Plan zemelʻnogo uchastka poselka Ėrstmaĭsk N 8 Leninskogo fonda

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Crystal and molecular structure of 15-bromolongibornane-8,9-dione

The crystal and molecular structure of the title compound (1) has been determined by the heavy-atom method from 1038 observed three-dimensional photographic data. Crystals are orthorhombic, with a = 20.07 ± 0.02, b= 10.05 ± 0.02, c= 7.31 ± 0.01 Å, space group P212121, with Z= 4. The structure was refined by block diagonal leastsquares to R 0.099. The conformation of the norbornane moiety is discussed. The seven-membered ring portion of the molecule adopts an approximate chair conformation. The packing of the molecules in the crystal is mainly a consequence of van der Waals interactions.

8-13 Hz fluctuations in rectal pressure are an objective marker of clitorally-induced orgasm in women

Orgasm is a subjective experience accompanied by involuntary muscle contractions. We hypothesized that orgasm in women would be distinguishable by frequency analysis of a perineal muscle-derived signal. Rectal pressure, an index of perineal muscle activity, was measured continuously in 23 healthy women during different sexual tasks: receiving clitoral stimulation, imitation of orgasm, and attempt to reach orgasm, in which case the women were asked to report whether orgasm had been reached ("orgasm") or not ("failed orgasm attempt"). We performed spectral analysis on the rectal pressure data and calculated the spectral power in the frequency bands delta (0.5-4 Hz), theta (4-8 Hz), alpha (8-13 Hz), and beta (13-25 Hz). The most significant and most important difference in spectral power between orgasm and both control motor tasks (imitation of orgasm and failed orgasm attempt) was found in the alpha band. An objective rule based on spectral power in the alpha band recognized 94% (29/31) of orgasms and correctly labeled 69% (44/64) of all orgasm attempts as either successful or failed. Because outbursts of alpha fluctuations in rectal pressure only occurred during orgasm and not during voluntary imitation of orgasm or failed attempts, we propose that they represent involuntary contractions of muscles in the rectal vicinity. This is the first objective and quantitative measure that has a strong correspondence with the subjective experience of orgasm.

4QMMT - The Problem of the Epilogue

The main focus of this study is the epilogue of 4QMMT (4QMiqsat Ma aseh ha-Torah), a text of obscure genre containing a halakhic section found in cave 4 at Qumran. In the official edition published in the series Discoveries of the Judaean Desert (DJD X), the extant document was divided by its editors, Elisha Qimron and John Strugnell, into three literary divisions: Section A) the calendar section representing a 364-day solar calendar, Section B) the halakhot, and Section C) an epilogue. The work begins with text critical inspection of the manuscripts containing text from the epilogue (mss 4Q397, 4Q398, and 4Q399). However, since the relationship of the epilogue to the other sections of the whole document 4QMMT is under investigation, the calendrical fragments (4Q327 and 4Q394 3-7, lines 1-3) and the halakhic section also receive some attention, albeit more limited and purpose oriented. In Ch. 2, after a transcription of the fragments of the epilogue, a synopsis is presented in order to evaluate the composite text of the DJD X edition in light of the evidence provided by the individual manuscripts. As a result, several critical comments are offered, and finally, an alternative arrangement of the fragments of the epilogue with an English translation. In the following chapter (Ch. 3), the diversity of the two main literary divisions, the halakhic section and the epilogue, is discussed, and it is demonstrated that the author(s) of 4QMMT adopted and adjusted the covenantal pattern known from biblical law collections, more specifically Deuteronomy. The question of the genre of 4QMMT is investigated in Ch. 4. The final chapter (Ch. 5) contains an analysis of the use of Scripture in the epilogue. In a close reading, both the explicit citations and the more subtle allusions are investigated in an attempt to trace the theology of the epilogue. The main emphases of the epilogue are covenantal faithfulness, repentance and return. The contents of the document reflect a grave concern for the purity of the cult in Jerusalem, and in the epilogue Deuteronomic language and expressions are used to convince the readers of the necessity of a reformation. The large number of late copies found in cave 4 at Qumran witness the significance of 4QMMT and the continuous importance of the Jerusalem Temple for the Qumran community.

