Failure analysis of belt/roll tribological pair used for the production of eucalypt fiber panels

The premature failure of a large agglomeration machine used for the annual production of 360,000 m(3) of eucalypt fiber panels was investigated to identify the nucleation and growth mechanisms of cracking in PH stainless steel belts (126 m x 2.9 m x 3.0 mm). These belts are used to compress a cushion composed of eucalyptus fibers and glue, being the pressure transmitted from the pistons by the action of numerous case-hardening steel rolls. Examination of the belt working interfaces (belt/rolls and belt/eucalypt fibers) indicated that the main cracking was nucleated on the belt/roll interface and that there is a clear relationship between the crack nucleation and the presence of superficial irregularities, which were observed on the belt/roll working surface. Used rolls showed the presence of perimetric wear marks and 2 mu m silicon-rich encrusted particles (identified as silicon carbide). Lubricant residues contained the presence of helicoidal wires, which were originated by the release of the stainless steel cleaning brush bristles, and 15 mu m diameter metallic particles, which were generated by material detachment of the belt. The presence of foreign particles on the tribological interface contributed to an increase of the shear stresses at the surfaces and, consequently, the number of the contact fatigue crack nucleation sites in the belt/roll tribo-interface. The cracking was originated on the belt/roll interface of the stainless steel belt by a mixed rolling/slip contact fatigue mechanism, which promoted spalling and further nucleation and growth of conventional fatigue cracks. Finally, the system lubrication efficiency and the cleaning procedure should be optimised in order to increase the life expectancy of the belt. (c) 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Electrical and Mechanical Properties of Post-annealed SiC(x)N(y) Films

Amorphous SiC(x)N(y) films have been deposited on (100) Si substrates by RF magnetron sputtering of a SiC target in a variable nitrogen-argon atmosphere. The as-deposited films were submitted to thermal anneling in a furnace under argon atmosphere at 1000 degrees C for 1 hour. Composition and structure of unannealed and annealed samples were investigated by RBS and FTIR. To study the electrical characteristics of SiC(x)N(y) films, Metal-insulator-semiconductor (MIS) structures were fabricated. Elastic modulus and hardness of the films were determined by nanoindentation. The results of these studies showed that nitrogen content and thermal annealing affect the electrical, mechanical and structural properties of SiC(x)N(y) films.

a-SiC : H anti-resonant layer ARROW waveguides

Over the last decades, anti-resonant reflecting optical waveguides (ARROW) have been used in different integrated optics applications. In this type of waveguide, light confinement is partially achieved through an anti-resonant reflection. In this work, the simulation, fabrication and characterization of ARROW waveguides using dielectric films deposited by a plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) technique, at low temperatures(similar to 300 degrees C), are presented. Silicon oxynitride (SiO(x)N(y)) films were used as core and second cladding layers and amorphous hydrogenated silicon carbide(a-SiC:H) films as first cladding layer. Furthermore, numerical simulations were performed using homemade routines based on two computational methods: the transfer matrix method (TMM) for the determination of the optimum thickness of the Fabry-Perot layers; and the non-uniform finite difference method (NU-FDM) for 2D design and determination of the maximum width that yields single-mode operation. The utilization of a silicon carbide anti-resonant layer resulted in low optical attenuations, which is due to the high refractive index difference between the core and this layer. Finally, for comparison purposes, optical waveguides using titanium oxide (TiO(2)) as the first ARROW layer were also fabricated and characterized.

Nitrogen doping of SiC thin films deposited by RF magnetron sputtering

Silicon carbide thin films (Si(x)C(y)) were deposited in a RF (13.56 MHz) magnetron sputtering system using a sintered SiC target (99.5% purity). In situ doping was achieved by introducing nitrogen into the electric discharge during the growth process of the films. The N(2)/Ar flow ratio was adjusted by varying the N(2) flow rate and maintaining constant the Ar flow rate. The structure, composition and bonds formed in the nitrogen-doped Si (x) C (y) thin films were investigated by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Rutherford backscattering spectroscopy (RBS), Raman spectroscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectrometry (FTIR) techniques. RBS results indicate that the carbon content in the film decreases as the N(2)/Ar flow ratio increases. Raman spectra clearly reveal that the deposited nitrogen-doped SiC films are amorphous and exhibited C-C bonds corresponding to D and G bands. After thermal annealing, the films present structural modifications that were identified by XRD, Raman and FTIR analyses.

