Expanding the scope of poly(ethylene glycol)s for bioconjugation to squaric acid-mediated PEGylation and pH-sensitivity

Poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) is used in a broad range of applications due to its unique combination of properties and is approved use in formulations for body-care products, edibles and medicine. This thesis aims at the synthesis and characterization of novel heterofunctional PEG structures and the establishment of diethyl squarate as a suitable linker for the covalent attachment to proteins. Chapter 1 is an introduction on the properties and applications of PEG as well as the fascinating chemistry of squaric acid derivatives. In Chapter 1.1, the synthesis and properties of PEG are described, and the versatile applications of PEG derivatives in everyday products are emphasized with a focus on PEG-based pharmaceuticals and nonionic surfactants. This chapter is written in German, as it was published in the German Journal Chemie in unserer Zeit. Chapter 1.2 deals with PEGs major drawbacks, its non-biodegradability, which impedes parenteral administration of PEG conjugates with polyethers exceeding the renal excretion limit, although these would improve blood circulation times and passive tumor targeting. This section gives a comprehensive overview of the cleavable groups that have been implemented in the polyether backbone to tackle this issue as well as the synthetic strategies employed to accomplish this task. Chapter 1.3 briefly summarizes the chemical properties of alkyl squarates and the advantages in protein conjugation chemistry that can be taken from its use as a coupling agent. In Chapter 2, the application of diethyl squarate as a coupling agent in the PEGylation of proteins is illustrated. Chapter 2.1 describes the straightforward synthesis and characterization of squaric acid ethyl ester amido PEGs with terminal hydroxyl functions or methoxy groups. The reactivity and selectivity of theses activated PEGs are explored in kinetic studies on the reactions with different lysine and other amino acid derivatives, followed by 1H NMR spectroscopy. Further, the efficient attachment of the novel PEGs to a model protein, i.e., bovine serum albumin (BSA), demonstrates the usefulness of the new linker for the PEGylation with heterofunctional PEGs. In Chapter 2.3 initial studies on the biocompatibility of polyether/BSA conjugates synthesized by the squaric acid mediated PEGylation are presented. No cytotoxic effects on human umbilical vein endothelial cells exposed to various concentrations of the conjugates were observed in a WST-1 assay. A cell adhesion molecule - enzyme immunosorbent assay did not reveal the expression of E-selectin or ICAM-1, cell adhesion molecules involved in inflammation processes. The focus of Chapter 3 lies on the syntheses of novel heterofunctional PEG structures which are suitable candidates for the squaric acid mediated PEGylation and exhibit superior features compared to established PEGs applied in bioconjugation. Chapter 3.1 describes the synthetic route to well-defined, linear heterobifunctional PEGs carrying a single acid-sensitive moiety either at the initiation site or at a tunable position in the polyether backbone. A universal concept for the implementation of acetal moieties into initiators for the anionic ring-opening polymerization (AROP) of epoxides is presented and proven to grant access to the degradable PEG structures aimed at. The hydrolysis of the heterofunctional PEG with the acetal moiety at the initiating site is followed by 1H NMR spectroscopy in deuterium oxide at different pH. In an exploratory study, the same polymer is attached to BSA via the squarate acid coupling and subsequently cleaved from the conjugate under acidic conditions. Furthermore, the concept for the generation of acetal-modified AROP initiators is demonstrated to be suitable for cholesterol, and the respective amphiphilic cholesteryl-PEG is cleaved at lowered pH. In Chapter 3.2, the straightforward synthesis of α-amino ω2-dihydroxyl star-shaped three-arm PEGs is described. To assure a symmetric length of the hydroxyl-terminated PEG arms, a novel AROP initiator is presented, who’s primary and secondary hydroxyl groups are separated by an acetal moiety. Upon polymerization of ethylene oxide for these functionalities and subsequent cleavage of the acid-labile unit no difference in the degree of polymerization is seen for both polyether fragments.