Valkoisen talon kappalaiset : Yhdysvaltain presidentti-instituution viralliset puheet retorisena kansalaisuskontona

Tutkimuksen aihepiirinä on viimeaikaisen (1997-2004) Yhdysvaltain presidentti-instituution uskonnollinen retoriikka William J. Clintonin ja George W. Bushin virkakausina. Tutkimuksen tehtävä on selvittää, miten presidentti-instituutio hyödyntää uskonnollista retoriikkaa legimitaationa virallisissa poliittisissa linjanvetopuheissaan, kuten virkaanastujais- ja liittovaltion tila -puheissaan. Tutkimustehtävä jakautuu seuraaviin alakysymyksiin: 1) Millaisilla kansalaisuskonnollisilla käsityksillä ja keinoilla legimitaatiota yritetään tuottaa? 2) Ovatko kansalaisuskonnon keinot viimeaikaisten presidenttien keskeisintä työvälineistöä identifioinnissa ja erottautumisissa? 3) Ovatko kansalaisuskonnolliset teemat naturalisoituneet, luonnollistuneet? Tiivistetysti on tarkoitus tutkia viimeaikaisten presidenttien virallisista puheiden kautta, kuinka uskonto ja valtio liittyvät toisiinsa. Perusolettamukseni on, että presidentit hyödyntävät keskeisesti kansalaisuskonnollista retoriikkaa vakuuttaakseen yleisönsä ja politiikkansa. Tutkimusaineisto koostuu koostuu kahden Yhdysvaltain presidentin William J. Clintonin (1993-2001) ja George W. Bushin (2001-) presidenttien virallisista puheista, jotka on pidetty vuosina 1997-2004. Viralliset puheet ovat virkaanastujais- (Inaugural Address) ja vuosittaiset liittovaltion tila -puheet (Address Before a Joint Session of the Congress on the State of the Union). Puheita on kymmenen ja niiden pituus on keskimäärin viisi sivua. Tutkielman teoreettinen viitekehys tukeutuu kanadalaisen uskontososiologin Marcela Cristin uudenlaiselle käsitykselle (2001) kansalaisuskonnosta poliittisena uskontona. Tämä hyödyntää kansalaisuskonnon durkheimilaista taustaa yhdistäen Jean-Jacques Rousseuaun religion civile-teesiä. Cristin mukaan kansalaisuskonto manifestoituu kahdella tavalla: sekä durkheimilaisena kulttuurisena kansalaismuotona (civil) ja rousseualaisena ideologiana (political). Nämä eivät hänen mukaansa ole toisilleen vastakohtia, vaan yhden jatkumon osia. Tutkielman metodologinen lähestymistapa on uusretorinen analyysi ja teoreettis-medologisena viitekehyksenä on sosiaalinen konstruktivismi. Analyysin perusolettamus on, että presidentti-instituution luomassa merkityksen rakennetaan sosiaalisesta todellisuutta. Instituution retoriikka suuntautuu tiettyyn sosiaaliseen yhteisöön yrittäen legimitoida mahdollisimman laajaa joukkoa politiikkansa taakse. Analyysin tuloksena huomattiin, että presidentti-instituutio hyödyntää aktiivisesti kansalaisuskonnollisia teemoja. Molempien presidentti-instituutioiden uskonnollisessa nationalismissa hyödynnetään kansalaisuskonnollisuuden sekä protestanttis-puritaanista että valistuksellista taustaa. Kyse on oikeastaan siitä,kuinka nämä puolet saavat painotuksensa. Selvää on, että molemmat presidentit hyödyntävät kaikkia kansalaisuskonnollisuuden kolmea ulottuvuutta. Molemmilta löytyy retorinen tukeutuminen transsendenssiin, moraalistinen yhteisöllisyyden vaatimus. Clintonin uskonnollinen retoriikkaa jakaantuu kahteen ulkoisesti ristiriitaiseen käsitteelliseen linssiin: lupauksellisuus ja perustajallisuus. Ne yhdistyvät hänen nimittämisissään millenniaaliseksi yhteisöksi. Bushin uskonnollinen retoriikka tukeutuu transsendenttiseen ulottuvuuteen. Hänen käsitteelisiä linssejä ovat aktiivisen Jumalan monet roolit ja ajan siunauksellisuus. (Ks. luku 8. johtopäätökset ja jatkotutkimus.) Avainsanat: Yhdysvallat, presidentti-instituutio, kansalaisuskonto, uskonnollinen retoriikka, William J. Clinton, George W.Bush

