Caracterização microestrutural e análise de tensões residuais pelo método do furo cego em tubo de seção quadrada com costura.

Tensões residuais são uma das principais causas de falhas em componentes mecânicos submetidos a processos de fabricação. O objetivo do trabalho foi medir as tensões residuais presentes em um tubo quadrado soldado por resistência elétrica de alta frequência e caracterizar microestruturalmente o seu material. Para a caracterização, foram utilizadas técnicas de microscopia óptica (MO), microscopia eletrônica de varredura (MEV) e análise química quantitativa. Para a medição das tensões residuais, foi utilizado o método do furo cego, baseado na norma ASTM E837-08, onde rosetas (strain-gages) são coladas à peça para medir as deformações geradas devido à usinagem de um pequeno furo no local de medição. As deformações foram associadas às tensões residuais através de equações baseadas na Lei de Hooke. A caracterização revelou uma microestrutura composta basicamente de ferrita e perlita, típica de aços com baixo teor de carbono, corroborando com a especificação fornecida pelo fabricante. As tensões residuais encontradas foram trativas e mostraram-se elevadas, com alguns valores acima do limite de escoamento do material.

Um estudo de caso envolvendo a retroanálise de tensões residuais de cravação.

As tensões residuais de cravação ocorrem quando a estaca e o solo não são totalmente descomprimidos após dissipação completa da energia transferida à estaca durante sua instalação. Este assunto tem merecido a atenção de vários pesquisadores, uma vez que a presença das tensões residuais na estaca causa uma alteração no seu comportamento quando carregada. A presente dissertação reuniu estudos anteriores que estabeleceram os principais fatores que influenciam as tensões residuais de cravação. Procurou-se executar uma série de simulações objetivando melhor entender o desenvolvimento das tensões residuais com a porcentagem de resistência de ponta, em continuidade aos estudos de Costa (1994). Costa (1994) observou que a porcentagem de carga na ponta é um fator relevante na avaliação das tensões residuais de cravação. Uma análise paramétrica efetuada confirmou estudos anteriores, verificando que a razão entre a carga residual na ponta em relação à capacidade de carga global cresce, a medida que a porcentagem de carga na ponta aumenta, chegando a um valor máximo para, em seguida, diminuir. Este comportamento é similar ao da curva de compactação do solo, quando, ao aumentar a umidade, o peso específico seco aumenta, até um valor máximo, correspondente à umidade ótima, para em seguida reduzir. Verificouse, ainda, semelhantemente ao aumento da energia de compactação, que vai transladando a curva para cima e para à esquerda do gráfico umidade x peso específico seco, que o aumento do comprimento da estaca apresenta um comportamento similar. O aumento do comprimento leva a curva para cima e para a esquerda. Finalmente, selecionou-se um caso de obra com condições propícias para o desenvolvimento de altas tensões residuais de cravação. Trata-se de um caso de estacas metálicas longas, embutidas em solo residual jovem, de elevada resistência, bem documentado com extensa instrumentação, por ocasião da instalação. A retroanálise de cinco estacas do banco de dados mostrou que as cargas residuais previstas, num programa de simulação de cravação, se aproximaram muito dos valores experimentais. Foi observado também que a profundidade do ponto neutro previsto e medido apresentou uma excelente concordância. O resultado mais relevante desta pesquisa foi quando os valores de porcentagem de ponta foram introduzidos no eixo das abscissas e os valores da razão entre a carga residual na ponta e a capacidade de carga global, no eixo das ordenadas, e se observou o aspecto da curva semelhante à de compactação. A dissertação ilustra ser possível e simples a previsão das tensões residuais de cravação através de uma análise pela equação da onda.

A zero-stiffness elastic shell structure

A remarkable shell structure is described that, due to a particular combination of geometry and initial stress, has zero stiffness for any finite deformation along a twisting path; the shell is in a neutrally stable state of equilibrium. Initially the shell is straight in a longitudinal direction, but has a constant, nonzero curvature in the transverse direction. If residual stresses are induced in the shell by, for example, plastic deformation, to leave a particular resultant bending moment, then an analytical inextensional model of the shell shows it to have no change in energy along a path of twisted configurations. Real shells become closer to the inextensional idealization as their thickness is decreased; experimental thin-shell models have confirmed the neutrally stable configurations predicted by the inextensional theory. A simple model is described that shows that the resultant bending moment that leads to zero stiffness gives the shell a hidden symmetry, which explains this remarkable property.