Development and fabrication of an optimized thermo-electro-optic device using a Mach-Zehnder interferometer

The development and fabrication of a thermo-electro-optic sensor using a Mach-Zehnder interferometer and a resistive micro-heater placed in one of the device`s arms is presented. The Mach-Zehnder structure was fabricated on a single crystal silicon substrate using silicon oxynitride and amorphous hydrogenated silicon carbide films to form an anti-resonant reflective optical waveguide. The materials were deposited by Plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition technique at low temperatures (similar to 320 degrees C). To optimize the heat transfer and increase the device response with current variation, part of the Mach-Zehnder sensor arm was suspended through front-side bulk micromachining of the silicon substrate in a KOH solution. With the temperature variation caused by the micro-heater, the refractive index of the core layer of the optical waveguide changes due to the thermo-optic effect. Since this variation occurs only in one of the Mach-Zehnder`s arm, a phase difference between the arms is produced, leading to electromagnetic interference. In this way, the current applied to the micro-resistor can control the device output optical power. Further, reactive ion etching technique was used in this work to define the device`s geometry, and a study of SF6 based etching rates on different composition of silicon oxynitride films is also presented. (C) 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Oxidation mechanism of Si3N4-bonded SiC ceramics by CO, CO2 and steam

This paper presents a theoretical and experimental investigation into the oxidation reactions of Si3N4-bonded SiC ceramics. Such ceramics which contain a small amount of silicon offer increased oxidation and wear resistance and are widely used as lining refractories in blast furnaces. The thermodynamics of oxidation reactions were studied using the JANAF tables. The weight gain was measured using a thermogravimetric analysis technique to study the kinetics. The temperature range of oxidation measurements is from 1073 to 1573 K and the oxidation atmosphere is water vapour, pure CO and CO-CO2 gas mixtures with various CO-to-CO2 ratios. Thermodynamic simulations showed that the oxidation mechanism of Si3N4-bonded SiC ceramics is passive oxidation and all components contribute to the formation of a silica film. The activated energies of the reactions follow the sequence Si3N4>SiC>Si. The kinetic study revealed that the oxidation of Si3N4-bonded SiC ceramics occurred in a mixed regime controlled by both interface reaction and diffusion through the silica film. Under the atmosphere conditions prevailing in the blast furnace, this ceramic is predicted to be passively oxidized with the chemical reaction rate becoming more dominant as the CO concentration increases. (C) 1998 Chapman & Hall.

Reply to comments on "Oxidation mechanism of Si3N4-bonded SiC ceramics by CO, CO2 and steam," by Balat et al.

First of all, we would like to clarify that the passive to active transition was determined not by using Solgasmix [1], but by combining thermodynamic equilibrium and mass balance for the oxidation of SiC under pure CO2 and pure CO. The model used in our paper [2]was an extension ofWagner’s model [3], in a similar way as Balat et al. [4] did for the oxidation of SiC in oxygen.

Surface characterization of 6H-SiC (0001) substrates in indentation and abrasive machining

Surface characterization of 6H-SiC (0001) substrates in indentation and abrasive machining was carried out to investigate microfracture, residual damage, and surface roughness associated with material removal and surface generation. Brittle versus plastic deformation was studied using Vickers indention and nano-indentation. To characterize the abrasive machining response, the 6H-SiC (0001) substrates were ground using diamond wheels with grit sizes of 25, 15 and 7 mum, and then polished with diamond suspensions of 3 and 0.05 mum. It is found that in indentation, there was a scale effect for brittle versus plastic deformation in 6H-SiC substrates. Also, in grinding, the scales of fracture and surface roughness of the substrates decreased with a decrease in diamond grit size. However, in polishing, a reduction in grit size of diamond suspensions gave no significant improvement in surface roughness. Furthermore, the results showed that fracture-free 6H-SiC (0001) surfaces were generated in polishing with the existence of the residual crystal defects, which were associated with the origin of defects in single crystal growth. (C) 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Finite element analysis of mechanical properties in discontinuously reinforced metal matrix composites with ultrafine microstructure