Jeesus Nasaretilainen - Jumalan Poika - Markuksen evankeliumissa

Tutkielma käsittelee Markuksen evankeliumissa esiintyvää Jumala Poika -arvonimen merkitystä. Evankelista Markus käyttää useissa yhteyksissä Jeesuksesta Jumalan Poika -tunnustusformelia. Mitä hän sillä tarkoittaa? Oliko Markus ensimmäinen kirjoittaja, joka käytti tätä arvonimeä? Kuinka evankeliumissa esiintyvät kohdat selittyvät lukijalle? Miten Jeesuksesta tuli Jumalan Poika, ja mitä tuolloin kyseisellä termillä ylipäätään tarkoitettiin? Näihin kysymyksiin etsitään tässä tutkimuksessa vastauksia. Johdannossa käsitellään Jumalan poika -arvonimen syntykontekstia, Markuksen evankeliumin syntyä sekä messiassalaisuuden teemaa. Wreden työn pohjalta syntynyttä messiassalaisuuden ongelmaa käsitellään melko laajasti, koska redaktiokritiikin kannalta sen tulokset ovat hyvin merkittäviä. Analyysiosiossa tarkastellaan yksityiskohtaisesti kymmentä Markuksen mainintaa Jeesuksesta Jumalan Poikana. Näissä maininnoissaan evankelista käyttää apuna eri osapuolia, jotka vakuuttavasti antavat tunnustuksensa Jumalan Pojasta. Evankelista antaa itse oman henkilökohtaisen tunnustuksensa heti evankeliumin alussa kohdassa Mk. 1:1. Tunnustusten ketju jatkuu Jumalan tunnustuksilla kohdissa Mk. 1:1-9 ja 9:2-7. Saastaiset henget tunnustavat myös Jeesuksen Jumalan Pojaksi kohdissa Mk. 3:11 ja 5:1-13. Metafyysisen maailman lisäksi myös näkyvän maailman luonnonvoimat tunnustavat Jeesuksen jumalallisen käskyvallan kohdassa Mk. 6:45-52, jossa Jeesus murtaa fysiikan lait kävelemällä veden päällä. Traditioon kuulunut paralleelikohta on Jeesuksen myrskyn tyynnyttäminen kohdassa Mk. 4:35-41. Tähän tutkimukseen on valittu ainoastaan ensimmäinen. Jeesuksen opetuslapsijoukosta Pietari tunnustaa Jeesuksen Jumalan Pojaksi kohdassa Mk. 8:27-30. Jeesus itse tunnustaa ylimmäisen papin edessä oman olemuksensa kohdassa Mk. 14:50-62 ja kertomalla vertauksen viinitarhan vuokraajista kohdassa Mk. 12:1-12. Evankeliumin tunnustusten sarjan päättää roomalainen upseeri Jeesuksen ristin äärellä kohdassa Mk. 15:39. Tunnustusten näkökulmasta tämä merkitsee täydellistä loppua Markuksen kirjalliselle työlle. Johtopäätöksissä pohditaan mm. sitä, miten historiallisesta Jeesus Nasaretilaisesta tuli Jumalan Poika? Miksi kastekertomus on tässä niin keskeinen? Yhtenä taustatekijänä lienee Lähi-idän alueella vuosisatoja vaikuttaneet Mesopotamian aikaiset uskonnolliset traditiot. Jumalan Pojan terminologista sisältöä päätellään kahden kysymyksen avulla. Millä perusteella Markus esittää Jeesuksen Jumalan Pojaksi, ja toiseksi missä merkityksessä Jeesus on Jumalan Poika? Vastauksena on, että Jeesus on Jumalan Poika, koska Jumala asetti hänet kasteen yhteydessä messiaaniseen tehtäväänsä. Toiseksi Jeesus on Jumala Poika siinä merkityksessä, että hän toteutti Jumalan antamaa tehtävää oikeana kärsivänä Jumalan Poikana, joka apostoli Paavalin käyttämän tradition mukaan asetettiin kuoleman jälkeen asemaan, jossa hänellä on valta (Rm. 1:4). Johtopäätöksenä on, että tradition tasolla Jeesus oli saarnaaja, ihmeiden tekijä ja parantaja, jolla oli erityisen läheinen suhde Jumalaan. Markuksen redaktion tasolla Jeesus oli metafyysinen Jumalan Poika. Evankeliumisssa punoutuvat yhteen Jeesuksesta kertova traditio ja Markuksen redaktio.

