132 resultados para poliittinen päätöksenteko
Resumo:
Demokraattisella päätöksentekotavalla on vahva kannatus suomalaisessa yhteiskunnassa, ja demokratiaa edellytetään entistä enemmän myös julkisen vallan ulkopuolisilta organisaatioilta, kuten yrityksiltä ja kansalaisyhteiskunnan erilaisilta järjestöiltä ja muilta yhteenliittymiltä, kuten uskonnollisilta yhteisöiltä. Uskonnollisista yhteisöistä Suomen evankelis-luterilaisella kirkolla on juridinen erityisasema ortodoksisen kirkon ohella ja jäseninään suurin osa Suomen kansalaisista, joten vaatimukset demokraattisuudesta kohdistuvat erityisesti siihen. Kirkollinen demokratia on moni-ilmeinen ja monella tapaa ymmärretty ilmiö, ja se on historiassa kehittynyt rinnan valtiollisen ja kunnallisen päätöksenteon kanssa. Tämän tutkimuksen tarkoituksena oli selvittää, millaisia näkemyksiä seurakunnissa toimivilla luottamushenkilöillä (useimmiten niin sanotuilla maallikoilla) on kirkon demokratian tilasta ja miten he ovat kokeneet luottamustehtävässään demokratian toimivuuden. Tavoitteena oli siis jäsentää käsitettä kirkollinen demokratia - mitä kaikkea se sisältää ja millaisia muutospaineita siihen kohdistuu. Tutkimus toteutettiin Espoon hiippakunnan seurakuntiin/ seurakuntayhtymiin lähetetyllä kyselylomakkeella. Aineisto käsitti lopulta 273 vastausta, ja sitä tutkittiin pääasiassa tilastomatemaattisin keinoin. Analyysissa hahmottui kuusi kirkollisen demokratian faktoria eli ulottuvuutta: 1. Politiikka kirkossa , 2. Luottamus johtoon, 3. Vaikutusmahdollisuudet, 4. Demokratian toimivuus, 5. Vallankäyttö ja avoimuus ja 6. Tulevaisuus ja uudistukset. Kaikkiin mainittuihin kuuteen osa-alueeseen on syytä kiinnittää huomiota, mikäli tavoitteeksi asetetaan demokraattisesti toimiva, kansaa lähellä oleva kansankirkko. Kaikki ulottuvuudet liittyvät myös toisiinsa, sillä jos jokin osa-alue voi erityisen huonosti, vaikuttaa se myös muihin. Kirkollista demokratiaa tulisikin katsoa siis kokonaisuutena, eivätkä yksittäiset mittarit (esimerkiksi äänestysaktiivisuus kirkollisvaaleissa) kerro koko totuutta, vaikka ne yhdessä muun tunnetun tiedon kanssa tarkasteltuna antavatkin suuntaviivoja. Kirkollista demokratiaa määrittävät myös ihmiset, jotka sitä toteuttavat päätöksentekoelimissä; kyselyssä selvisikin yleiskuva luottamushenkilöiden ikä-, sukupuoli- ja puoluepoliittisesta rakenteesta. Samoin saatiin tietoa luottamushenkilöiden motivaattoreista luottamushenkilötoimintaan - ne vaihtelivat yleisluontoisesta halusta vaikuttaa yhteisiin asioihin aina jonkin yksittäisen epäkohdan poistamiseen. Luottamushenkilöiden näkemykset ja kokemukset kirkollisesta demokratiasta olivat pääosin myönteisiä. Päätöksenteko- ja vaalijärjestelmä sekä omat vaikutusmahdollisuudet siinä koettiin hyvinä. Samoin kirkon johtajiin seurakuntien kirkkoherrojen ja piispojen tasolla oltiin tyytyväisiä. Ilmi tuli toki myös täysin päinvastaisia kielteisiä kokemuksia demokratian soveltamisesta käytännössä. Ne jäivät kuitenkin pääasiassa yksittäistapauksiksi. Demokratiaa ei nähdä pelkkänä itsetarkoituksena, vaan hallinnollisena välineenä mahdollisimman hyvin toimivaan seurakuntaan ja kirkkoon. Toisaalta monet luottamushenkilöt suhtautuivat myönteisesti, vaikka eivät varauksettomasti siihen, että kristillisestä opista voidaan päättää demokraattisesti. Kirkollinen demokratia ei ole tuolloin siis vain käytännön, vaan myös kirkon opillisen itseymmärryksen asia.
