Grounded theory : a methodological spiral from positivism to postmodernism

Aim. Our aim in this paper is to explain a methodological/methods package devised to incorporate situational and social world mapping with frame analysis, based on a grounded theory study of Australian rural nurses' experiences of mentoring. Background. Situational analysis, as conceived by Adele Clarke, shifts the research methodology of grounded theory from being located within a postpositivist paradigm to a postmodern paradigm. Clarke uses three types of maps during this process: situational, social world and positional, in combination with discourse analysis. Method. During our grounded theory study, the process of concurrent interview data generation and analysis incorporated situational and social world mapping techniques. An outcome of this was our increased awareness of how outside actors influenced participants in their constructions of mentoring. In our attempts to use Clarke's methodological package, however, it became apparent that our constructivist beliefs about human agency could not be reconciled with the postmodern project of discourse analysis. We then turned to the literature on symbolic interactionism and adopted frame analysis as a method to examine the literature on rural nursing and mentoring as secondary form of data. Findings. While we found situational and social world mapping very useful, we were less successful in using positional maps. In retrospect, we would argue that collective action framing provides an alternative to analysing such positions in the literature. This is particularly so for researchers who locate themselves within a constructivist paradigm, and who are therefore unwilling to reject the notion of human agency and the ability of individuals to shape their world in some way. Conclusion. Our example of using this package of situational and social worlds mapping with frame analysis is intended to assist other researchers to locate participants more transparently in the social worlds that they negotiate in their everyday practice. © 2007 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

Moderation and consistency of teacher judgement : teachers’ views

Major curriculum and assessment reforms in Australia have generated research interest in issues related to standards, teacher judgement and moderation. This article is based on one related inquiry of a large-scale Australian Research Council Linkage project conducted in Queensland. This qualitative study analysed interview data to identify teachers’ views on standards and moderation as a means to achieving consistency of teacher judgement. A complementary aspect of the research involved a blind review that was conducted to determine the degree of teacher consistency without the experience of moderation. Empirical evidence was gained that most teachers, of the total interviewed, articulated a positive attitude towards the use of standards in moderation and perceived that this process produces consistency in teachers’ judgements. Context was identified as an important influential factor in teachers’ judgements and it was concluded that teachers’ assessment beliefs, attitudes and practices impact on their perceptions of the value of moderation practice and the extent to which consistency can be achieved.

Understanding the role of knowledge in the practice of expert nephrology nurses in Australia

This paper, which is abstracted from a larger study into the acquisition and exercise of nephrology nursing expertise, aims to explore the role of knowledge in expert practice. Using grounded theory methodology, the study involved 17 registered nurses who were practicing in a metropolitan renal unit in New South Wales, Australia. Concurrent data collection and analysis was undertaken, incorporating participants' observations and interviews. Having extensive nephrology nursing knowledge was a striking characteristic of a nursing expert. Expert nurses clearly relied on and utilized extensive nephrology nursing knowledge to practice. Of importance for nursing, the results of this study indicate that domain-specific knowledge is a crucial feature of expert practice.

Uncovering the evidence of non-expert nephrology nursing practice

Expertise in nursing has been widely studied although there have been no previous studies into what constitutes expertise in nephrology (renal) nursing. This paper, which is abstracted from a larger study into the acquisition and exercise of nephrology nursing expertise, provides evidence of the characteristics and practices of non-expert nephrology nurses. Using the grounded theory method, the study took place in one renal unit in New South Wales, Australia, and involved six non-expert and 11 expert nurses. Sampling was purposive then theoretical. Simultaneous data collection and analysis using participant observation, review of nursing documentation and semistructured interviews was undertaken. The study revealed a three-stage skills-acquisitive process that was identified as non-expert, experienced non-expert and expert stages. Non-expert nurses showed superficial nephrology nursing knowledge and limited experience; they were acquiring basic nephrology nursing skills and possessed a narrow focus of practice.

Recognition of expertise : an important concept in the acquisition of nephrology nursing expertise

The present article, which is abstracted from a larger study into the acquisition and exercise of nephrology nursing expertise, aims to explore the concept of recognition of expertise. The study used grounded theory methodology and involved 17 registered nurses who were practising in a metropolitan renal unit in New South Wales, Australia. Concurrent data collection and analysis was undertaken, incorporating participant observations and interviews. According to nurses in this study, patients, doctors and other nurses recognized that some nurses were experts while others were not. In addition, being trusted, being a role model and teaching others were important components of being recognized as an expert nephrology nurse. Of importance for nursing, the results of the present study indicate that knowledge and experience are not sufficient to ensure expert practice; recognition of expertise by others is an important function of expertise acquisition.