Geenipankkitutkimuksen eettiset kysymykset ja Ulrich Beckin riskiyhteiskuntateoria

Geenipankki on yleistä lääketieteellistä tutkimusta varten kerätty kokoelma geenitietoa sisältäviä näytteitä sekä muita potilasta koskevia tietoja. Geenipankkeja voidaan käyttää esimerkiksi populaatiogeneettiseen tutkimukseen, tietylle taudille altistavien geenien löytämiseen, kliiniseen tutkimukseen ja farmako­geneettiseen tutkimukseen, jossa tutkitaan geneettisten tekijöiden merkitystä lääkkeen vaikutuksissa. Monet sairaudet johtuvat perimän (geenien), elämäntapojen ja ympäristötekijöiden yhteisvaikutuksesta. Kun samassa tietokannassa olisi tiedot sekä henkilön perimästä (DNA-näyte), potilastiedoista sekä elämäntavoista, voitaisiin tietoja yhdistelemällä eri tekijöiden osuutta sairauksien ilmentymisessä. Geenipankeissa on kyse ihmisillä tehtävästä lääketieteellisestä tutkimuksesta, jota koskevat eettiset lähtökohdat ovat 1) ihmisarvon kunnioittaminen, 2) yhdenvertaisuus, 3) henkilökohtainen koskemattomuus, 4) yksilön edun ensisijaisuus tieteeseen tai yhteiskuntaan nähden, 5) itsemääräämisoikeus, 6) suojeluperiaate, 7) vapaaehtoisuus, 8) yksityiselämän suoja, 9) tieteellisen tutkimuksen vapaus ja 10) elämän suojelun periaate. Tärkeitä käsitteellisiä erotteluja ovat tutkimus- ja hoitosuhteen ero sekä hoidollisen ja ei-hoidollisen tutkimuksen ero. Lähtökohdista seuraavia tärkeitä periaatteita ovat tutkittavan ensisijaisuus ja vapaaehtoinen tietoon perustuva suostumus. Geenipankkitutkimuksessa nämä periaatteet ovat ongelmallisia. Kun geenipankkeihin näytteitä kerätään yleiseen lääketieteelliseen tutkimukseen, luovuttajille ei voida antaa tarkkoja tietoja näytteiden käytöstä, kuten tutkimuksen tavoitteista, odotettavista hyödyistä, tulosten käyttötavoista, rahoituksesta, eturistiriidoista tai muista sellaisista asioista, jotka saattaisivat vaikuttaa päätökseen näytteen antamisesta. Valta päättää siitä, millaisiin tutkimuksiin ja tarkoituksiin näytteitä saadaan käyttää, saatetaan näytteen ottamisen jälkeen antaa eettiselle komitealle tai muulle asiantuntijaelimelle. Yksiselitteistä ratkaisua siihen, mitä tietoja, kenelle ja miten geenipankista voidaan luovuttaa, ei ole löydetty. Nämä vaikeudet geenipankkitutkimuksessa johtuvat osittain geenitiedon erityisluonteesta muuhun lääketieteelliseen tietoon verrattuna. Geenitieto asettaa lääketieteellisen etiikan periaatteet keskenään ristiriitaan tavalla, johon ei ole yksiselitteistä ratkaisua. Esitetyissä ratkaisumalleissa keskeistä tuntuu olevan pikemminkin periaatteiden kiertäminen kuin tasapainon löytäminen niiden välillä. Tästä huolimatta geenipankkitutkimusta ei ole kyseenalaistettu. Havainto sopii yhteen sosiologi Ulrich Beckin riskiyhteiskuntateorian kanssa. Beckin mukaan länsimaiset yhteiskunnat ovat muuttumassa riskiyhteiskunniksi. Tämä prosessi johtuu siirtymisestä yksinkertaisesta modernisaatiosta refleksiiviseen modernisaatioon. Tässä siirtymässä tieteen ja teknologian kehitys ovat keskeisiä. Geenipankit ovat Beckin käsitteiden mukaan yksinkertaisen modernisaation ilmiö. Geenipankkitutkimuksessa asiantuntijat käyttävät merkittävää valtaa ja tutkimuksen poliittinen säätely on epätäydellistä. Ongelmista huolimatta tutkimusta on silti yritettävä tehdä ja skeptikot nähdään irrationaalisina edistyksen vastustajina tai atavististen pelkojen vaalijoina. Geenipankkien puolesta käytetyt perustelut sopivat yhteen Beckin teorian edistysuskon kanssa.