Resumo:
Tutkielmassani selvitän, millä tavalla sosiaalisesti syrjäytyneen, kuten asunnottoman, on mahdollista osallistua yhteiskunnan toimintaan ja itseään koskevaan päätöksentekoon. Tutkimuskysymykseni ovat: Toteutuvatko perustuslain 14 § ja 19 §:ssä säädetyt oikeudet, ja ovatko viranomaisten toimet riittäviä edistämään syrjäytyneiden asunnottomien itsenäistä asumista sekä lisäämään vaikutusmahdollisuuksia itseään koskevassa päätöksenteossa. Voisiko deliberatiivisen demokratiamallin avulla vahvistaa syrjäytyneiden yhteiskunnallista osallistumista, ja siten helpottaa asunnottomuusongelmaa. Asunnottomia oli vuonna 2006 noin 7 400 henkilöä. Syitä joutua asunnottomaksi on useita. Valtaosalla ongelmat ovat kasautuneet, minkä jälkeen itsenäinen selviäminen on hankaloitunut. Asunnottomilla on usein monia eri ongelmia kuten pitkäaikaissairauksia, työttömyyttä ja päihteiden väärinkäyttöä. Avioero on yksi keskeisistä yksittäisistä syistä etenkin miehille päätyä asunnottomaksi. Maahanmuuttajien asunnottomuus voi olla seurausta pyrkimyksestä integroitua yhteiskuntaan: Muuttaessa sijoituspaikkakunnalta esimerkiksi ystävien, työn tai opiskelun vuoksi kasvukeskukseen, maahanmuuttajan voi olla vaikeaa saada asuntoa. Näin työn tai koulutuspaikan vastaanottaminen voi pakottaa maahanmuuttajan ottamaan riskin menettää asunto. Sosiaalisesti syrjäytyneeksi voidaan määritellä ihminen, joka ei kykene tai halua sopeutua normaalina pidettyyn elämään yhteiskunnassa. Tämä tutkimuksissa käytetty normaalin elämän määritelmä muotoutuu yhteiskunnan arvojen ja käytäntöjen pohjalta. Syrjäytyminen voi tarkoittaa myös sitä, että ihminen kokee itsensä ulkopuoliseksi yhteiskunnasta. Syrjäytymistä aiheuttavatkin siten toistuvat syrjinnän ja voimattomuuden kokemukset sekä hankaluus vaikuttaa itseään koskevaan päätöksentekoon. Asunnottomien yö –tapahtumassa syksyllä 2007 vapaaehtoiset haastattelivat asunnottomuutta kokeneita. Haastattelut on julkaistu internetissä ja ne ovat vapaasti tutkijoiden, toimittajien ja poliitikkojen käytettävissä. Useissa haastatteluissa asunnottomat kertovat, että he eivät koe olevansa täysivaltaisia yhteiskunnan jäseniä. Haastatteluissa kritisoidaan sitä, että poliitikot ja sosiaalityöntekijät päättävät asunnottomuuden hoidosta sekä asunnottomia koskevista asioista ilman, että asunnottomilla on mahdollisuutta vaikuttaa päätöksentekoon. Turhautumisen tunne paistoi läpi useissa haastatteluissa. Useissa vastauksissa asunnottomat vaativat poliitikkoja ja sosiaalityöntekijöitä perehtymään asunnottomien arjen elämään. Deliberatiivisessa demokratiassa yksi keskeisistä ajatuksista on, että vain sellaiset päätökset, jotka on tehty kaikille avoimen keskustelun ja vapaan tahdonmuodostuksen pohjalta voivat saada hyväksynnän ja luottamuksen kansalta sekä muodostua sitoviksi. Deliberatiivisessa demokratiakäsityksessä on kyse siitä, että asioista päätetään yhdessä, julkisen ja tasa-arvoisen keskustelun sekä harkinnan pohjalta. Keskeistä on myös, että kaikkien, joita päätökset koskettavat, täytyy voida osallistua päätöksiä edeltävään keskusteluun. Erityisesti Young ja Bohman korostavat, että myös sosiaalisesti syrjäytyneellä tulee olla mahdollisuus osallistua poliittiseen keskusteluun ja itseään koskevaan päätöksentekoon. Muun muassa koulutuksen kautta opitaan rauhallinen, asiallinen ja kielellisesti oikea argumentaatiotapa. Ihmisten erilaisuus ja kouluttamattomuus eivät Youngin mukaan saa estää mahdollisuutta osallistua yhteiskunnassa käytävään poliittiseen keskusteluun. Tutkimuskysymykseeni, lisäävätkö viranomaiset toiminnallaan yksilön mahdollisuutta vaikuttaa itseään koskevaan päätöksentekoon ja edistävätkö he yksilön mahdollisuuksia osallistua yhteiskunnalliseen toimintaan, vastaan eivät. Kuitenkin viranomaisten mahdollisuudet edistää perustuslaissa säädettyjä velvollisuuksia ovat poliittisten päättäjien budjetoinnin vuoksi rajoitettuja. Helsingin sosiaaliasiamiehet pitivät huolestuttavana sitä, että sosiaalityöntekijät pakotetaan toimimaan sekä lainsäädännön että ammattietiikkansa vastaisesti. Sosiaaliasiamiesten raportin perusteella voisi päätellä, että ainakin Helsingissä viranomaisilla olisi tahtoa toimia lain velvoittamalla tavalla. Asunnottomista suurin osa asuu Helsingissä ja Pääkaupunkiseudulla, joten tämän perusteella tutkimuskysymykseeni voi vastata yleistäen Helsingin esimerkin pohjalta. Syrjäytymistutkijoiden tulkinnan mukaan syrjäytyminen ja siitä pahimmillaan seuraava asunnottomuus johtuvat osittain ihmisten kokemien vaikutusmahdollisuuksien puutteesta. Deliberatiivisen demokratian tavoitteena on luoda sellainen demokraattinen malli, jossa poliittinen keskustelu ja vaikutusmahdollisuudet olisivat kaikkien yhteiskunnan jäsenten saavutettavissa. Syrjäytymistutkimuksen valossa deliberatiivinen demokratia voisi olla malli, jonka avulla vahvistettaisiin sosiaalisesti syrjäytyneiden kuten asunnottomien vaikutusmahdollisuuksia. Myös asunnottomien haastatteluissa nousi esille toive tulla kuulluksi. Moni kommentoi, että asunnottomuuden hoidosta ja heidän asioistaan päättävät sellaiset ihmiset, joilla ei ole todellista tietoa asunnottomien arjesta ja toiveista. Deliberatiivisen demokratian malli voisi näiden tutkimusten valossa olla keino lisätä osallistumismahdollisuuksia ja vähentää sitä kautta myös syrjäytymistä ja asunnottomuutta.