This investigation focused on the finite element analyses of elastic and plastic properties of aluminium/alumina composite materials with ultrafine microstructure. The commonly used unit cell model was used to predict the elastic properties. By combining the unit cell model with an indentation model, coupled with experimental indentation measurements, the plastic properties of the composites and the associated strengthening mechanism within the metal matrix material were investigated. The grain size of the matrix material was found to be an important factor influencing the mechanical properties of the composites studied. (C) 1997 Elsevier Science S.A.

Prevention of toothbrushing abrasion of acid-softened enamel by CO(2) laser irradiation

Objective: The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of CO(2) laser irradiation (10.6 mu m) at 0.3 J/cm(2) (0.5 mu s; 226 Hz) on the resistance of softened enamel to toothbrushing abrasion, in vitro. Methods: Sixty human enamel samples were obtained, polished with silicon carbide papers and randomly divided into five groups (n = 12), receiving 5 different surface treatments: laser irradiation (L), fluoride (AmF/NaF gel) application (F), laser prior to fluoride (LF), fluoride prior to laser (FL), non-treated control (C). After surface treatment they were submitted to a 25-day erosive-abrasive cycle in 100 ml sprite light (90 s) and brushed twice daily with an electric toothbrush. Between the demineralization periods samples were immersed in supersaturated mineral solution. At the end of the experiments enamel surface loss was determined using a contact profilometer and morphological analysis was performed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). For SEM analysis of demineralization pattern, cross-sectional cuts of cycled samples were prepared. The data were statistically analysed by one-way ANOVA model with subsequent pairwise comparison of treatments. Results: Abrasive surface loss was significantly lower in all laser groups compared to both control and fluoride groups (p < 0.0001 in all cases). Amongst the laser groups no significant difference was observed. Softened enamel layer underneath lesions was less pronounced in laser-irradiated samples. Conclusion: Irradiation of dental enamel with a CO(2) laser at 0.3 J/cm(2) (5 mu s, 226 Hz) either alone or in combination with amine fluoride gel significantly decreases toothbrushing abrasion of softened-enamel, in vitro. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Rehardening of acid-softened enamel and prevention of enamel softening through CO(2) laser irradiation

Objectives: The aims of the present study were to investigate whether irradiation with a CO(2) laser could prevent surface softening (i) in sound and (ii) in already softened enamel in vitro. Methods: 130 human enamel samples were obtained and polished with silicon carbide papers. They were divided into 10 groups (n = 13) receiving 5 different surface treatments: laser irradiation (L), fluoride (AmF/NaF gel) application (F), laser prior to fluoride (LF), fluoride prior to laser (FL), non-treated control (C); and submitted to 2 different procedures: half of the groups was acid-softened before surface treatment and the other half after. Immersion in 1% citric acid was the acid challenge. Surface microhardness (SMH) was measured at baseline, after softening and after treatment. Additionally, fluoride uptake in the enamel was quantified. The data were statistically analysed by two-way repeated measurements ANOVA and post hoc comparisons at 5% significance level. Results: When softening was performed either before or after laser treatment, the L group presented at the end of the experiments SMH means that were not significantly different from baseline (p = 0.8432, p = 0.4620). Treatment after softening resulted for all laser groups in statistically significant increase in SMH means as compared to values after softening (p < 0.0001). Enamel fluoride uptake was significantly higher for combined laser-fluoride treatment than in control (p < 0.0001). Conclusion: Irradiation of dental enamel with a CO(2) laser at 0.3J/cm(2) (5 mu s, 226 Hz) not only significantly decreased erosive mineral loss (97%) but also rehardened previously softened enamel in vitro. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Freeform fabrication of aluminum metal-matrix composites