'A responsible nuclear weapons power' : Nuclear Weapons and Indian Foreign Policy

This thesis examines the interrelationship and dynamics between the Indian United Progressive Alliance government’s foreign policy and its nuclear weapons policy. The purpose of the study is to situate nuclear policy within a foreign policy framework, and the fundamental research problem is thus how does the Indian nuclear policy reflect and respond to the Indian foreign policy? The study examines the intentions in the Indian foreign and nuclear policies, and asks whether these intentions are commensurable or incommensurable. Moreover, the thesis asks whether the UPA government differs from its predecessors, most notably the Bharatiya Janata Party-led National Democratic Alliance government in its foreign and nuclear policies. Answers to these questions are based on the interpretation of political texts and speeches as suggested by Quentin Skinner’s notion of meaning3, what does a writer or speaker mean by what he or she says in a given text, and by J.L. Austin’s speech act theory. This linguistic perspective and the approach of intertextualizing, place the political acts within their contingent intellectual and political contexts. The notion of strategic culture is therefore introduced to provide context for these juxtapositions. The thesis firstly analyses the societal, historical and intellectual context of India’s foreign and nuclear policy. Following from this analysis the thesis then examines the foreign and nuclear policies of Prime Minister Manmo-han Singh’s UPA government. This analysis focuses on the texts, speeches and statements of Indian authorities between 2004 and 2008. This study forwards the following claims: firstly, the UPA Government conducts a foreign policy that is mainly and explicitly inclusive, open and enhancing, and it conducts a nuclear policy that is mainly and implicitly excluding, closed and protective. Secondly, despite the fact that the notion of military security is widely appreciated and does not, as such, necessarily collide with foreign policy, the UPA Government conducts a nuclear policy that is incommensurable with its foreign policy. Thirdly, the UPA Gov-ernment foreign and nuclear policies are, nevertheless, commensurable re-garding their internal intentions. Finally, the UPA Government is conduct-ing a nuclear policy that is gradually leading India towards having a triad of nuclear weapons with various platforms and device designs and a function-ing and robust command and control system encompassing political and military planning, decision-making and execution. Regarding the question of the possible differences between the UPA and NDA governments this thesis claims that, despite their different ideological roots and orientations in domestic affairs, the Indian National Congress Party conducts, perhaps surprisingly, quite a similar foreign and nuclear policy to the Bharatiya Janata Party.

Evidence of Partisan Emphasis on EMU during 1994–1999 : Comparing Finnish Parties