Stress and resistivity controls on in situ boron doped LPCVD polysilicon films for high-Q MEMS applications

The simultaneous control of residual stress and resistivity of polysilicon thin films by adjusting the deposition parameters and annealing conditions is studied. In situ boron doped polysilicon thin films deposited at 520 ℃ by low pressure chemical vapor deposition (LPCVD) are amorphous with relatively large compressive residual stress and high resistivity. Annealing the amorphous films in a temperature range of 600-800 ℃ gives polysilicon films nearly zero-stress and relatively low resistivity. The low residual stress and low resistivity make the polysilicon films attractive for potential applications in micro-electro-mechanical-systems (MEMS) devices, especially in high resonance frequency (high-f) and high quality factor (high-Q MEMS resonators. In addition, polysilicon thin films deposited at 570 ℃ and those without the post annealing process have low resistivities of 2-5 mΩ·cm. These reported approaches avoid the high temperature annealing process (> 1000℃), and the promising properties of these films make them suitable for high-Q and high-f MEMS devices.

塑料压力管道热板焊接接头瞬时应力有限元分析

基于热粘弹性积分型本构关系,考虑材料性能依赖于温度变化及相变潜热的影响,利用有限元软件ANSYS热-力耦合及载荷步功能模拟结晶型高密度聚乙烯塑料压力管道热板焊接过程。并对焊接接头的应力分布进行有限元分析,得到了环向、轴向及径向瞬态应力分布规律。采用盲孔法和锯切法测量焊后残余应力,实测结果与数值分析基本吻合。

高密度聚乙烯塑料压力管道热板焊接头应力分布有限元分析

基于热粘弹性积分型本构关系,考虑材料性能依赖于温度变化及相变潜热的影响,利用AN SYS热-力耦合及载荷步功能模拟结晶型高密度聚乙烯(HDPE)塑料压力管道热板焊接过程,并对焊接接头的应力分布进行有限元分析,得到了环向、轴向以及径向瞬态应力分布的基本规律。采用盲孔法和锯切法测量焊后残余应力,实测结果与数值分析基本符合

Comparison of encapsulant curing with convention and microwave systems

Comparison of the performance of a conventional convection oven system with a dual-section microwave system for curing thermosetting polymer encapsulant materials has been performed numerically. A numerical model capable of analysing both the convection and microwave cure processes has been developed and is breifly outliines. The model is used to analyse the curing of a commercially available encapsulant material using both systems. Results obtained from numerical solutions are presented, confirming that the VFM system enables the cure process to be carried out far more rapidly than with the convection oven system. This capability stems from the fundamental heating processes involved, namely that microwave processing enables the heating rate to be varied independently of the material temperature. Variations in cure times, curing rates, maximum temperatures and residual stresses between the processes are fully discussed.

Impact of assembly process technologies on electronic packaging materials

Assembly processes used to bond components to printed circuit boards can have a significant impact on these boards and the final packaged component. Traditional approaches to bonding components to printed circuit boards results in heat being applied across the whole board assembly. This can lead to board warpage and possibly high residual stresses. Another approach discussed in this paper is to use Variable Frequency Microwave (VFM) heating to cure adhesives and underfills and bond components to printed circuit boards. In terms of energy considerations the use of VFM technology is much more cost effective compared to convection/radiation heating. This paper will discuss the impact of traditional reflow based processes on flexible substrates and it will demonstrate the possible advantages of using localised variable frequency microwave heating to cure materials in an electronic package.

The Characterization of Friction Stir Welding Process Effects on Stiffened Panel Buckling Performance

The introduction of advanced welding methods as an alternative joining process to riveting in the manufacture of primary aircraft structure has the potential to realize reductions in both manufacturing costs and structural weight. However, welding processes can introduce undesirable residual stresses and distortions in the final fabricated components, as well as localized loss of mechanical properties at the weld joints. The aim of this research is to determine and characterize the key process effects of advanced welding assembly methods on stiffened panel static strength performance. This in-depth understanding of the relationships between welding process effects and buckling and collapse strength is required to achieve manufacturing cost reductions without introducing structural analysis uncertainties and hence conservative over designed welded panels. This current work is focused at the sub-component level and examines the static strength of friction stir welded multi stiffener panels. The undertaken experimental and computational studies have demonstrated that local skin buckling is predominantly influenced by the magnitude of welding induced residual stresses and associated geometric distortions, whereas panel collapse behavior is sensitive to the lateral width of the physically joined skin and stiffener flange material, the strength of material in the Heat Affected Zone as well as the magnitude of the welding induced residual stresses. Copyright © 2006 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. All rights reserved.


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A preliminary structural design procedure for laser beam welded airframe stiffened panels

Initial sizing procedures for aircraft stiffened panels that include the influence of welding fabrication residual process effects are missing. Herein, experimental and Finite Element analyses are coupled to generate knowledge to formulate an accurate and computationally efficient sizing procedure which will enable designers to routinely consider panel fabrication, via welding, accounting for the complex distortions and stresses induced by this manufacturing process. Validating experimental results demonstrate the need to consider welding induced material property degradation, residual stresses and distortions, as these can reduce static strength performance. However, results from fuselage and wing trade-studies, using the validated sizing procedure, establish that these potential reductions in strength performance may be overcome through local geometric tailoring during initial sizing, negating any weight penalty for the majority of design scenarios.

The development of a surface defect machining method for hard turning processes

Hard turning (HT) is a material removal process employing a combination of a single point cutting tool and high speeds to machine hard ferrous alloys which exhibit hardness values over 45 HRC. In this paper, a surface defect machining (SDM) method for HT is proposed which harnesses the combined advantages of porosity machining and pulsed laser pre-treatment processing. From previous experimental work, this was shown to provide better controllability of the process and improved quality of the machined surface. While the experiments showed promising results, a comprehensive understanding of this new technique could only be achieved through a rigorous, in depth theoretical analysis. Therefore, an assessment of the SDM technique was carried out using both finite element method (FEM) and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations.
FEM modelling was used to compare the conventional HT of AISI 4340 steel (52 HRC) using an Al2O3 insert with the proposed SDM method. The simulations showed very good agreement with the previously published experimental results. Compared to conventional HT, SDM provided favourable machining outcomes, such as reduced shear plane angle, reduced average cutting forces, improved surface roughness, lower residual stresses on the machined surface, reduced tool–chip interface contact length and increased chip flow velocity. Furthermore, a scientific explanation of the improved surface finish was revealed using a state-of-the-art MD simulation model which suggested that during SDM, a combination of both the cutting action and rough polishing action help improve the machined surface finish.

Multiscale simulation of nanometric cutting of single crystal copper and its experimental validation

In this paper a multiscale simulation study was carried out in order to gain in-depth understanding of machining mechanism of nanometric cutting of single crystal copper. This study was focused on the effects of crystal orientation and cutting direction on the attainable machined surface quality. The machining mechanics was analyzed through cutting forces, chip formation morphology, generation and evolution of defects and residual stresses on the machined surface. The simulation results showed that the crystal orientation of the copper material and the cutting direction significantly influenced the deformation mechanism of the workpiece materials during the machining process. Relatively lower cutting forces were experienced while selecting crystal orientation family {1 1 1}. Dislocation movements were found to concentrate in front of the cutting chip while cutting on the (1 1 1) surface along the View the MathML source cutting direction thus, resulting in much smaller damaged layer on the machined surface, compared to other orientations. This crystal orientation and cutting direction therefore recommended for nanometric cutting of single crystal copper in practical applications. A nano-scratching experiment was performed to validate the above findings.

The prediction of process-induced deformation in a thermoplastic composite in support of manufacturing simulation

Digital manufacturing techniques can simulate complex assembly sequences using computer-aided design-based, as-designed' part forms, and their utility has been proven across several manufacturing sectors including the ship building, automotive and aerospace industries. However, the reality of working with actual parts and composite components, in particular, is that geometric variability arising from part forming or processing conditions can cause problems during assembly as the as-manufactured' form differs from the geometry used for any simulated build validation. In this work, a simulation strategy is presented for the study of the process-induced deformation behaviour of a 90 degrees, V-shaped angle. Test samples were thermoformed using pre-consolidated carbon fibre-reinforced polyphenylene sulphide, and the processing conditions were re-created in a virtual environment using the finite element method to determine finished component angles. A procedure was then developed for transferring predicted part forms from the finite element outputs to a digital manufacturing platform for the purpose of virtual assembly validation using more realistic part geometry. Ultimately, the outcomes from this work can be used to inform process condition choices, material configuration and tool design, so that the dimensional gap between as-designed' and as-manufactured' part forms can be reduced in the virtual environment.

Molecular dynamics simulation (MDS) to study nanoscale machining processes

Molecular Dynamics Simulations (MDS) are constantly being used to make important contributions to our fundamental understanding of material behaviour, at the atomic scale, for a variety of thermodynamic processes. This chapter shows that molecular dynamics simulation is a robust numerical analysis tool in addressing a range of complex nanofinishing (machining) problems that are otherwise difficult or impossible to understand using other methods. For example the mechanism of nanometric cutting of silicon carbide is influenced by a number of variables such as machine tool performance, machining conditions, material properties, and cutting tool performance (material microstructure and physical geometry of the contact) and all these variables cannot be monitored online through experimental examination. However, these could suitably be studied using an advanced simulation based approach such as MDS. This chapter details how MD simulation can be used as a research and commercial tool to understand key issues of ultra precision manufacturing research problems and a specific case was addressed by studying diamond machining of silicon carbide. While this is appreciable, there are a lot of challenges and opportunities in this fertile area. For example, the world of MD simulations is dependent on present day computers and the accuracy and reliability of potential energy functions [109]. This presents a limitation: Real-world scale simulation models are yet to be developed. The simulated length and timescales are far shorter than the experimental ones which couples further with the fact that contact loading simulations are typically done in the speed range of a few hundreds of m/sec against the experimental speed of typically about 1 m/sec [17]. Consequently, MD simulations suffer from the spurious effects of high cutting speeds and the accuracy of the simulation results has yet to be fully explored. The development of user-friendly software could help facilitate molecular dynamics as an integral part of computer-aided design and manufacturing to tackle a range of machining problems from all perspectives, including materials science (phase of the material formed due to the sub-surface deformation layer), electronics and optics (properties of the finished machined surface due to the metallurgical transformation in comparison to the bulk material), and mechanical engineering (extent of residual stresses in the machined component) [110]. Overall, this chapter provided key information concerning diamond machining of SiC which is classed as hard, brittle material. From the analysis presented in the earlier sections, MD simulation has helped in understanding the effects of crystal anisotropy in nanometric cutting of 3C-SiC by revealing the atomic-level deformation mechanisms for different crystal orientations and cutting directions. In addition to this, the MD simulation revealed that the material removal mechanism on the (111) surface of 3C-SiC (akin to diamond) is dominated by cleavage. These understandings led to the development of a new approach named the “surface defect machining” method which has the potential to be more effective to implement than ductile mode micro laser assisted machining or conventional nanometric cutting.

Injection moulding process optimization for microstructured parts production

Ao longo das últimas décadas, a micromoldação (u-moldação) por injeção de termoplásticos ganhou um lugar de destaque no mercado de equipamentos eletrónicos e de uma ampla gama de componentes mecânicos. No entanto, quando o tamanho do componente diminui, os pressupostos geralmente aceites na moldação por injeção convencional deixam de ser válidos para descrever o comportamento reológico e termomecânico do polímero na microimpressão. Por isso, a compreensão do comportamento dinâmico do polímero à escala micro bem como da sua caraterização, análise e previsão das propriedades mecânicas exige uma investigação mais alargada. O objetivo principal deste programa doutoral passa por uma melhor compreensão do fenómeno físico intrínseco ao processo da μ-moldação por injeção. Para cumprir com o objetivo estabelecido, foi efetuado um estudo paramétrico do processo de μ-moldação por injeção, cujos resultados foram comparados com os resultados obtidos por simulação numérica. A caracterização dinâmica mecânica das μ-peças foi efetuada com o objetivo de recolher os dados necessários para a previsão do desempenho mecânico das mesmas, a longo prazo. Finalmente, depois da calibração do modelo matemático do polímero, foram realizadas análises estruturais com o intuito de prever o desempenho mecânico das μ-peças no longo prazo. Verificou-se que o desempenho mecânico das μ-peças pode ser significativamente afetado pelas tensões residuais de origem mecânica e térmica. Estas últimas, resultantes do processo de fabrico e das condições de processamento, por isso, devem ser consideradas na previsão do desempenho mecânico e do tempo de serviço das u-moldações.