A series of metal-matrix composites were formed by extrusion freeform, fabrication of a sinterable aluminum alloy in combination with silicon carbide particles and whiskers, carbon fibers, alumina particles, and hollow flyash cenospheres. Silicon carbide particles were most successful in that the composites retained high density with up to 20 vol% of reinforcement and the strength approximately doubles over the strength of the metal matrix alone. Comparison with simple models suggests that this unexpectedly high degree of reinforcement can be attributed to the concentration of small silicon carbide particles around the larger metal powder. This fabrication method also allows composites to be formed with hollow spheres that cannot be formed by other powder or melt methods.

Efeito da distribuição do tamanho das partículas abrasivas sobre as taxas e modos de desgaste para o ensaio de microabrasão

Neste trabalho, as distribuições de tamanhos das partículas de dois pós de Carboneto de Silício foram previamente avaliadas e os resultados indicaram uma distribuição Gaussiana para ambos, com tamanhos médios na ordem de 2 μm para o primeiro e 6 μm para o segundo. Posteriormente foram misturados os dois pós originais com diferentes frações mássicas, proporcionando uma nova série de pós de Carboneto de Silício (SiC), que seriam usados nos ensaios de microabrasão com configuração de esfera fixa. A caracterização desta nova série de pós mostrou larguras maiores para aqueles com alto porcentagem do abrasivo pequeno (2,11 μm), conservando a aparência Gaussiana dos originais. Por outro lado para os pós com uma quantidade maior do abrasivo grande (6,57 μm), foram obtidas curvas com uma leve tendência bimodal, mas também apresentaram maiores larguras. As provas foram conduzidas sobre aço carbono AISI 1020, para duas condições diferentes de carga normal e os resultados foram analisados em termos da taxa de desgaste, bem como dos micromecanismos de desgaste (abrasão por rolamento ou abrasão por riscamento). Os resultados indicaram que a fração mássica dos pós originais tem um efeito significante sobre os micromecanismos de desgaste observados e que as taxas de desgaste não segue uma relação linear com a fração mássica do pó com maior tamanho da partícula abrasiva. Além disso, a análise da severidade de contato determinou que esta diminui durante os ensaios conduzidos com carga constante. Este fenômeno está associado ao aumento da área da cratera de desgaste que produz uma diminuição da pressão de contato. Assim, um incremento para o número de eventos associado ao rolamento de partículas seria esperado, favorecendo a observação de múltiplas indentações ao longo dos sulcos formados previamente. Isto foi confirmado por meio de micrografias eletrônicas de varredura das amostras após ensaios de microabrasão.