Resumo:
Tämän tutkimuksen päätarkoitus on hahmottaa Tampereen Kaupunkilähetyksen kristillissosiaalista työtä ja sen toimintakenttiä niitä kohdanneissa muutoksissa toisesta maailmansodasta 1960-luvun alkuun. Tutkimuksen päämetodi on geneettinen metodi, ja päälähteinä on käytetty tämän yhdistyksen ja sen yhteistyökumppanien arkistoja ja julkaisuja. Tutkimuksen erityisenä tukena ovat olleet tekijän aiemmat tutkimukset tästä tutkimuskohteesta. Tutkimuksessa on selvitetty myös toiminnan sukupuolittumista ja ammatillistumista, sekä toiminnan vaihtelevaa suhdetta Tampereen kaupunkiin ja muihin yhteistyötahoihin. Tampereen Kaupunkilähetys on pitänyt toimintaperiaatteena perinteistä sisälähetystä, johon on kuulunut karitatiivinen ja missionaarinen puoli. Toimintaan on kuulunut niin laitosdiakoniaa kuin avohuollollista työtä. Diakonian ja uuskansankirkollisuuden läpimurto muuttivat työtapoja yhdessä sodan luomien poikkeuksellisten yhteiskunnallisten olojen kanssa. Inflaatio, vuokra- ja hintasäännöstely aiheuttivat raskaita menetyksiä Kaupunkilähetyksen toiminnalle. Samaan aikaan yhteiskunnan sosiaalityö alkoi kehityksen kohti hyvinvointiyhteiskuntaa, mikä ammatillisti ja kohotti sosiaalityön tasoa. Nämä kaikki yhdessä loivat muutospaineita Kaupunkilähetykselle, joka ryhtyi tuottamaan uusia työmuotoja kristillisessä hengessä toteutettuina, kuten avioliittoneuvonnan, jota voi luonnehtia sosiaaliseksi innovaatioksi, sekä hengellistä teollisuustyötä, erilaisia lastensuojelullisia laitoksia, pullakirkon ja kehitysvammaisten teollista työtoimintaa. Samalla Kaupunkilähetyksenkin työ ammatillistui. Tampereen kaupungin kunnallispolitiikkaa hallinnut sosialidemokraattien ja kokoomuslaisten aseveliakseli tuki Tampereen Kaupunkilähetyksen työtä. Tampereen kaupungin sosiaaliviranomaiset, kuten Alpo Lumme, ehdottivat usein uusia työmuotoja Kaupunkilähetykselle. Näiden ehdotuksien mukana tuli lupaukset antaa tarvittava taloudellinen tuki. Kaupungista tuli Kaupunkilähetyksen merkittävin tukija ja yhteistyökumppani. Molemmat hyötyivät yhteistyöstä. Kaupunkilähetys pyrki vastaamaan näkemiinsä sosiaalisiin haasteisiin pikaisesti. Tämä oli myös menestyksen ydin, sillä suhteellisen nopea päätöksenteko uuden toiminnan kokeilusta oli Kaupunkilähetykselle helpompaa kuin kaupungille tai seurakunnille. Yhdistyksen uusille työmuodoille oli luonteenomaista, että joku asiaan perehtynyt henkilö ryhtyi niitä ajamaan voimakkaasti ja taitavasti kohti toteutusta. Toimintamuotojen jouduttua rahoitusvaikeuksiin tai kasvaessa selvästi julkishallinnon tehtäviksi, Kaupunkilähetys luopui tarvittaessa osuudestaan melko kivuttomasti aloittamalla usein jälleen uuden työmuodon. Tampereen Kaupunkilähetys voidaan sijoittaa sosiaalityön toimintakenttään kristillissosiaalista työtä tekevänä kolmannen sektorin toimijana. Yhdistyksen työssä ja hallinnossa oli havaittavissa sellaista sukupuolittumista, että varsinaista työtä tekivät pääosin naiset naisten johdolla. Mies-, poika- ja evankelioimistyötä tekivät puolestaan pääosin miehet. Myös johtokunnissa naisilla oli merkittävä asema, kuten jäsenistössäkin. Johtokuntatoiminta etääntyi seurakunnasta, sillä puheenjohtajaksi vaihtui maallikko jo 1940-luvulla, ja johtokunnassa oli vain vähän pappeja muutenkin. Toiminnan taloudellisena tukena olivat Tampereen kaupunki suurimpana rahoittajana, Tampereen Kaupunkilähetyksen osittain omistama hotelli Emmaus Oy, valtio, Tampereen seurakunnat, yksityiset lahjoittajat ja jäsenistö. Yhdistyksen omat kiinteistöt tuottivat välillä tappiota ja välillä voittoa, mutta niiden tärkein merkitys oli olla toimitiloina.