This study explores the EMU stand taken by the major Finnish political parties from 1994 to 1999. The starting point is the empirical evidence showing that party responses to European integration are shaped by a mix of national and cross-national factors, with national factors having more explanatory value. The study is the first to produce evidence that classified party documents such as protocols, manifestos and authoritative policy summaries may describe the EMU policy emphasis. In fact, as the literature review demonstrates, it has been unclear so far what kind of stand the three major Finnish political parties took during 1994–1999. Consequently, this study makes a substantive contribution to understanding the factors that shaped EMU party policies, and eventually, the national EMU policy during the 1990s. The research questions addressed are the following: What are the main factors that shaped partisan standpoints on EMU during 1994–1999? To what extent did the policy debate and themes change in the political parties? How far were the policies of the Social Democratic Party, the Centre Party and the National Coalition Party shaped by factors unique to their own national contexts? Furthermore, to what extent were they determined by cross-national influences from abroad, and especially from countries with which Finland has a special relationship, such as Sweden? The theoretical background of the study is in the area of party politics and approaches to EU policies, and party change, developed mainly by Kevin Featherstone, Peter Mair and Richard Katz. At the same time, it puts forward generic hypotheses that help to explain party standpoints on EMU. It incorporates a large quantity of classified new material based on primary research through content analysis and interviews. Quantitative and qualitative methods are used sequentially in order to overcome possible limitations. Established content-analysis techniques improve the reliability of the data. The coding frame is based on the salience theory of party competition. Interviews with eight party leaders and one independent expert civil servant provided additional insights and improve the validity of the data. Public-opinion surveys and media coverage are also used to complete the research path. Four major conclusions are drawn from the research findings. First, the quantitative and the interview data reveal the importance of the internal influences within the parties that most noticeably shaped their EMU policies during the 1990s. In contrast, international events play a minor role. The most striking feature turned out to be the strong emphasis by all of the parties on economic goals. However, it is important to note that the factors manifest differences between economic, democratic and international issues across the three major parties. Secondly, it seems that the parties have transformed into centralised and professional organisations in terms of their EMU policy-making. The weight and direction of party EMU strategy rests within the leadership and a few administrative elites. This could imply changes in their institutional environment. Eventually, parties may appear generally less differentiated and more standardised in their policy-making. Thirdly, the case of the Social Democratic Party shows that traditional organisational links continue to exist between the left and the trade unions in terms of their EMU policy-making. Hence, it could be that the parties have not yet moved beyond their conventional affiliate organisations. Fourthly, parties tend to neglect citizen opinion and demands with regard to EMU, which could imply conflict between the changes in their strategic environment. They seem to give more attention to the demands of political competition (party-party relationships) than to public attitudes (party-voter relationships), which would imply that they have had to learn to be more flexible and responsive. Finally, three suggestions for institutional reform are offered, which could contribute to the emergence of legitimised policy-making: measures to bring more party members and voter groups into the policy-making process; measures to adopt new technologies in order to open up the policy-formation process in the early phase; and measures to involve all interest groups in the policy-making process.

Knoevenagel condensation of 2-carbethoxycyclohexanone and malononitrile: Synthesis of 4-cyano-3-ethoxy-1-hydroxy-5,6,7,8-tetrahydroisoquinoline, an isomer of the abnormal product

The structure of the abnormal product 1a formed in the Knoevenagel condensation of 2-carbethoxycyclohexanone and malononitrile has been further confirmed. Oxidation of the tetrahydroisoquinoline 3b using Na2Cr2O-AcOH-H2SO4 gave the keto isoquinoline 3d and the isoquinoline-1-carboxylic acid 5a. The acid chloride of 5a was condensed with diethyl ethoxymagnesiomalonate to afford after decarbethoxylation the methyl ketone 5d which on Baeyer-Villiger oxidation gave a mixture of the acetate 1g and the title compound 1b. The unambiguous synthesis of 1b confirms the structure assigned earlier to the title compound also formed during the partial hydrolysis of the diethoxy compound 1c. Condensation of 2-acetylcyclohexane-1,3-dione with malononitrile gave the quinoline derivative 4c which on ethylation yielded the ketoquinoline 4d. The present studies have confirmed that the quinoline compound 4a is also formed in the condensation of 2-acetylcyclohexanone and cyanoacetamide.

Regional Integration and the State : The Changing Nature of Sovereignty in Southern Africa and Europe

The study explores the role of the state in regional integration processes. The question is approached through theoretical discussion and two case-studies - SADC (Southern African Development Community) and the EU. The main research question of the study is, what are the possibilities and problems of the integration process in Southern Africa and how do they differ from the possibilities and problems of the integration process in Europe. The undelrying question of the study is why do states decide to participate in an integration process where they have to limit their sovereignty. Review of the theoretical discussion of the integration studies shows that the integration process is affected by several factors on different levels of the international system. But the state plays a central role in integration processes - integration processes are inititated and carried on by the participatig states. The European integration process shows that the interests of the state can change over time. At the beginning of the integration process, the objective was to strengthen participating states. Later EU member states have decided that it is in their interest to deepen the process even if it has meant limitation of their sovereignty. The determinant factor has been that the member states have considered it to be in their interst to deepen the process. In Southern Africa the integration process is only at the beginning. SADC aims to establish a free trade area by 2008. The biggest challenge is how to implement the integration process so that it benefits all member states in a region that is economically dominated by South Africa. In practice this can be achieved through establishment of corrective mechanisms, which ensure equitable distribution of benefits. This would require deeper integration and South Africa to adapt responsibility towards its regional partners. African integration processes in general have not been as successful as for example the EU. African states have been reluctant to limit their sovereignty in favour of regional organisations.This can be explained by the differences between European and African states. The EU member states have been democracies while African states have been characterised by concentration of power in the executive branch. Furthermore the political systems in Africa have been characterised by vertical clientelist reltionships. As a result it has not been in the interest of the political elite to limit the state sovereignty in favour of regional organisations. In recent years SADC has been relatively succesful in its integration process and reforms, but a lot remains to be done before the implementation of the free trade area can be succesful. The institutional structure and treaties of SADC differ from the structures of the EU. Member states are the main actors of the integration processes. Their differences are reflected in the process and produce different kinds of integration in different parts of the world.

Bromination of Intermolecular Chelate Linkage Isomers of 3-Oximino-4,9-Dimethyl (or 4,7,9-Trimethyl)-5,8-Diazadodeca-4,8-Diene-2,11-Dionato Nickel(II)

The reaction of the title complexes (FIG. 1) with N-bromosuccinimide or bromine in chloroform yields isomeric bromo complexes on substitution of the γ-CH carbon proton by bromine. The brominated products have been characterised by ir, pmr, electronic absorption spectra, conductivity and magnetic susceptibility measurements. The linkage isomerisation of the brominated products in chloroform has been shown to depend on the diamine residue.

Photocytotoxic 3d-Metal Scorpionates with a 1,8-Naphthalimide Chromophore Showing Photoinduced DNA and Protein Cleavage Activity

Ternary 3d-metal complexes of formulation [M(Tp(Ph))(py-nap)](ClO4)(1-3), where M is Co(II) (1), Cu(II) (2), and Zn(II) (3); Tp(Ph) is anionic tris (3-phenylpyrazolyl)borate; and py-nap is a pyridyl ligand with a conjugated 1,8-naphthalimide moiety, have been prepared from the reaction of metal perchlorate with KTp(Ph) and py-nap in CH2Cl2. The complexes have been characterized from analytical and physicochemical data. The complexes are stable in solution as evidenced from the electrospray ionization mass spectrometry data. The complexes show good binding propensity with calf thymus (CT) DNA, giving binding constant (K-b) values of similar to 10(5) M-1 and a molecular ``light-switch'' effect that results in an enhancement of the emission intensity of the naphthalimide chromophore on binding to CT DNA. The complexes do not show any hydrolytic cleavage of DNA. They show poor chemical nuclease activity in the presence of 3-mercaptopropionic acid or hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). The Co(II) and Cu(II) complexes exhibit oxidative pUC19 DNA cleavage activity in UV-A light of 365 rim. The Zn(II) complex shows moderate DNA photocleavage activity at 365 nm. The Cu(II)complex 2 displays photoinduced DNA cleavage activity in red light of 647.1 nm and 676 rim and near-IR light of >750 rim. A mechanistic studyin UV-A and visible light suggests the involvement of the hydroxyl radical as the reactive species in the DNA photocleavage reactions. The complexes also show good bovine serum albumin (BSA) protein binding propensity, giving K-BSA values of similar to 10(5) M-1. Complexes 1 and 2 display significant photoinduced BSA cleavage activity in UV-A light. The Co(II) complex 1 shows a significant photocytotoxic effect in HeLa cervical cancer cells on exposure to UV-A light of 365 nm, giving an IC50 value of 32 mu M. The IC50 value for the py-nap ligand alone is 41.42 mu m in UV-A light. The IC50 value is >200 mu M in the dark, indicating poor dark toxicity of 1. The Cu(II) complex 2 exhibits moderate photocytotoxicity and significant dark toxicity, giving IC50 values of 18.6 mu m and 29.7 mu m in UV-A light and in the dark, respectively.

Essays on Microcredit in Rural Bangladesh

This thesis is a collection of three essays on Bangladeshi microcredit. One of the essays examines the effect of microcredit on the cost of crime. The other two analyze the functioning mechanism of microcredit programs, i.e. credit allocation rules and credit recovery policy. In Essay 1, the demand for microcredit and its allocation rules is studied. Microcredit is claimed to be the most effective means of supplying credit to the poorest of the poor in rural Bangladesh. This fact has not yet been examined among households who demand microcredit. The results of this essay show that educated households are more likely to demand microcredit and its demand does not differ by sex. The results also show that microcredit programs follow different credit allocation rules for male and female applicants. Education is an essential characteristic for both sexes that credit programs consider in allocating credit. In Essay 2, the focus is to establish a link between microcredit and the incidence of rural crime in Bangladesh. The basic hypothesis is that microcredit programs jointly hold the group responsibility which provides an incentive for group members to protect each other from criminal gang in order to safeguard their own economic interests. The key finding of this essay is that the average cost of crime for non-borrowers is higher than that for borrowers. In particular, 10% increase in the credit reduces the costs of crime by 4.2%. The third essay analyzes the reasons of high repayment rate amid Bangladeshi microcredit programs. The existing literature argues that credit applicants are able to screen out the high risk applicants in the group formulation stage using their superior local information. In addition, due to the joint liability mechanism of the programs, group members monitor each others economic activities to ensure the minimal misuse of credit. The arguments in the literature are based on the assumption that once the credit is provided, credit programs have no further role in ensuring that repayments are honored by the group. In contrast, using survey data this essay documents that credit programs use in addition organizational pressures such as humiliation and harassment the non-payer to recover the unpaid installments. The results also show that the group mechanisms do not have a significant effect in recovering default dues.

Strategic Information Acquisition: Applications to Herding and Auctions

The information that the economic agents have and regard relevant to their decision making is often assumed to be exogenous in economics. It is assumed that the agents either poses or can observe the payoff relevant information without having to exert any effort to acquire it. In this thesis we relax the assumption of ex-ante fixed information structure and study what happens to the equilibrium behavior when the agents must also decide what information to acquire and when to acquire it. This thesis addresses this question in the two essays on herding and two essays on auction theory. In the first two essays, that are joint work with Klaus Kultti, we study herding models where it is costly to acquire information on the actions that the preceding agents have taken. In our model the agents have to decide both the action that they take and additionally the information that they want to acquire by observing their predecessors. We characterize the equilibrium behavior when the decision to observe preceding agents' actions is endogenous and show how the equilibrium outcome may differ from the standard model, where all preceding agents actions are assumed to be observable. In the latter part of this thesis we study two dynamic auctions: the English and the Dutch auction. We consider a situation where bidder(s) are uninformed about their valuations for the object that is put up for sale and they may acquire this information for a small cost at any point during the auction. We study the case of independent private valuations. In the third essay of the thesis we characterize the equilibrium behavior in an English auction when there are informed and uninformed bidders. We show that the informed bidder may jump bid and signal to the uninformed that he has a high valuation, thus deterring the uninformed from acquiring information and staying in the auction. The uninformed optimally acquires information once the price has passed a particular threshold and the informed has not signalled that his valuation is high. In addition, we provide an example of an information structure where the informed bidder initially waits and then makes multiple jumps. In the fourth essay of this thesis we study the Dutch auction. We consider two cases where all bidders are all initially uninformed. In the first case the information acquisition cost is the same across all bidders and in the second also the cost of information acquisition is independently distributed and private information to the bidders. We characterize a mixed strategy equilibrium in the first and a pure strategy equilibrium in the second case. In addition we provide a conjecture of an equilibrium in an asymmetric situation where there is one informed and one uninformed bidder. We compare the revenues that the first price auction and the Dutch auction generate and we find that under some circumstances the Dutch auction outperforms the first price sealed bid auction. The usual first price sealed bid auction and the Dutch auction are strategically equivalent. However, this equivalence breaks down in case information is acquired during the auction.