Fotodetector e dispositivo WDM integrados

Ao longo deste trabalho é apresentada a caracterização optoelectrónica de uma estrutura semicondutora empilhada de fotodíodos PIN (Positive-Intrinsic-Negative), baseados em silício amorfo hidrogenado (a-Si:H - Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon) e siliceto de carbono amorfo hi-drogenado (a-SiC:H - Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon Carbide), em que ambos funcionam como filtros ópticos na zona visível do espectro electromagnético e cuja sensibilidade espectral na região do visível é modulada pelo sinal de tensão eléctrico aplicado e pela presença de polarização óptica adicional (radiação de fundo). Pretende-se utilizar a característica de sensor de cor destes dispositivos semicondutores para realizar a demultiplexagem de sinais ópticos e desenvolver um algoritmo que permita fazer o reco-nhecimento autónomo do sinal transmitido em cada canal, tendo em vista a utilização de vários ca-nais para a transmissão de sinais a curta distância. A transmissão destes sinais deverá ser suportada no meio de transmissão fibra óptica, que constituirá uma importante mais-valia na optimização do sistema WDM (Wavelength Division Mul-tiplexing), permitindo optimizar a transmissão de sinais. Pelas suas capacidades intrínsecas, as fi-bras ópticas de plástico (POF - Plastic Optical Fibers) são uma solução adequada para a transmis-são de sinais no domínio visível do espectro electromagnético a curtas distâncias. Foi realizada uma sucinta caracterização optoelectrónica da estrutura semicondutora sob diferentes condições de iluminação, variando o comprimento de onda e a iluminação de fundo que influencia a resposta espectral do dispositivo semicondutor, variando as cores dos fundos inciden-tes, variando o lado incidente do fundo sobre a estrutura semicondutora, variando a intensidade des-ses mesmos fundos incidentes e também variando a frequência do sinal de dados. Para a transmissão dos sinais de dados foram utilizados três dispositivos LED (Light-Emitting Diode) com as cores vermelho (626nm), verde (525nm) e azul (470nm) a emitir os respec-tivos sinais de dados sobre a estrutura semicondutora e onde foram aplicadas diversas configurações de radiação de fundo incidente, variando as cores dos fundos incidentes, variando o lado incidente do fundo sobre a estrutura semicondutora e variando também a intensidade desses mesmos fundos incidentes. Com base nos resultados obtidos ao longo deste trabalho, foi possível aferir sobre a influên-cia da presença da radiação de fundo aplicada ao dispositivo, usando diferentes sequências de dados transmitidos nos vários canais. Sob polarização inversa, e com a aplicação de um fundo incidente no lado frontal da estrutura semicondutora os valores de fotocorrente gerada são amplificados face aos valores no escuro, sendo que os valores mais altos foram encontrados com a aplicação do fundo de cor violeta, contribuindo para tal, o facto do sinal do canal vermelho e canal verde serem bastan-te amplificados com a aplicação deste fundo. Por outro lado, com a aplicação dos fundos incidentes no lado posterior da estrutura semi-condutora, o sinal gerado não é amplificado com nenhuma cor, no entanto, a aplicação do fundo de cor azul proporciona a distinção do sinal proveniente do canal azul e do canal vermelho, sendo que quando está presente um sinal do canal vermelho, o sinal é fortemente atenuado e com a presença do sinal do canal azul o sinal gerado aproxima-se mais do valor de fotocorrente gerada com a estru-tura no escuro. O algoritmo implementado ao longo deste trabalho, permite efectuar o reconhecimento au-tónomo da informação transmitida por cada canal através da leitura do sinal da fotocorrente forne-cida pelo dispositivo quando sujeito a uma radiação de fundo incidente violeta no lado frontal e uma radiação de fundo incidente azul no lado posterior. Este algoritmo para a descodificação dos sinais WDM utiliza uma aplicação gráfica desenvolvida em Matlab que com base em cálculos e compara-ções de sinal permite determinar a sequência de sinal dos três canais ópticos incidentes. O trabalho proposto nesta tese é um módulo que se enquadra no desenvolvimento de um sistema integrado de comunicação óptica a curta distância, que tem sido alvo de estudo e que resulta das conclusões de trabalhos anteriores, em que este dispositivo e outros de configuração idêntica foram analisados, de forma a explorar a sua utilização na implementação da tecnologia WDM den-tro do domínio do espectro visível e utilizando as POF como meio de transmissão.

Optoelectronic properties of a-Si(1-x)C(x)H films grown in hydrogen diluted silane-methane plasma

This work reports on the optoelectronic properties and device application of hydrogenated amorphous silicon carbide (a-Si(1-x)C(x):H) films grown by plasma-enhanced chemical vapour deposition (PECVD). The films with an optical bandgap ranging from about 1.8 to 2.0 eV were deposited in hydrogen diluted silane-methane plasma by varying the radio frequency power. Several n-i-p structures with an intrinsic a-Si(1-x)C(x):H layer of different optical gaps were also fabricated. The optimized devices exhibited a diode ideality factor of 1.4-1.8, and a leakage current of 190-470 pA/cm(2) at -5 V. The density of deep defect states in a-Si(1-x)C(x):H was estimated from the transient dark current measurements and correlated with the optical bandgap and carbon content. Urbach energies for the valence band tail were also determined by analyzing the spectral response within sub-bandgap energy range. (C) 2010 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim