämän tukeminen palveli yhteisöä, koska luostarin hengellinen työ nähtiin konkreettisena taisteluna pahaa vastaan. Vaikka luostari-ihanteet perusteltiin Syon Abbeyssä hengellisesti, myös maallisista tarpeista huolehdittiin, koska ne loppujen lopuksi palvelivat hengellisiä päämääriä.

Kohtaamisia Santiagon tiellä pyhiinvaellus matkana ja spirituaalisena kokemuksena

Pyhiinvaellustutkimuksen tavoitteena on kuvata, analysoida ja ymmärtää pyhiinvaeltajien kokemuksia ja erityisesti spirituaalisia tai sellaisiksi tulkittuja kokemuksia. Tutkimuskysymys voidaan muotoilla myös kysymällä, missä on vaeltajien mahdollisesti kokema pyhiinvaelluksen pyhä . Pyhiinvaellus suuntautuu Santiago de Compostelan kaupunkiin. Kuvattu pyhiinvaellusreitti alkaa Ranskan ja Espanjan rajalta ja kulkee Espanjan luoteiskulmassa noin 800 kilometrin päässä olevaan määränpäähän. Tutkimuksen aineistona on sähköpostikyselyn vastaukset, jotka on saatu kahdeltakymmeneltäkahdelta keväällä 2006 Santiagoon jalkaisin vaeltaneilta pyhiinvaeltajilta. Tutkimusaineistona ovat myös tutkijan omat havainnot ko. pyhiinvaellukselta. Tutkijan havainnoista on kirjoitettu kuvaus Santiagon tien pyhiinvaelluksesta ja matkan arkisista käytännöistä. Sähköpostikyselyn vastaukset, vaeltajien spirituaaliset kokemukset, on analysoitu laadullista sisällön analysointia käyttäen. Kuudesta vastauksesta on kirjoitettu myös pyhiinvaeltajan henkilökohtainen tarina. Narratiivisuus, kerronnallisuus, on tässä tutkimuksessa yksi tapa esittää, kuvata ja ymmärtää tutkimustuloksia. Tutkimus on liitetty fenomenologiseen viitekehykseen. Spirituaalisia kokemuksia on lähestytty mm. pyhiinvaellustradition, pyhän käsitteen ja uskonnollisten kokemusten näkökulmasta. Spiritualiteetin käsitettä ja spirituaalisen kokemuksen kuvaamisen mahdollisuuksia on myös pohdittu tutkimuksessa. Pyhiinvaelluksen spirituaaliset kokemukset on tutkimusraportissa jaoteltu seitsemään ryhmään: kävely, ihmiset, vapaus, luonto, rukous, kirkot ja Santiago. Lisäksi on esitetty matkaan lähdön motiiveja sekä pyhiinvaelluksen vaikutuksia elämässä. Käveleminen oli pyhiinvaelluksen ydinkokemus. Käveleminen mahdollisti meditaation tai rukoilemisen. Se aiheutti myös kärsimystä ja oli keskeinen ihmisiä yhdistävä teema. Pyhiinvaellus irrotti ihmiset erittäin hyvin arjen rutiineista ja jokapäiväisestä normaalista elämästä. Pyhiinvaelluksella vapauden tunne olikin merkittävä spirituaalinen kokemus ja ajan käsitys saattoi saa uuden ulottuvuuden. Luonto näyttäytyi merkittävänä spirituaalisen innoituksen lähteenä ja usein myös yksinolon paikkana. Kaikki pyhiinvaeltajat vierailivat kirkoissa ja katedraaleissa ja useimmat myös messuissa ja pyhiinvaeltajille järjestetyissä rukoushetkissä. Pyhiinvaelluksen uskonnollinen ulottuvuus oli kaikille läsnä myös Santiagon messussa. Kristillinen tulkintakehys kokemuksille oli koko ajan pyhiinvaeltajalle tarjolla. Kuitenkaan Santiagon vaellukseen ei välttämättä liittynyt mitään omaa spirituaalista kokemusta. Pyhiinvaelluksen merkittävät spirituaaliset kokemukset liittyivät yhteisöllisyyteen ja jaettuihin kokemuksiin. Tyypillinen moderni pyhiinvaeltaja etsi itseään pyhiinvaelluksella. Yllätyksekseen hän saattoi löytää jotain silloin kun hän antautui avoimeen vuorovaikutukseen toisten ihmisten kanssa. Lähes kaikki tutkimuksen osallistuneet pyhiinvaeltajat pitivät hyvin tärkeänä toisia pyhiinvaeltajia ja sitä, mitä he saivat toisilta ihmisiltä. Pyhiinvaellusta leimaa poikkeuksellisen avoin vuorovaikutus ja elämän jakaminen. Pyhiinvaellukseen liittyy monia individualistisia piirteitä. Spirituaalisten kokemusten näkökulmasta individualismi ei kuitenkaan saa tukea tutkimuksesta, koska yhteisöllisyys näyttää niin merkittävältä spirituaalisten kokemusten kannalta. Pyhiinvaelluksen yhteisöllisyys on avointa, vapaaehtoista ja usein myös hetkellistä. Moderni pyhiinvaeltaja näyttää uskovan enemmän omiin kokemuksiinsa ja myös toisten kokemuksiin kuin minkään kirkon opilliseen auktoriteettiin.

Efraim Syyrialaisen luostari: Tapausesimerkkejä munkkien luostariin vetäytymisen syistä

Tutkielma on kaksivaiheinen. Ensin esittelen apostolisen, Syyrialaisortodoksisen kirkon historiaa ja luostariperinnettä. Toisen osan tarkoitus on selvittää, liittyykö Pyhän Efraim Syyrialaisen luostarin munkkien luostariinjäämispäätökseen yhteiskunnallisia syitä ja mitä muita mahdollisia syitä voidaan löytää. Vertailen lopuksi varhaisia, 400-luvulla eläneiden kilvoittelijoiden Pyhän Efraim Syyrialaisen, Antonius Suuren ja Simeon Pylväspyhimyksen motiiveita nykykilvoittelijoiden motiiveihin, sikäli kuin se on mahdollista. Selvitän myös, onko Efraim Syyrialaisen esimerkillä ollut merkitystä nykykilvoittelijoille. Empiirinen aineisto kerättiin kahtena vuotena v. 2002 ja 2003. Tutkielmaa varten haastattelin kolmea Efraim Syyrialaisen luostarin munkkia. Pääinformanttini oli ko. luostarin seminaarin teologiopiskelija. Heidän kotitaustansa on syyrialaisortodoksinen, voimakkaasti uskonnollinen. Spiritualiteettia harjoitettiin jo lapsuudessa sekä kotona että kirkossa. Tutkielmani näkökulma on uskontohistoriallinen ja uskontososiologinen. Tutkin miten varhaiset- sekä nykypäivän kilvoittelijat ovat suhtautuneet yhteiskuntaan ja miten he ovat integroituneet luostariinsa. Kysymyksessä on nykypäivän osalta laadullinen tapaustutkimus, jonka metodeina ovat teemahaastattelu, jonka yhtenä osana olivat argumentit ja osallistruva havainnointi. Analysoin vastaukset sisällön analyysiä käyttäen. Haastatellut munkit korostivat syyrian kielen ja tradition opiskelun ja sen siirtämisen tärkeyttä seminaariin opiskelemaan hakeutumisensa, ja sen jälkeen munkiksi jäämisensä perusteluna. Pyhän Efraim Syyrialaisen esimerkin munkit kokivat olevan heille hyvin tärkeän tradition siirtäjän. Opiskelemisen ja matkustamisen mahdollisuus munkkina koettiin myös tärkeänä ja siitä syystä luostariin jäätiin, eli yhteiskunnallinen syy löytyi. Sisällön analyysissä ilmeni, että alkujaan koti edusti munkille primaarista tekijää. Sekundääristä tekijää edustivat kirkkoon kuuluva ryhmä, munkit ja luostari. Kodin ja kirkossa käynnin seurauksena tradition ja syyrian kielen oppimisen halu korostui ja niitä haluttiin lähteä opiskelemaan. Positiiviseksi viiteryhmäksi tällöin muodostuivat seminaariopiskelun aikana munkit ja muut luostarin asukkaat. Luostariin jäämisensä jälkeen primaarin tekijän voidaan huomata vaihtuneen luostariksi ja kodin asema on jäänyt sekundaariseksi. Yhteys luostarin ja ympäröivän yhteiskunnan kanssa tapahtui varhaisena aikana pääasiallisesti siten, että ihmiset tulivat kilvoittelijan luokse. Nykymunkit puolestaan käyvät niiden seurakuntalaisten kotona, jotka eivät pääse yhteisiin jumalanpalveluksiin ja auttavat heitä sielunhoidollisesti ja tarvittaessa taloudellisesti. Kirkon patriarkka Mar Ignatios Zakka I Iwasilla ja metropoliitta Eusthatios Matta Rohamilla on paljon yhteyksiä myös islaminuskoiseen väestönosaa Syyriassa. Ekumeenisia yhteyksiä on munkeillakin runsaasti. Ne mahdollistuvat erilaisissa kirkon kokouksissa ja konferensseissa sekä opiskelupaikkakunnalla Kreikassa.