The acquisition and exercise of nephrology nursing expertise : A grounded theory study

Aims and objectives. This purpose of this study was to describe the process of expertise acquisition in nephrology nursing practice. Background. It has been recognized for a number of decades that experts, compared with other practitioners in a number of professions and occupations, are the most knowledgeable and effective, in terms of both the quantity and quality of output. Studies relating to expertise have been undertaken in a range of nursing contexts and specialties; to date, however, none have been undertaken which focus on nephrology nursing. Design. This study, using grounded theory methodology, took place in one renal unit in New South Wales, Australia and involved six non-expert and 11 expert nurses. Methods. Simultaneous data collection and analysis took place using participant observation, semi-structured interviews and review of nursing documentation. Findings. The study revealed a three-stage skills-acquisitive process that was identified as non-expert, experienced non-expert and expert stages. Each stage was typified by four characteristics, which altered during the acquisitive process; these were knowledge, experience, skill and focus. Conclusion. This was the first study to explore nephrology nursing expertise and uncovered new aspects of expertise not documented in the literature and it also made explicit other areas, which had only been previously implied. Relevance to clinical practice. Of significance to nursing, the exercise of expertise is a function of the recognition of expertise by others and it includes the blurring of the normal boundaries of professional practice. © 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

By the day nurses bank up in a casual pool!

We suspect that the array of silly names used to refer to temporary staff worldwide may be indicative of the extent to which these nurses have been relegated to, and we would argue, remain in, a type of underclass – relatively unsupported by employers in terms of professional practice and ipso facto excluded from contributing professionally to team work, practice development, clinical governance and evidence based practice. This may be acceptable to some but in a climate of risk averseness and in the interests of strategic planning we would suggest it is an accident waiting to happen. The recent UK Royal College of Nursing (RCN) (Ball & Pike, 2006) survey of bank and agency nurses brings a welcome focus on a group of nurses that make a significant contribution to the smooth running of health services in many countries.

Why adopt now? Multiple case studies and survey studies comparing small, medium and large firms

While a number of factors have been highlighted in the innovation adoption literature, little is known about whether different factors are related to innovation adoption in differently-sized firms. We used preliminary case studies of small, medium and large firms to ground our hypotheses, which were then tested using a survey of 94 firms. We found that external stakeholder pressure and non-financial readiness were related to innovation adoption in SMEs; but that for large firms, adoption was related to the opportunity to innovate. It may be that the difficulties of adopting innovations, including both the financial cost and the effort involved, are too great for SMEs to overcome unless there is either a compelling need (external pressure) or enough in-house capability (non-financial readiness). This suggests that SMEs are more likely to have innovation “pushed” onto them while large firms are more likely to “pull” innovations when they have the opportunity.

Exploring health behaviour determinants of ageing Australians with chronic diseases

Background: Chronic disease presents overwhelming challenges to elderly patients, their families, health care providers and the health care system. The aim of this study was to explore a theoretical model for effective management of chronic diseases, especially type 2 diabetes mellitus and/or cardiovascular disease. The assumed theoretical model considered the connections between physical function, mental health, social support and health behaviours. The study effort was to improve the quality of life for people with chronic diseases, especially type 2 diabetes and/or cardiovascular disease and to reduce health costs. Methods: A cross-sectional post questionnaire survey was conducted in early 2009 from a randomised sample of Australians aged 50 to 80 years. A total of 732 subjects were eligible for analysis. Firstly, factors influencing respondents‘ quality of life were investigated through bivariate and multivariate regression analysis. Secondly, the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) model for regular physical activity, healthy eating and medication adherence behaviours was tested for all relevant respondents using regression analysis. Thirdly, TPB variable differences between respondents who have diabetes and/or cardiovascular disease and those without these diseases were compared. Finally, the TPB model for three behaviours including regular physical activity, healthy eating and medication adherence were tested in respondents with diabetes and/or cardiovascular diseases using Structure Equation Modelling (SEM). Results: This was the first study combining the three behaviours using a TPB model, while testing the influence of extra variables on the TPB model in one study. The results of this study provided evidence that the ageing process was a cumulative effect of biological change, socio-economic environment and lifelong behaviours. Health behaviours, especially physical activity and healthy eating were important modifiable factors influencing respondents‘ quality of life. Since over 80% of the respondents had at least one chronic disease, it was important to consider supporting older people‘s chronic disease self-management skills such as healthy diet, regular physical activity and medication adherence to improve their quality of life. Direct measurement of the TPB model was helpful in understanding respondents‘ intention and behaviour toward physical activity, healthy eating and medication adherence. In respondents with diabetes and/or cardiovascular disease, the TPB model predicted different proportions of intention toward three different health behaviours with 39% intending to engage in physical activity, 49% intending to engage in healthy eating and 47% intending to comply with medication adherence. Perceived behavioural control, which was proven to be the same as self-efficacy in measurement in this study, played an important role in predicting intention towards the three health behaviours. Also social norms played a slightly more important role than attitude for physical activity and medication adherence, while attitude and social norms had similar effects on healthy eating in respondents with diabetes and/or cardiovascular disease. Both perceived behavioural control and intention directly predicted recent actual behaviours. Physical activity was more a volitional control behaviour than healthy eating and medication adherence. Step by step goal setting and motivation was more important for physical activity, while accessibility, resources and other social environmental factors were necessary for improving healthy eating and medication adherence. The extra variables of age, waist circumference, health related quality of life and depression indirectly influenced intention towards the three behaviours mainly mediated through attitude and perceived behavioural control. Depression was a serious health problem that reduced the three health behaviours‘ motivation, mediated through decreased self-efficacy and negative attitude. This research provided evidence that self-efficacy is similar to perceived behavioural control in the TPB model and intention is a proximal goal toward a particular behaviour. Combining four sources of information in the self-efficacy model with the TPB model would improve chronic disease patients‘ self management behaviour and reach an improved long-term treatment outcome. Conclusion: Health intervention programs that target chronic disease management should focus on patients‘ self-efficacy. A holistic approach which is patient-centred and involves a multidisciplinary collaboration strategy would be effective. Supporting the socio-economic environment and the mental/ emotional environment for older people needs to be considered within an integrated health care system.

Early years teachers’ attitudes towards mathematics

Worldwide, there is considerable attention to providing a supportive mathematics learning environment for young children because attitude formation and achievement in these early years of schooling have a lifelong impact. Key influences on young children during these early years are their teachers. Practising early years teachers‟ attitudes towards mathematics influence the teaching methods they employ, which in turn, affects young students‟ attitudes towards mathematics, and ultimately, their achievement. However, little is known about practising early years teachers‟ attitudes to mathematics or how these attitudes form, which is the focus of this study. The research questions were: 1. What attitudes do practising early years teachers hold towards mathematics? 2. How did the teachers‟ mathematics attitudes form? This study adopted an explanatory case study design (Yin, 2003) to investigate practising early years teachers‟ attitudes towards mathematics and the formation of these attitudes. The research took place in a Brisbane southside school situated in a middle socio-economic area. The site was chosen due to its accessibility to the researcher. The participant group consisted of 20 early years teachers. They each completed the Attitude Towards Mathematics Inventory (ATMI) (Schackow, 2005), which is a 40 item instrument that measures attitudes across the four dimensions of attitude, namely value, enjoyment, self-confidence and motivation. The teachers‟ total ATMI scores were classified according to five quintiles: strongly negative, negative, neutral, positive and strongly positive. The results of the survey revealed that these teachers‟ attitudes ranged across only three categories with one teacher classified as strongly positive, twelve teachers classified as positive and seven teachers classified as neutral. No teachers were identified as having negative or strongly negative attitudes. Subsequent to the surveys, six teachers with a breadth of attitudes were selected from the original cohort to participate in open-ended interviews to investigate the formation of their attitudes. The interview data were analysed according to the four dimensions of attitudes (value, enjoyment, self-confidence, motivation) and three stages of education (primary, secondary, tertiary). Highlighted in the findings is the critical impact of schooling experiences on the formation of student attitudes towards mathematics. Findings suggest that primary school experiences are a critical influence on the attitudes of adults who become early years teachers. These findings also indicate the vital role tertiary institutions play in altering the attitudes of preservice teachers who have had negative schooling experiences. Experiences that teachers indicated contributed to the formation of positive attitudes in their own education were games, group work, hands-on activities, positive feedback and perceived relevance. In contrast, negative experiences that teachers stated influenced their attitudes were insufficient help, rushed teaching, negative feedback and a lack of relevance of the content. These findings together with the literature on teachers‟ attitudes and mathematics education were synthesized in a model titled a Cycle of Early Years Teachers’ Attitudes Towards Mathematics. This model explains positive and negative influences on attitudes towards mathematics and how the attitudes of adults are passed on to children, who then as adults themselves, repeat the cycle by passing on attitudes to a new generation. The model can provide guidance for practising teachers and for preservice and inservice education about ways to foster positive influences to attitude formation in mathematics and inhibit negative influences. Two avenues for future research arise from the findings of this study both relating to attitudes and secondary school experiences. The first question relates to the resilience of attitudes, in particular, how an individual can maintain positive attitudes towards mathematics developed in primary school, despite secondary school experiences that typically have a negative influence on attitude. The second question relates to the relationship between attitudes and achievement, specifically, why secondary students achieve good grades in mathematics despite a lack of enjoyment, which is one of the dimensions of attitude.

Library and information science education 2.0 : guiding principles and models of best practice ALTC Fellowship Report

This ALTC Teaching Fellowship aimed to establish Guiding Principles for Library and Information Science Education 2.0. The aim was achieved by (i) identifying the current and anticipated skills and knowledge required by successful library and information science (LIS) professionals in the age of web 2.0 (and beyond), (ii) establishing the current state of LIS education in Australia in supporting the development of librarian 2.0, and in doing so, identify models of best practice. The fellowship has contributed to curriculum renewal in the LIS profession. It has helped to ensure that LIS education in Australia continues to meet the changing skills and knowledge requirements of the profession it supports. It has also provided a vehicle through which LIS professionals and LIS educators may find opportunities for greater collaboration and more open communication. This will help bridge the gap between LIS theory and practice and will foster more authentic engagement between LIS education and other parts of the LIS industry in the education of the next generation of professionals. Through this fellowship the LIS discipline has become a role model for other disciplines who will be facing similar issues in the coming years. Eighty-one members of the Australian LIS profession participated in a series of focus groups exploring the current and anticipated skills and knowledge needed by the LIS professional in the web 2.0 world and beyond. Whilst each focus group tended to draw on specific themes of interest to that particular group of people, there was a great deal of common ground. Eight key themes emerged: technology, learning and education, research or evidence-based practice, communication, collaboration and team work, user focus, business savvy and personal traits. It was acknowledged that the need for successful LIS professionals to possess transferable skills and interpersonal attributes was not new. It was noted however that the speed with which things are changing in the web 2.0 world was having a significant impact and that this faster pace is placing a new and unexpected emphasis on the transferable skills and knowledge. It was also acknowledged that all librarians need to possess these skills, knowledge and attributes and not just the one or two role models who lead the way. The most interesting finding however was that web 2.0, library 2.0 and librarian 2.0 represented a ‘watershed’ for the LIS profession. Almost all the focus groups spoke about how they are seeing and experiencing a culture change in the profession. Librarian 2.0 requires a ‘different mindset or attitude’. The Levels of Perspective model by Daniel Kim provides one lens by which to view this finding. The focus group findings suggest that we are witnessing a re-awaking of the Australian LIS profession as it begins to move towards the higher levels of Kim’s model (ie mental models, vision). Thirty-six LIS educators participated in telephone interviews aimed at exploring the current state of LIS education in supporting the development of librarian 2.0. Skills and knowledge of LIS professionals in a web 2.0 world that were identified and discussed by the LIS educators mirrored those highlighted in the focus group discussions with LIS professionals. Similarly it was noted that librarian 2.0 needed a focus less on skills and knowledge and more on attitude. However, whilst LIS professionals felt that there was a paradigm shift within the profession. LIS educators did not speak with one voice on this matter with quite a number of the educators suggesting that this might be ‘overstating it a bit’. This study provides evidence for “disparate viewpoints” (Hallam, 2007) between LIS educators and LIS professionals that can have a significant implications for the future of not just LIS professional education specifically but for the profession generally. Library and information science education 2.0: guiding principles and models of best practice 1 Inviting the LIS academics to discuss how their teaching and learning activities support the development of librarian 2.0 was a core part of the interviews conducted. The strategies used and the challenges faced by LIS educators in developing their teaching and learning approaches to support the formation of librarian 2.0 are identified and discussed. A core part of the fellowship was the identification of best practice examples on how LIS educators were developing librarian 2.0. Twelve best practice examples were identified. Each educator was recorded discussing his or her approach to teaching and learning. Videos of these interviews are available via the Fellowship blog at .The LIS educators involved in making the videos felt uncomfortable with the term ‘best practice’. Many acknowledged that there simply seeking to do the best by their students and that there was always room for improvement. For this reason these videos are offered as examples of “great practice”. The videos are a tool for other educators to use, regardless of discipline, in developing their teaching and learning approaches to supporting web 2.0 professionals. It has been argued that the main purpose of professional education is transformation (Dall’ Alba, 2009; Dall’Alba & Barnacle, 2007). As such professional education should focus not just on skills and knowledge acquisition but also on helping students to develop ways of being the professionals in question (ie LIS professionals, teachers, lawyers, engineers).The aim of this fellowship was to establish Guidelines for Library and Information Science Education 2.0 it has however become apparent that at this point in time it is not yet possible to fulfil this aim. The fellowship has clearly identified skills and knowledge needed by the LIS professional in web 2.0 world (and beyond). It has also identified examples of ‘great practice’ by LIS educators as they endeavour to develop LIS professionals who will be successful in a web 20 world. The fellowship however has also shown that the LIS profession is currently undergoing significant attitudinal and conceptual change. Consequently, before a philosophy of LIS education 2.0 can be expressed, the Australian LIS profession must first explore and articulate what it means to be an LIS professional in the 21st century (ie a world of web 2.0 and beyond). In short, the LIS profession in Australia must take stock not of “what we know and can do” but on “who we are becoming” (Dall’Alba, 2009, p 34).

Guidance of aircraft in periodic inspection tasks

This paper presents a guidance approach for aircraft in periodic inspection tasks. The periodic inspection task involves flying to a series of desired fixed points of inspection with specified attitude requirements so that requirements for downward looking sensors, such as cameras, are achieved. We present a solution using a precision guidance law and a bank turn dynamics model. High fidelity simulation studies illustrate the effectiveness of this approach under both ideal (nil-wind) and non-ideal (wind) conditions.

Psychosocial predictors of rule following in hostels for women experiencing homelessness

This study examined the psychosocial factors impacting upon the rule-following behaviour of residents of a hostel providing crisis accommodation to women who are homeless. After their arrival, residents of a women’s hostel (N = 83) completed questionnaires assessing the Theory of Planned Behaviour constructs of attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioural control (PBC), and intentions related to rule-following while residing at the hostel. Perceived resident group norms for rule-following were assessed also. Follow-up staff evaluations of the target behaviour were completed after participants ceased their hostel residence. As expected, attitude, subjective norm, PBC, and group norm significantly predicted intention to follow hostel rules, and intention and PBC predicted rule following behaviour. As rule following is a crucial requirement for continuation of their stay, these findings can inform strategies to improve the experiences and outcomes of women’s short-term hostel stays.

An examination of the predictors of blood donors' intentions to donate during two phases of an avian influenza outbreak

BACKGROUND: Data from prior health scares suggest that an avian influenza outbreak will impact on people’s intention to donate blood; however research exploring this is scarce. Using an augmented theory of planned behavior (TPB), incorporating threat perceptions alongside the rational decision-making components of the TPB, the current study sought to identify predictors of blood donors’ intentions to donate during two phases of an avian influenza outbreak. STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: Blood donors (N = 172) completed an on-line survey assessing the standard TPB predictors as well as measures of threat perceptions from the health belief model (HBM; i.e., perceived susceptibility and severity). Path analyses examined the utility of the augmented TPB to predict donors’ intentions to donate during a low- and high-risk phase of an avian influenza outbreak. RESULTS: In both phases, the model provided a good fit to the data explaining 69% (low risk) and 72% (high risk) of the variance in intentions. Attitude, subjective norm, and perceived susceptibility significantly predicted donor intentions in both phases. Within the low-risk phase, gender was an additional significant predictor of intention, while in the high-risk phase, perceived behavioral control was significantly related to intentions. CONCLUSION: An augmented TPB model can be used to predict donors’ intentions to donate blood in a low-risk and a high-risk phase of an outbreak of avian influenza. As such, the results provide important insights into donors’ decision-making that can be used by blood agencies to maintain the blood supply in the context of an avian influenza outbreak.