Resumo:
The main objective of the study is to evaluate the Finnish central government s foreign borrowing between the years 1862 and 1938. Most of this period was characterised by deep capital market integration that bears resemblance to the liberal world financial order at the turn of the millennium. The main aim is to analyse the credit risk associated with the state and its determination by evaluating the world financial market centres perception of Finland. By doing this, the study is also expected to provide an additional dimension to Finland s political and economic history by incorporating into the research the assessments of international capital markets regarding Finland during a period that witnessed profound political and economic changes in Finnish society. The evaluation of the credit risk mainly relies on exchange-rate risk free time series of the state s foreign bonds. They have been collected from quotations in the stock exchanges in Helsinki, Hamburg, Paris and London. In addition, it investigates Finland s exposure to short-term debt and Moody s credit ratings assigned to Finland. The study emphasises the importance of the political risk. It suggests that the hey-day of the state s reliance on foreign capital markets took place during last few decades of the 19th century when Finland enjoyed a wide autonomy in the Russian Empire and prudently managed its economy, highlighted in Finland s adherence to the international gold standard. Political confrontations in Finland and, in particular, in Russia and the turbulence of the world financial system prevented the return of this beneficial position again. Through its issuance of foreign bonds the state was able to import substantial amounts of foreign capital, which was sorely needed to foster economic development in Finland. Moreover, the study argues that the state s presence in the western capital markets not only had economic benefits, but it also increased the international awareness of Finland s distinct and separate status in the Russian Empire and later underlined its position as an independent republic.
Resumo:
Unvalued Work. Gender and fragmented labour before national collective bargaining Systematically irregular work creates economic and social insecurity. A novelty? To think that globalisation results in unprecedented labour conditions turns out to be questionable when the idea is put in perspective. In the light of history there is nothing new in the frequency of today s short-term employment, for instance, ranking genders in labour relations in an old custom. Unvalued Work (Halvennettu työ) examines the regulation and management of labour before the time of collective bargaining. In the study present trends engage in a dialogue with empirical findings from the past. Preventing trade unions to take the initiative has been and remains an employer interest. The analysis focuses on female employment in the 1920s and 1930s. The inferences challenge to ask on what conditions the history of Finnish labour relations warrants on the whole speaking of contractual security, stable earnings and regular waged work that provides livelihood. Success in selling one s labour is not synonymous with good employment that yields decent income. Juxtaposing labour relations between the world wars and the 21st century helps us to understand the currently transforming labour market. Present policies are informed by past choices and patterns of thought. Unvalued Work (Halvennettu työ) offers instruments for making sense of today s labour relations.
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Constitutional politics in Russia, a conceptual history study of the constitutional rhetoric in the 20th century In April 2006 the Russian Constitution had its 100th anniversary. Following its late start, five constitutions have been adopted. The great number of constitutions is partly explained in my work by the fact that Russia s political system has changed many times, from one state system to another. From a monarchical state power, it changed first, with the October revolution, into the Russian Socialist Federal Soviet Republic, and after that, in 1924, into the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. In 1991, the Russian Federation was established. The great number of constitutions can also be explained by the fact that in a one-party system, constitutional concepts became one of the most important instruments for introducing political programmes. When the political unity of the state was not only restricted by the Constitution, but also by the party ideology, the political debates concerning constitutional concepts were the key discussions for all the reformative pursuits of Soviet politics. It can be said that, in the Soviet Union, almost all political discourses dealt with constitutional concepts. In the context of restricted unity, the constitutional concepts were the most important tools to argue and create a basis for a new presentation and new political programmes. Thus, the basic feature of the Soviet political discourses has been a continuous competition regarding the constitutional concepts. By defining the constitutional concepts, a new, the political elites wanted especially to redefine, their own way, the traditional meanings of the October 1917 Revolution, and to differentiate them from those of the preceding period of power. From a methodological point of view, I argue that the Russian constitutional concepts make a conceptual historical approach very suitable, and change the focus on history. This approach studies history in contemporary contexts which follow after each other, and whose texts are the main research target. The picture of history is created through the interpretation of the original sources of contemporary contexts. Focusing on the dynamic and traditional characteristic of Russian constitutional concepts, I refer to a certain kind of value and the task of these concepts to justify and define the political and societal unity in every situation. This is done by combining the pursued future orientation of constitutional unity with the new acts of preservation of the traditional principles of the revolution. The different time layers of the constitutional concepts, the past, the present and the future, are the key aspects of storytelling in justifying the continuity and redefining the constitutional unity for the sake of reform. These aspects of constitutional concepts, in addition to all the other functions, have been the main elements of the argumentative structure of acting against opponents.
Resumo:
Austria and Finland are persistently referred to as the “success stories” of post-1945 European history. Notwithstanding their different points of departure, in the course of the Cold War both countries portrayed themselves as small and neutral border-states in the world dictated by superpower politics. By the 1970s, both countries frequently ranked at the top end in various international classifications regarding economic development and well-being in society. This trend continues today. The study takes under scrutiny the concept of consensus which figures centrally in the two national narratives of post-1945 success. Given that the two domestic contexts as such only share few direct links with one another and are more obviously different than similar in terms of their geographical location, historical experiences and politico-cultural traditions, the analogies and variations in the anatomies of the post-1945 “cultures of consensus” provide an interesting topic for a historical comparative and cross-national examination. The main research question concerns the identification and analysis of the conceptual and procedural convergence points of the concepts of the state and consensus. The thesis is divided into six main chapters. After the introduction, the second chapter presents the theoretical framework in more detail by focusing on the key concepts of the study – the state and consensus. Chapter two also introduces the comparative historical and cross-national research angles. Chapter three grounds the key concepts of the state and consensus in the historical contexts of Austria and Finland by discussing the state, the nation and democracy in a longer term comparative perspective. The fourth and fifth chapter present case studies on the two policy fields, the “pillars”, upon which the post-1945 Austrian and Finnish cultures of consensus are argued to have rested. Chapter four deals with neo-corporatist features in the economic policy making and chapter five discusses the building up of domestic consensus regarding the key concepts of neutrality policies in the 1950s and 1960s. The study concludes that it was not consensus as such but the strikingly intense preoccupation with the theme of domestic consensus that cross-cut, in a curiously analogous manner, the policy-making processes studied. The main challenge for the post-1945 architects of Austrian and Finnish cultures of consensus was to find strategies and concepts for consensus-building which would be compatible with the principles of democracy. Discussed at the level of procedures, the most important finding of the study concerns the triangular mechanism of coordination, consultation and cooperation that set into motion and facilitated a new type of search for consensus in both post-war societies. In this triangle, the agency of the state was central, though in varying ways. The new conceptions concerning a small state’s position in the Cold War world also prompted cross-nationally perceivable willingness to reconsider inherited concepts and procedures of the state and the nation. At the same time, the ways of understanding the role of the state and its relation to society remained profoundly different in Austria and Finland and this basic difference was in many ways reflected in the concepts and procedures deployed in the search for consensus and management of domestic conflicts. For more detailed information, please consult the author.
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In order to fully understand the process of European integration it is of paramount importance to consider developments at the sub-national and local level. EU integration scholars shifted their attention to the local level only at the beginning of the 1990s with the concept of multi-level governance (MLG). While MLG is the first concept to scrutinise the position of local levels of public administration and other actors within the EU polity, I perceive it as too optimistic in the degree of influence it ascribes to local levels. Thus, learning from and combining MLG with other concepts, such as structural constructivism, helps to reveal some of the hidden aspects of EU integration and paint a more realistic picture of multi-level interaction. This thesis also answers the call for more case studies in order to conceptualise MLG further. After a critical study of theories and concepts of European integration, above all, MLG, I will analyse sub-national and local government in Finland and Germany. I show how the sub-national level and local governments are embedded in the EU s multi-level structure of governance and how, through EU integration, those levels have been empowered but also how their scope of action has partially decreased. After theoretical and institutional contextualisation, I present the results of my empirical study of the EU s Community Initiative LEADER+. LEADER stands for Liaison Entre Actions de Développement de l'Économie Rurale , and aims at improving the economic conditions in Europe s rural areas. I was interested in how different actors construct and shape EU financed rural development, especially in how local actors organised in so-called local action groups (LAGs) cooperate with other administrative units within the LEADER+ administrative chain. I also examined intra-institutional relations within those groups, in order to find out who are the most influential and powerful actors within them. Empirical data on the Finnish and German LAGs was first gathered through a survey, which was then supplemented and completed by interviewing LAG members, LAG-managers, several civil servants from Finnish and German decision-making and managing authorities and a civil servant from the EU Commission. My main argument is that in both Germany and Finland, the Community Initiative LEADER+ offered a space for multi-level interaction and local-level involvement, a space that on the one hand consists of highly motivated people actively contributing to the improvement of the quality of life and economy in Europe s countryside but which is dependent and also restricted by national administrative practices, implementation approaches and cultures on the other. In Finland, the principle of tri-partition (kolmikantaperiaatte) in organising the executive committees of LAGs is very noticeable. In comparison to Germany, for instance, the representation of public administration in those committees is much more limited due to this principle. Furthermore, the mobilisation of local residents and the bringing together of actors from the local area with different social and institutional backgrounds to become an active part of LEADER+ was more successful in Finland than in Germany. Tri-partition as applied in Finland should serve as a model for similar policies in other EU member states. EU integration changed the formal and informal inter-institutional relations linking the different levels of government. The third sector including non-governmental institutions and interest groups gained access to policy-making processes and increasingly interact with government institutions at all levels of public administration. These developments do not necessarily result in the empowering of the local level.
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From the Soviet point of view the actual substance of Soviet-Finnish relations in the second half of 1950s clearly differed from the contemporary and later public image, based on friendship and confidence rhetoric. As the polarization between the right and the left became more underlined in Finland in the latter half of the 1950s, the criticism towards the Soviet Union became stronger, and the USSR feared that this development would have influence on Finnish foreign policy. From the Soviet point of view, the security commitments of FCMA-treaty needed additional guarantees through control of Finnish domestic politics and economic relations, especially during international crises. In relation to Scandinavia, Finland was, from the Soviet point of view, the model country of friendship or neutrality policy. The influence of the Second Berlin Crisis or the Soviet-Finnish Night Frost Crisis in 1958-1959 to Soviet policy towards Scandinavia needs to be observed from this point of view. The Soviet Union used Finland as a tool, in agreement with Finnish highest political leadership, for weakening of the NATO membership of Norway and Denmark, and for maintaining Swedish non-alliance. The Finnish interest to EFTA membership in the summer of 1959, at the same time with the Scandinavian countries, seems to have caused a panic reaction in the USSR, as the Soviets feared that these economic arrangements would reverse the political advantages the country had received in Finland after the Night Frost Crisis. Together with history of events, this study observes the interaction of practical interests and ideologies, both in individuals and in decision-making organizations. The necessary social and ideological reforms in the Soviet Union after 1956 had influence both on the legitimacy of the regime, and led to contradictions in the argumentation of Soviet foreign policy. This was observed both in the own camp as well as in the West. Also, in Finland a breakthrough took place in the late 1950's: as the so-called counter reaction lost to the K-line, "a special relationship" developed with the Soviet Union. As a consequence of the Night Frost Crisis the Soviet relationship became a factor decisively defining the limits of domestic politics in Finland, a part of Finnish domestic political argumentation. Understood from this basis, finlandization is not, even from the viewpoint of international relations, a special case, but a domestic political culture formed by the relationship between a dominant state, a superpower, and a subordinate state, Finland.
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National identity signifies and makes state s defence- and foreign policy behaviour meaningful. National consciousness is narrated into existence by narratives upon one s own exceptionalism and Otherness of the other nations. While national identity may be understood merely as a self-image of a nation, defence identity refers to the borders of Otherness and issues that have been considered as worth defending for. As national identities and all the world order models are human constructions, they may be changed by the human efforts as well; states and nations may deliberately promote communitarian or even cosmopolitan equality and tolerance without borders of Otherness. The main research question of the thesis is: How does Poland constitute herself as a nation and a state agent in the current world order and to what extent have contextual foreign and defence policy interactions changed the Polish defence identity during the post-Cold War era? The main empirical argument of the thesis is: Poland is a narrated idea of a Christian Catholic nation-state, which the Polish State, the Catholic Church of Poland, the Armed Forces of Poland as well as a majority of the Polish nation share. Polish defence identity has been almost impenetrable to contextual foreign and defence policy interactions during the post-Cold War era. While Christian religious ontology binds corporate Poland together, allowing her to survive any number of military and political catastrophes, it simultaneously brings her closer to the USA, raises tensions in the infidel EU-context, and restrains corporate Poland s pursuit of communitarian, or even cosmopolitan, global equality and tolerance. It is not the case that corporate Poland s foreign and defence policy orientation is instinctively Atlanticist by nature, as has been argued. Rather, it has been the State s rational project to overcome a habituated and reified fear of becoming geopolitically sandwiched between Russian and German Others by leaning on the USA; among the Polish nation, support for the USA has been declining since 2004. It is not corporate Poland either that has turned into a constructive European , as has been argued, but rather the Polish nation that has, at least partly, managed to emancipate itself from its habituation to a betrayal by Europe narrative, since it favours the EU as much as it favours NATO. It seems that in the Polish case a truly common European CFSP vis-à-vis Russia may offer a solution that will emancipate the Polish State from its habituated EU-sceptic role identity and corporate Poland from its narrated borders of Otherness towards Russia and Germany, but even then one cannot be sure whether any other perspective than the Polish one on a common stand towards Russia would satisfy the Poles themselves.
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This study analyses the Hegelian roots of the subject-theory and the political theory of Judith Butler. Butler can be seen as the author of "gender performativity". Butler claims that subject's identities are linquistic "terms". Linquistic identities are performative and normative: they produce, according to cultural rules, the identities which they just claim to describe. Butler's theory of the performativity of identities is based on her theory of identities as "ek-static" constructions. This means that there is a relation between the self and the Other in the heart of identities. It is claimed in this study that Butler's theory of the relation between the self and the Other, or, between the subject and the constitutive outside, is based on G.W.F. Hegel's theory of the dialectics of recognition in The Phenomenology of Spirit. Especially the sections dealing with the relation between "Lord" and "Bondsman" set the theoretical base for Butler's theory. Further, it is claimed that Hegel's own solution for the enslaving and instrumentalizing relation between the self and the Other, reciprocal recognition, remains an important alternative to the postmodernist conception supported by political theorists like Butler. Chapter 2, on Hegel, goes through the dialectics of recognition between the self and the Other in The Phenomenology of Spirit up until the ideal of reciprocal recognition and absolute knowledge. Chapter 3 introduces two French interpretations of Hegel, by Alexandre Kojéve and Louis Althusser. Both of these interpretations, especially the Kojevian one, have deeply influenced the contemporary understanding of Hegel as well as the contemporary thought - presented e.g. in the postmodern political thought - on the relations between the self and the Other. The Kojévian Marxist utopia with its notion of "the End of History" as well as the Althusserian theory of the Interpellative formation of subjects have influenced how Hegel's theory of the self and the Other have travelled into Butler's thought. In chapter 5 these influences are analyzed in detail. According to the analysis, Butler, like numerous other poststructuralist theorists, accepts Kojéve's interpretation as basically correct, but rejects his vision of "the End of History" as static and totalitarian. Kojéve's utopian philosophy of history is replaced by the paradoxical idea of an endless striving towards emancipation which, however, could not and should not be reached. In chapter 6 Butler's theory is linked to another postmodern political theory, that of Chantal Mouffe. It is argued that Mouffe's theory is based on a similar view of the relation of the self and the other as Butler's theory. The former, however, deals explicitly with politics. Therefore, it makes the central paradox of striving for the impossible more visible; such a theory is unable to guide political action. Hegel actually anticipated this kind of theorizing in his critique of "Unhappy Consciousness" in the Phenomenology of Spirit. Keywords: Judith Butler, G.W.F. Hegel, Chantal Mouffe, Alexandre Kojéve, Postmodernism, Politics, Identities, Performativity, Self-consciousness, Other
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Väitöskirjatutkimuksessa tarkastellaan Taiwanin politiikkaa ensimmäisen vaalien kautta tapahtuneen vallanvaihdon jälkeen (2000) yhteiskunnan rakenteellisen politisoitumisen näkökulmasta. Koska Taiwanilla siirryttiin verettömästi autoritaarisesta yksipuoluejärjestelmästä monipuoluejärjestelmään sitä on pidetty poliittisen muodonmuutoksen mallioppilaana. Aiempi optimismi Taiwanin demokratisoitumisen suhteen on sittemmin vaihtunut pessimismiin, pitkälti yhteiskunnan voimakkaasta politisoitumisesta johtuen. Tutkimuksessa haetaan selitystä tälle politisoitumiselle. Yhteiskunnan rakenteellisella politisoitumisella tarkoitetaan tilannetta, jossa ”poliittisen” alue kasvaa varsinaisia poliittisia instituutioita laajemmaksi. Rakenteellinen politisoituminen muuttuu helposti yhteiskunnalliseksi ongelmaksi, koska siitä usein seuraa normaalin poliittisen toiminnan (esim. lainsäädännän) jähmettyminen, yhteiskunnan jyrkkä jakautuminen, alhainen kynnys poliittisille konflikteille ja yleisen yhteiskunnallisen luottamuksen alentuminen. Toisin kuin esimerkiksi Itä-Euroopassa, Taiwanissa entinen valtapuolue ei romahtanut poliittisen avautumisen myötä vaan säilytti vahvan rakenteellisen asemansa. Kun valta vaihtui ensimmäisen kerran vaalien kautta, vanha valtapuolue ei ollut valmis luovuttamaan poliittisen järjestelmän ohjaksia käsistään. Alkoi vuosia kestänyt taistelu järjestelmän hallinnasta vanhan ja uuden valtapuolueen välillä, jossa yhteiskunta politisoitui voimakkaasti. Tutkimuksessa Taiwanin yhteiskunnan politisoituminen selitetään useiden rakenteellisten piirteiden yhteisvaikutuksen tuloksena. Tällaisia politisoitumista edistäviä rakentellisia piirteitä ovat hidas poliittinen muutos, joka säilytti vanhat poliittiset jakolinjat ja niihin liittyvät vahvat edut ja intressit; sopimaton perustuslaki; Taiwanin epäselvä kansainvälinen asema ja jakautunut identiteetti; sekä sosiaalinen rakenne, joka helpottaa ihmisten nopeaa mobilisointia poliittiisiin mielenilmauksiin. Tutkimuksessa kiinnitetään huomiota toistaiseksi vähän tutkittuun poliittiseen ilmiöön, joidenkin demokratisoituvien yhteiskuntien voimakkaaseen rakenteelliseen politisoitumiseen. Tutkimuksen pääasiallinen havainto on, että yksipuoluejärjestelmän demokratisoituminen kantaa sisällään rakenteellisen politisoitumisen siemenen, jos entinen valtapuolue ei romahda demokratisoitumisen myötä.
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In Czechoslovakia, the occupation of 1968 denoted the beginning of normalization , a political and societal stagnation that lasted two decades. Dissident initiative Charter 77 emerged in 1977, demanding that the leaders of the country respect human rights. The Helsinki process provided a macro-level framework that influenced opposition and dissident activities throughout Eastern Europe. The study contributes a focused empirical analysis of the period of normalization and the dissident movement Charter 77. Dissent in general is seen as an existential attitude; it can be encapsulated as a morally rationalized critical stance as derived from shared experience or interpretation of injustice, which serves as a basis for a shared collective identity comprising oppositional consciousness as one unifying factor. The study suggests that normalization can be understood as a fundamentally violent process and discusses the structural and cultural manifestations of violence with relation to Charter 77. In general, the aim of the system was to passivize the society to such an extent that it would not constitute a potential threat to the hegemonic rule of the regime. Normalization caused societal stagnation and apoliticization, but it also benefited those who accepted the new political reality. The study, however, questions the image of Czechoslovakia s allegedly highly repressive rule by showing that there was also quite considerable tolerance of Charter 77 and consideration before severe repression was brought to bear against dissidents. Furthermore, the study provides understanding of the motives and impetuses behind dissent, the strategic shifts in Charter 77 activities, and the changes in the regime s policies toward Charter 77. The study also adds new perspective on the common image of Charter 77 as a non political initiative and suggests that Charter 77 was, in fact, a political entity, an actively political one in the latter half of the 1980s. Charter 77 was a de facto hybrid of a traditional dissident initiative and an oppositional actor. Charter 77 adopted a two-dimension approach: firstly, it still emphasized its role as a citizens initiative supporting human rights, but, secondly, at the same time, it was a directly political actor supporting and furthering the development of political opposition against the ruling power.
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Whereas it has been widely assumed in the public that the Soviet music policy system had a “top-down” structure of control and command that directly affected musical creativity, in fact my research shows that the relations between the different levels of the music policy system were vague, and the viewpoints of its representatives differed from each other. Because the representatives of the party and government organs controlling operas could not define which kind of music represented Socialist Realism, the system as it developed during the 1930s and 1940s did not function effectively enough in order to create such a centralised control of Soviet music, still less could Soviet operas fulfil the highly ambiguous aesthetics of Socialist Realism. I show that musical discussions developed as bureaucratic ritualistic arenas, where it became more important to reveal the heretical composers, making scapegoats of them, and requiring them to perform self-criticism, than to give directions on how to reach the artistic goals of Socialist Realism. When one opera was found to be unacceptable, this lead to a strengthening of control by the party leadership, which lead to more operas, one after the other, to be revealed as failures. I have studied the control of the composition, staging and reception of the opera case-studies, which remain obscure in the West despite a growing scholarly interest in them, and have created a detailed picture of the foundation and development of the Soviet music control system in 1932-1950. My detailed discussion of such case-studies as Ivan Dzerzhinskii’s The Quiet Don, Dmitrii Shostakovich’s Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk District, Vano Muradeli’s The Great Friendship, Sergei Prokofiev’s Story of a Real Man, Tikhon Khrennikov’s Frol Skobeev and Evgenii Zhukovskii’s From All One’s Heart backs with documentary precision the historically revisionist model of the development of Soviet music. In February 1948, composers belonging to the elite of the Union of Soviet Composers, e.g. Dmitri Shostakovich and Sergei Prokofiev, were accused in a Central Committee Resolution of formalism, as been under the influence of western modernism. Accusations of formalism were connected to the criticism of the conciderable financial, material and social privileges these composers enjoyed in the leadership of the Union. With my new archival findings I give a more detailed picture of the financial background for the 1948 campaign. The independent position of the music funding organization of the Union of Soviet Composers (Muzfond) to decide on its finances was an exceptional phenomenon in the Soviet Union and contradicted the strivings to strengthen the control of Soviet music. The financial audits of the Union of Soviet Composers did not, however, change the elite status of some of its composers, except for maybe a short duration in some cases. At the same time the independence of the significal financial authorities of Soviet theatres was restricted. The cuts in the governmental funding allocated to Soviet theatres contradicted the intensified ideological demands for Soviet operas.
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Anti-Semitism existed in Finland during the whole period covered by this study. The immoral acts associated with Jews in the articles were mostly regarded as universal habits, qualities and/or modes of action, that is, unconnected with any particular Finnish Jew. Researchers have tried to explain anti-Semitism in several ways. The theory of Jews as outsiders has been a popular explanation as well as xenophobia, chimerical anti-Semitism and the socio-economic models. The main sources of this study have been over 400 Finnish periodicals and magazines, literature and text books published between 1918 and 1944. This vast number of magazines includes those of the army and the civil guard, religion, humour and the papers of the Finnish extreme right. One can see a distinct foreign and especially German influence in the subjects and phraseology of Finnish anti-Semitic writings between 1918 and 1944. Several known Finnish anti-Semitic writers had some kind of link with Germany. Some Finnish organisations and societies were openly anti-Semitic during this period. There had been cycles in the activity of anti-Semitic writing in Finland, obvious peaks appearing in 1918 1919, 1929 1931, 1933 1938 and 1942 1944. The reason for the 1918 1919 activity was the civil rights which were granted to the Jews in Finland, and the Russian Bolshevik revolution. The worldwide depression from 1929 to 1932 seem to be the reason for new anti-Semitic writing activity. The rise of National Socialism in Germany and the influence this phenomenon had in Finland was the reason for the peak during 1933 1938. During the continuation war 1942 1944 National Socialist Germany was fighting side-by-side with Finland and their anti-Semitic propaganda found easier access to Finland. Of the 433 magazines, journals and newspapers which were used in this study, 71 or 16.4 per cent had at least one article that can be identified as anti-Semitic; especially the magazines of national socialists and other extreme right parties were making anti-Semitic annotations. There were about 50 people known to have written anti-Semitic articles. At least half of these known writers had studied at the university, including as many as 10 priests. Over and above these, there was an even larger number of people who wrote under a pseudonym. The material used suggested that anti-Semitism was not very popular in Finland between 1918 and 1944. Anti-Semitic articles appeared mostly in the magazines of the extreme right, but their circulation was not very large. A proof of the slight influence of these extreme right anti-Semitic ideas is that, beside the tightening of policy towards Jewish immigrants in 1938 and the handing over of eight of these refugees to Germany in 1942, the official policy of Finland never became anti-Semitic. As was stated before, despite the cycles in the number of writings, there does not appear to have been any noticeable change in public opinion. One must also remember that most Finns had not at that period actually met a Jew. The material used suggests that between 1918 and 1944 the so-called Jewish question was seemingly unimportant for most Finns and their attitude to Jews and Jewishness can be described as neutral.