Venäjän politiikka ja perustuslaki : Tutkimus Venäjän perustuslakikäsitteistön kehityksestä 1900-luvulla

Constitutional politics in Russia, a conceptual history study of the constitutional rhetoric in the 20th century In April 2006 the Russian Constitution had its 100th anniversary. Following its late start, five constitutions have been adopted. The great number of constitutions is partly explained in my work by the fact that Russia s political system has changed many times, from one state system to another. From a monarchical state power, it changed first, with the October revolution, into the Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic, and after that, in 1924, into the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. In 1991, the Russian Federation was established. The great number of constitutions can also be explained by the fact that in a one-party system, constitutional concepts became one of the most important instruments for introducing political programmes. When the political unity of the state was not only restricted by the Constitution, but also by the party ideology, the political debates concerning constitutional concepts were the key discussions for all the reformative pursuits of Soviet politics. It can be said that, in the Soviet Union, almost all political discourses dealt with constitutional concepts. In the context of restricted unity, the constitutional concepts were the most important tools to argue and create a basis for a new presentation and new political programmes. Thus, the basic feature of the Soviet political discourses has been a continuous competition regarding the constitutional concepts. By defining the constitutional concepts, a new, the political elites wanted especially to redefine, their own way, the traditional meanings of the October 1917 Revolution, and to differentiate them from those of the preceding period of power. From a methodological point of view, I argue that the Russian constitutional concepts make a conceptual historical approach very suitable, and change the focus on history. This approach studies history in contemporary contexts which follow after each other, and whose texts are the main research target. The picture of history is created through the interpretation of the original sources of contemporary contexts. Focusing on the dynamic and traditional characteristic of Russian constitutional concepts, I refer to a certain kind of value and the task of these concepts to justify and define the political and societal unity in every situation. This is done by combining the pursued future orientation of constitutional unity with the new acts of preservation of the traditional principles of the revolution. The different time layers of the constitutional concepts, the past, the present and the future, are the key aspects of storytelling in justifying the continuity and redefining the constitutional unity for the sake of reform. These aspects of constitutional concepts, in addition to all the other functions, have been the main elements of the argumentative structure of acting against opponents.

Towards a Critique of the Concept of the Right to Self-Determination in Africa : A Conceptual Examination and the Cases of Western Sahara, Southern Sudan and Eritrea

This thesis examines the right to self-determination which is a norm used for numerous purposes by multiple actors in the field of international relations, with relatively little clarity or agreement on the actual and potential meaning of the right. In international practice, however, the main focus in applying the right has been in the context of decolonization as set by the United Nations in its early decades. Thus, in Africa the right to self-determination has traditionally implied that the colonial territories, and particularly the populations within these territories, were to constitute the people who were entitled to the right. That is, self-determination by decolonization provided a framework for the construction of independent nation-states in Africa whilst other dimensions of the right remained largely or totally neglected. With the objective of assessing the scope, content, developments and interpretations of the right to self-determination in Africa, particularly with regard to the relevance of the right today, the thesis proceeds on two fundamental hypotheses. The first is that Mervyn Frost s theory of settled norms, among which he lists the right to self-determination, assumes too much. Even if the right to self-determination is a human right belonging to all peoples stipulated, inter alia, in the first Article of the 1966 International Human Rights Covenants, it is a highly politicized and context-bound right instead of being settled and observed in a way that its denial would need special justification. Still, the suggested inconsistency or non-compliance with the norm of self-determination is not intended to prove the uselessness or inappropriateness of the norm, but, on the contrary, to invite and encourage debate on the potential use and coverage of the right to self-determination. The second hypothesis is that within the concept of self-determination there are two normative dimensions. One is to do with the idea and practice of statehood, the nation and collectivity that may decide to conduct itself as an independent state. The other one is to do with self-determination as a human right, as a normative condition, to be enjoyed by people and peoples within states that supersedes state authority. These external and internal dimensions need to be seen as complementary and co-terminous, not as mutually exclusive alternatives. The thesis proceeds on the assumption that the internal dimension of the right, with human rights and democracy at its core, has not been considered as important as the external. In turn, this unbalanced and selective interpretation has managed to put the true normative purpose of the right making the world better and bringing more just polity models into a somewhat peculiar light. The right to self-determination in the African context is assessed through case studies of Western Sahara, Southern Sudan and Eritrea. The study asks what these cases say about the right to self-determination in Africa and what their lessons learnt could contribute to the understanding and relevance of the right in today s Africa. The study demonstrates that even in the context of decolonization, the application of the right to self-determination has been far from the consistent approach supposedly followed by the international community: in many respects similar colonial histories have easily led to rather different destinies. While Eritrea secured internationally recognized right to self-determination in the form of retroactive independence in 1993, international recognition of distinct Western Sahara and Southern Sudan entities is contingent on complex and problematic conditions being satisfied. Overall, it is a considerable challenge for international legality to meet empirical political reality in a meaningful way, so that the universal values attached to the norm of self-determination are not overlooked or compromised but rather reinforced in the process of implementing the right. Consequently, this thesis seeks a more comprehensive understanding of the right to self-determination with particular reference to post-colonial Africa and with an emphasis on the internal, human rights and democracy dimensions of the norm. It is considered that the right to self-determination cannot be perceived only as an inter-state issue as it is also very much an intra-state issue, including the possibility of different sub-state arrangements exercised under the right, for example, in the form of autonomy. At the same time, the option of independent statehood achieved through secession remains a mode of exercising and part of the right to self-determination. But in whatever form or way applied, the right to self-determination, as a normative instrument, should constitute and work as a norm that comprehensively brings more added value in terms of the objectives of human rights and democracy. From a normative perspective, a peoples right should not be allowed to transform and convert itself into a right of states. Finally, in light of the case studies of Western Sahara, Southern Sudan and Eritrea, the thesis suggests that our understanding of the right to self-determination should now reach beyond the post-colonial context in Africa. It appears that both the questions and answers to the most pertinent issues of self-determination in the cases studied must be increasingly sought within the postcolonial African state rather than solely in colonial history. In this vein, the right to self-determination can be seen not only as a tool for creating states but also as a way to transform the state itself from within. Any such genuinely post-colonial approach may imply a judicious reconsideration, adaptation or up-dating of the right and our understanding of it in order to render it meaningful in Africa today.

Striving for the Impossible : The Hegelian background of Judith Butler

This study analyses the Hegelian roots of the subject-theory and the political theory of Judith Butler. Butler can be seen as the author of "gender performativity". Butler claims that subject's identities are linquistic "terms". Linquistic identities are performative and normative: they produce, according to cultural rules, the identities which they just claim to describe. Butler's theory of the performativity of identities is based on her theory of identities as "ek-static" constructions. This means that there is a relation between the self and the Other in the heart of identities. It is claimed in this study that Butler's theory of the relation between the self and the Other, or, between the subject and the constitutive outside, is based on G.W.F. Hegel's theory of the dialectics of recognition in The Phenomenology of Spirit. Especially the sections dealing with the relation between "Lord" and "Bondsman" set the theoretical base for Butler's theory. Further, it is claimed that Hegel's own solution for the enslaving and instrumentalizing relation between the self and the Other, reciprocal recognition, remains an important alternative to the postmodernist conception supported by political theorists like Butler. Chapter 2, on Hegel, goes through the dialectics of recognition between the self and the Other in The Phenomenology of Spirit up until the ideal of reciprocal recognition and absolute knowledge. Chapter 3 introduces two French interpretations of Hegel, by Alexandre Kojéve and Louis Althusser. Both of these interpretations, especially the Kojevian one, have deeply influenced the contemporary understanding of Hegel as well as the contemporary thought - presented e.g. in the postmodern political thought - on the relations between the self and the Other. The Kojévian Marxist utopia with its notion of "the End of History" as well as the Althusserian theory of the Interpellative formation of subjects have influenced how Hegel's theory of the self and the Other have travelled into Butler's thought. In chapter 5 these influences are analyzed in detail. According to the analysis, Butler, like numerous other poststructuralist theorists, accepts Kojéve's interpretation as basically correct, but rejects his vision of "the End of History" as static and totalitarian. Kojéve's utopian philosophy of history is replaced by the paradoxical idea of an endless striving towards emancipation which, however, could not and should not be reached. In chapter 6 Butler's theory is linked to another postmodern political theory, that of Chantal Mouffe. It is argued that Mouffe's theory is based on a similar view of the relation of the self and the other as Butler's theory. The former, however, deals explicitly with politics. Therefore, it makes the central paradox of striving for the impossible more visible; such a theory is unable to guide political action. Hegel actually anticipated this kind of theorizing in his critique of "Unhappy Consciousness" in the Phenomenology of Spirit. Keywords: Judith Butler, G.W.F. Hegel, Chantal Mouffe, Alexandre Kojéve, Postmodernism, Politics, Identities, Performativity, Self-consciousness, Other

Participation or further exclusion? : Contestations over forest conservation and control in the East Usambara Mountains, Tanzania

This Ph.D. thesis Participation or Further Exclusion? Contestations over Forest Conservation and Control in the East Usambara Mountains, Tanzania describes and analyses the shift in the prevailing discourse of forest and biodiversity conservation policies and strategies towards more participatory approaches in Tanzania, and the changes in the practises of resource control. I explore the scope for and limits to the different actors and groups who are considered to form the community, to participate in resource control, in a specific historical and socio-economic context. I analyse whether, how and to which extent the targets of such participatory conservation interventions have been able to affect the formal rules and practices of resource control, and explore their different responses and discursive and other strategies in relation to conservation efforts. I approach the problematic through exploring certain participatory conservation interventions and related negotiations between the local farmers, government officials and the external actors in the case of two protected forest reserves in the southern part of the East Usambaras, Tanzania. The study area belongs to the Eastern Arc Mountains that are valued globally and nationally for their high level of biodiversity and number of endemic and near endemic species. The theoretical approach draws from theorising on power, participation and conservation in anthropology of development and post-structuralist political ecology. The material was collected in three stages between 2003 and 2008 by using an ethnographic approach. I interviewed and observed the actors and their resource use and control practices at the local level, including the representatives of the villagers living close to the protected forests and the conservation agency, but also followed the selected processes and engaged with the non-local agencies involved in the conservation efforts in the East Usambaras. In addition, the more recent processes of change and the actors strategies in resource control were contextualised against the social and environmental history of the study area and the evolvement of institutions of natural resource control. My findings indicate that the discourse of participation that has emerged in global conservation policy debate within the past three decades, and is being institutionalised in the national policies in many countries, including Tanzania, has shaped the practices of forest conservation in the East Usambaras, although in a fragmented and uneven way. Instrumental interpretation of participation, in which it is to serve the goals of improving the control of the forest and making it more acceptable and efficient, has prevailed among the governmental actors and conservation organisations. Yet, there is variation between the different projects and actors promoting participatory conservation regarding the goals and means of participation, e.g. to which extent the local people are to be involved in decision-making. The actors representing communities also have their diverse agendas, understandings and experiences regarding the rationality, outcomes and benefits of being involved in forest control, making the practices of control fluid. The elements of the exclusive conservation thinking and practices co-exist with the more recent participatory processes, and continue to shape the understandings and strategies of the actors involved in resource control. The ideas and narratives of the different discourses are reproduced and selectively used by the parties involved. The idea of forest conservation is not resisted as such by most of the actors at local level, quite the opposite. However, the strict regulations and rules governing access to resources, such as valuable timber species, continue to be disputed by many. Furthermore, the history of control, such as past injustices related to conservation and unfulfilled promises, undermines the participation of certain social groups in resource control and benefit sharing. This also creates controversies in the practices of conservation, and fuels conflicts regarding the establishment of new protected areas. In spite of this, the fact that the representatives of the communities have been invited to the arenas where information is shared, and principles and conditions of forest control and benefit sharing are discussed and partly decided upon, has created expectations among the participants, and opened up opportunities for some of the local actors to enhance their own, and sometimes wider interests in relation to resource control and the related benefits. The local actors experiences of the previous government and other interventions strongly affect how they position themselves in relation to conservation interventions, and their responses and strategies. However, my findings also suggest, in a similar way to research conducted in some other protected areas, that the benefits of participation in conservation and resource control tend to accrue unevenly between different groups of local people, e.g. due to unequal access to information and differences in their initial resources and social position.

Use of ecological information in urban planning

Urbanization leads to irreversible land-use change, which has ecological consequences such as the loss and fragmentation of green areas, and structural and functional changes in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. These consequences diminish ecosystem services important for human populations living in urban areas. All this results in a conflict situation: how to simultaneously meet the needs of city growth and the principles of sustainable development, and especially conserve important green areas within and around built-up areas? Urban planners and decisionmakers have an important role in this, since they must use the ecological information mainly from species and biotope inventories and biodiversity impact assessments in determining the conservation values of green areas. The main aim of this thesis was to study the use of ecological information in the urban land-use planning and decisionmaking process in the Helsinki Metropolitan Area, Finland. At first, the literature on ecological-social systems linkages related to urban planning was reviewed. Based on the review, a theoretical and conceptual framework for the research on Finnish urban setting was adapted. Secondly, factors determining the importance and effectiveness of incorporation of ecological information into the urban planning process, and the challenges related to the use of ecological information were studied. Thirdly, the importance and use of Local Ecological Knowledge in urban planning were investigated. Then, factors determining the consideration of urban green areas and related ecological information in political land-use decisionmaking were studied. Finally, in a case study illustrating the above considerations, the importance of urban stream ecosystems in the land-use planning was investigated. This thesis demonstrated that although there are several challenges in using ecological information effectively, it is considered as an increasingly important part of the basic information used in urban planning and decisionmaking process. The basic determinants for this are the recent changes in environmental legislation, but also the increasing appreciation of green areas and their conservation values by all the stakeholders. In addition, Local Ecological Knowledge in its several forms can be a source of ecological information for planners if incorporated effectively into the process. This study also showed that rare or endangered species and biotopes, and related ecological information receive priority in the urban planning process and usually pass through the decisionmaking system. Furthermore, the stream Rekolanoja case indicates that planners and residents see the value of urban stream ecosystem as increasingly important for the local health and social values, such as recreation and stress relief.

CADASIL: molecular studies on the most common hereditary vascular dementing disorder

Cerebral Autosomal Dominant Arteriopathy with Subcortical Infarcts and Leukoencephalopathy (CADASIL) is the most common hereditary vascular dementia. CADASIL is a systemic disease of small and medium-sized arteries although the symptoms are almost exclusively neurological, including migraineous headache, recurrent ischemic episodes, cognitive impairment and, finally, subcortical dementia. CADASIL is caused by over 170 different mutations in the NOTCH3 gene, which encodes a receptor expressed in adults predominantly in the vascular smooth muscle cells. The function of NOTCH3 is not crucial for embryonic development but is needed after birth. NOTCH3 directs postnatal arterial maturation and helps to maintain arterial integrity. It is involved in regulation of vascular tone and in the wound healing of a vascular injury. In addition, NOTCH3 promotes cell survival by inducing expression of anti-apoptotic proteins. NOTCH3 is a membrane-spanning protein with a large extracellular domain (N3ECD) containing 34 epidermal growth factor-like (EGF) repeats and a smaller intracellular domain with six ankyrin repeats. All CADASIL mutations are located in the EGF repeats and the majority of the mutations cause gain or loss of one cysteine residue in one of these repeats leading to an odd number of cysteine residues, which in turn leads to misfolding of N3ECD. This misfolding most likely alters the maturation, targetting, degradation and/or function of the NOTCH3 receptor. CADASIL mutations do not seem to affect the canonical NOTCH3 signalling pathway. The main pathological findings are the accumulation of the NOTCH3 extracellular domain on degenerating vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), accumulation of granular osmiophilic material (GOM) in the close vicinity of VSMCs as well as fibrosis and thickening of arterial walls. Narrowing of the arterial lumen and local thrombosis cause insufficient blood flow, mainly in small arteries of the cerebral white matter, resulting in tissue damage and lacunar infarcts. CADASIL is suspected in patients with a suggestive family history and clinical picture as well as characteristic white matter alterations in magnetic resonance imaging. A definitive verification of the diagnosis can be achieved by identifying a pathogenic mutation in the NOTCH3 gene or through the detection of GOM by electron microscopy. To understand the pathology underlying CADASIL, we have generated a unique set of cultured vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) lines from umbilical cord, placental, systemic and cerebral arteries of CADASIL patients and controls. Analyses of these VSMCs suggest that mutated NOTCH3 is misfolded, thus causing endoplasmic reticulum stress, activation of the unfolded protein response and increased production of reactive oxygen species. In addition, mutation in NOTCH3 causes alterations in actin cytoskeletal structures and protein expression, increased branching and abnormal node formation. These changes correlate with NOTCH3 expression levels within different VSMCs lines, suggesting that the phenotypic differences of SMCs may affect the vulnerability of the VSMCs and, therefore, the pathogenic impact of mutated NOTCH3 appears to vary in the arteries of different locations. Furthermore, we identified PDGFR- as an immediate downstream target gene of NOTCH3 signalling. Activation of NOTCH induces up-regulation of the PDGFR- expression in control VSMCs, whereas this up-regulation is impaired in CADASIL VSMCs and might thus serve as an alternative molecular mechanism that contributes to CADASIL pathology. In addition, we have established the congruence between NOTCH3 mutations and electron microscopic detection of GOM with a view to constructing a strategy for CADASIL diagnostics. In cases where the genetic analysis is not available or the mutation is difficult to identify, a skin biopsy is an easy-to-perform and highly reliable diagnostic method. Importantly, it is invaluable in setting guidelines concerning how far one should proceed with the genetic analyses.

Glutamatergic Modulation of Cue-Induced Drug-Seeking Behavior in the Rat

The characteristics of drug addiction include compulsive drug use despite negative consequences and re-occurring relapses, returns to drug use after a period of abstinence. Therefore, relapse prevention is one of the major challenges for the treatment of drug addiction. There are three main factors capable of inducing craving for drugs and triggering relapse long after cessation of drug use and dissipation of physical withdrawal signs: stress, re-exposure to the drug, and environmental stimuli (cues) that have been previously associated with drug use. The neurotransmitters dopamine and glutamate have been implicated in the modulation of drug-seeking behavior. The aim of this project was to examine the role of glutamatergic neurotransmission in relapse triggered by conditioned drug-associated stimuli. The focus was on clarifying whether relapse to drug seeking can be attenuated by blockade of glutamate receptors. In addition, as the nucleus accumbens has been proposed to participate in the modulation of drug-seeking behavior, the effects of glutamate receptor blockade in this brain structure on cue-induced relapse were investigated. The studies employed animals models in which rats were trained to press a lever in a test cage to obtain alcohol or intravenous cocaine. Drug availability was paired with distinct olfactory, auditory, or visual stimuli. This phase was followed by extinction training, during which lever presses did not result in the presentation of the drug or the drug-associated stimuli. Extinction training led to a gradual decrease in the number of lever presses during test sessions. Relapse was triggered by presenting the rats with the drug-associated stimuli in the absence of alcohol or cocaine. The drug-associated stimuli were alone capable of inducing resumption of lever pressing and maintaining this behavior during repeated testing. The number of lever presses during a session represented the intensity of drug-seeking and relapse behavior. The results suggest that glutamatergic neurotransmission is involved in the modulation of drug-seeking behavior. Both alcohol and cocaine relapse were attenuated by systemic pretreatment with glutamate receptor antagonists. However, differences were found in the ability of ionotropic AMPA/kainate and NMDA receptor antagonists to regulate drug-seeking behavior. The AMPA/kainate antagonists CNQX and NBQX, and L-701,324, an antagonist with affinity for the glycine site of the NMDA receptor, attenuated cue-induced drug seeking, whereas the competitive NMDA antagonist CGP39551 and the NMDA channel blocker MK-801 were without effect. MPEP, an antagonist at metabotropic mGlu5 glutamate receptors, also decreased drug seeking, but its administration was found to lead to conditioned suppression of behavior during subsequent treatment sessions, suggesting that MPEP may have undesirable side effects. The mGluR2/3 agonist LY379268 and the mGluR8 agonist (S)-3,4-DCPG decreased both cue-induced relapse to alcohol drinking and alcohol consumption. Control experiments showed however that administration of the agonists was accompanied by motor suppression limiting their usefulness. Administration of the AMPA/kainate antagonist CNQX, the NMDA antagonist D-AP5, and the mGluR5 antagonist MPEP into the nucleus accumbens resulted also in a decrease in drug-seeking behavior, suggesting that the nucleus accumbens is at least one of the anatomical sites regulating drug seeking and mediating the effects of glutamate receptor antagonists on this behavior.

The Molecular Basis of Hydrolethalus Syndrome

Hydrolethalus syndrome (HLS) is a severe fetal malformation syndrome that is inherited by an autosomal recessive manner. HLS belongs to the Finnish disease heritage, an entity of rare diseases that are more prevalent in Finland than in other parts of the world. The phenotypic spectrum of the syndrome is wide and it is characterized by several developmental abnormalities, including hydrocephalus and absent midline structures in the brain, abnormal lobation of the lungs, polydactyly as well as micrognathia and other craniofacial anomalies. Polyhydramnios are relatively frequent during pregnancy. HLS can nowadays be effectively identified by ultrasound scan already at the end of the first trimester of pregnancy. One of the main goals in this study was to identify and characterize the gene defect underlying HLS. The defect was found from a previously unknown gene that was named HYLS1. Identification of the gene defect made it possible to confirm the HLS diagnosis genetically, an aspect that provides valuable information for the families in which a fetus is suspected to have HLS. Neuropathological findings of mutation confirmed HLS cases were described for the first time in detail in this study. Also, detailed general pathological findings were described. Since HYLS1 was an unknown gene with no relatives in the known gene families, many functional studies were performed in order to unravel the function of the gene and of the protein it codes for. Studies showed, for example, that the subcellular localization of the HYLS1 protein was different when the normal and the defective forms were compared. In addition, HYLS1 was shown to possess transactivation potential which was significantly diminished in the defective form. According to the results of this study it can be stated that HYLS1 most likely participates in transcriptional regulation and also in the regulation of cholesterol metabolism and that the function of HYLS1 is critical for normal fetal development.

The Emerging Phenotype: Ecological Genetics of Color, Form and Sex in the Common Frog

One of the main aims of evolutionary biology is to explain why organisms vary phenotypically as they do. Proximately, this variation arises from genetic differences and from environmental influences, the latter of which is referred to as phenotypic plasticity. Phenotypic plasticity is thus a central concept in evolutionary biology, and understanding its relative importance in causing the phenotypic variation and differentiation is important, for instance in anticipating the consequences of human induced environmental changes. The aim of this thesis was to study geographic variation and local adaptation, as well as sex ratios and environmental sex reversal, in the common frog (Rana temporaria). These themes cover three different aspects of phenotypic plasticity, which emerges as the central concept for the thesis. The first two chapters address geographic variation and local adaptation in two potentially thermally adaptive traits, namely the degree of melanism and the relative leg length. The results show that although there is an increasing latitudinal trend in the degree of melanism in wild populations across Scandinavian Peninsula, this cline has no direct genetic basis and is thus environmentally induced. The second chapter demonstrates that although there is no linear, latitudinally ordered phenotypic trend in relative leg length that would be expected under Allen s rule an ecogeographical rule linking extremity length to climatic conditions there seems to be such a trend at the genetic level, hidden under environmental effects. The first two chapters thus view phenotypic plasticity through its ecological role and evolution, and demonstrate that it can both give rise to phenotypic variation and hide evolutionary patterns in studies that focus solely on phenotypes. The last three chapters relate to phenotypic plasticity through its ecological and evolutionary role in sex determination, and consequent effects on population sex ratio, genetic recombination and the evolution of sex chromosomes. The results show that while sex ratios are strongly female biased and there is evidence of environmental sex reversals, these reversals are unlikely to have caused the sex ratio skew, at least directly. The results demonstrate that environmental sex reversal can have an effect on the evolution of sex chromosomes, as the recombination patterns between them seem to be controlled by phenotypic, rather than genetic, sex. This potentially allows Y chromosomes to recombine, lending support for the recent hypothesis suggesting that sex-reversal may play an important role on the rejuvenation of Y chromosomes.