Surfactants and their aerobic degradation products

Die Ziele der vorliegenden Arbeit waren 1) die Entwicklung und Validierung von sensitiven und substanz-spezifischen Methoden für die quantitative Bestimmung von anionischen, nichtionischen und amphoteren Tensiden und deren Metaboliten in wässrigen Umweltproben unter Einsatz leistungsfähiger, massenspektrometrischer Analysengeräte,2) die Gewinnung von aeroben, polaren Abbauprodukten aus Tensiden in einem die realen Umweltbedingungen simulierenden Labor-Festbettbioreaktor (FBBR), dessen Biozönose oberflächenwasserbürtig war,3) zur Aufklärung des Abbaumechanismus von Tensiden neue, in 2) gewonnene Metabolite zu identifizieren und massenspektrometrisch zu charakterisieren ebenso wie den Primärabbau und den weiteren Abbau zu verfolgen,4) durch quantitative Untersuchungen von Tensiden und deren Abbauprodukten in Abwasser und Oberflächenwasser Informationen zu ihrem Eintrag und Verhalten bei unterschiedlichen hydrologischen und klimatischen Bedingungen zu erhalten,5) das Verhalten von persistenten Tensidmetaboliten in Wasserwerken, die belastetes Oberflächenwasser aufbereiten, zu untersuchen und deren Vorkommen im Trinkwasser zu bestimmen,6) mögliche Schadwirkungen von neu entdeckten Metabolite mittels ökotoxikologischer Biotests abzuschätzen,7) durch Vergleich der Felddaten mit den Ergebnissen der Laborversuche die Umweltrelevanz der Abbaustudien zu belegen. Die Auswahl der untersuchten Verbindungen erfolgte unter Berücksichtigung ihres Produktionsvolumens und der Neuheit auf dem Tensidmarkt. Sie umfasste die Waschmittelinhaltsstoffe lineare Alkylbenzol-sulfonate (LAS), welches das Tensid mit der höchsten Produktionsmenge darstellte, die beiden nichtionischen Tenside Alkylglucamide (AG) und Alkylpolyglucoside (APG), ebenso wie das amphotere Tensid Cocamidopropylbetain (CAPB). Außerdem wurde der polymere Farbübertragungsinhibitor Polyvinylpyrrolidon (PVP) untersucht.

Microemulsion: prediction of the phase diagram with a modified Helfrich free energy

Microemulsions are thermodynamically stable, macroscopically homogeneous but microscopically heterogeneous, mixtures of water and oil stabilised by surfactant molecules. They have unique properties like ultralow interfacial tension, large interfacial area and the ability to solubilise other immiscible liquids. Depending on the temperature and concentration, non-ionic surfactants self assemble to micelles, flat lamellar, hexagonal and sponge like bicontinuous morphologies. Microemulsions have three different macroscopic phases (a) 1phase- microemulsion (isotropic), (b) 2phase-microemulsion coexisting with either expelled water or oil and (c) 3phase- microemulsion coexisting with expelled water and oil.rnrnOne of the most important fundamental questions in this field is the relation between the properties of the surfactant monolayer at water-oil interface and those of microemulsion. This monolayer forms an extended interface whose local curvature determines the structure of the microemulsion. The main part of my thesis deals with the quantitative measurements of the temperature induced phase transitions of water-oil-nonionic microemulsions and their interpretation using the temperature dependent spontaneous curvature [c0(T)] of the surfactant monolayer. In a 1phase- region, conservation of the components determines the droplet (domain) size (R) whereas in 2phase-region, it is determined by the temperature dependence of c0(T). The Helfrich bending free energy density includes the dependence of the droplet size on c0(T) as

Neue Methoden zur Darstellung von Blockcopolymeren unter Beteiligung radikalischer Polymerisationsmechanismen

Im Rahmen dieser Dissertation wurden die Synthese und die Charakterisierung verschiedener, zum Teil neuartiger Blockcopolymere beschrieben, wobei die Einbeziehung radikalischer Polymeri-sationsmechanismen den konzeptionellen Kern ausmachte. Mit einer auf die jeweilige Kombination von Monomeren zugeschnittenen Syntheseroute gelang die Verknüpfung von Segmenten, die allein mittels der herkömmlich zur Synthese von Blockcopolymeren genutzten, ionischen Mechanismen nur mit hohem Aufwand oder gar nicht zu verbinden sind. Auf materieller Seite stand die Herstellung amphiphiler Strukturen im Vordergrund. Diese wurden entweder direkt beim Aufbau der Blockcopo-lymere oder nach anschließender polymeranaloger Umsetzung eines ihrer Segmente erhalten. Solche amphiphilen Substanzen besitzen aufgrund ihrer Grenzflächenaktivität Anwendungspotential z. B. als Stabilisatoren in der Dispersionspolymerisation oder als Flokkulantien. Es wurden drei Verfahren zum Aufbau von Blockcopolymeren untersucht:1. Die Transformation von anionischer zu freier radikalischer Polymerisation für die Synthese von Polystyrol-b-poly(N-vinylformamid) (PS-b-P(VFA)).2. Die Transformation von anionischer zu kontrollierter radikalischer Polymerisation (ATRP) für den Aufbau von Blockcopolymeren aus Poly(dimethylsiloxan) PDMS und Segmenten von t-Butylacrylat (t-BuA) bzw. (2-(Trimethylsiloxy)ethyl)methacrylat (TMS-HEMA).3. Die kontrollierte radikalische Polymerisation unter Einsatz von Triazolinyl als Gegenradikal zur Synthese von Poly[(2-(trimethylsiloxy)ethyl)methacrylat]-b-polystyrol (P(TMS-HEMA)-b-PS) als alternative Route zur anionischen Polymerisation.

Cyclodextrine als molekulare Reaktionsgefäße

Zusammenfassung:In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass durch die Anwendung von Cyclodextrinen in der Polymerchemie ein neuer Weg gefunden wurde, Homo- und Copolymerisationen von hydrophoben, fluorophilen sowie ionischen Monomeren in wässrigem Medium durchzuführen, die bislang nur durch den Einsatz von Emulgatoren oder in organischen Lösemittelgemischen möglich waren. Standardmonomere wie z.B. Styrol konnten erfolgreich aus wässriger Phase in Gegenwart von Cyclodextrin polymerisiert werden; unter Anwendung des Zulauf-Verfahrens wurden stabile Latices mit monodisperser Teilchengrössenverteilung erhalten. Durch Verwendung von Cyclodextrinen als Löslichkeitsvermittler konnten fluorierte Methacrylate in wässriger Lösung in fast quantitativer Ausbeute homo- bzw. mit Styrol copolymerisiert werden, während bei Abwesenheit von Cyclodextrin keine bzw. nur geringe Umsätze erzielt wurden. Weiterhin ließen sich auch sehr unterschiedliche Monomerpaare wie 1H,1H,2H,2H-Perfluordecylacrylat mit Stearylmethacrylat in wässriger Phase unter Verwendung von Cyclodextrin copolymerisieren. Ein ebenfalls gegensätzliches Monomerenpaar, das sich als Cyclodextrin-Komplex in hohen Ausbeuten und zu hohen Molekulargewichten copolymerisieren ließ, war Natrium-4-(acrylamido)-phenyldiazosulfonat und Styrol, dessen Copolymerisation bislang nur in org. Lösemittelgemischen möglich war. In der Synthese leitfähiger Polymere konnte ein neuer, umweltfreundlicher Weg zur Herstellung von Polyheterocyclen durch oxidative Polymerisation der komplexierten Monomere in Wasser, wie z.B. 3,4-Ethylendioxythiophen oder Pyrrol, die ihre Anwendung zur Herstellung leitfähiger Polymere finden, erarbeitet werden.Zur Variation der Polymereigenschaften wurde auch erstmalig die neue Substanzklasse von 2H-Benzo[5,6][1,4]dioxino[2,3-c]pyrrol-Derivaten synthetisiert.

Funktionalisierte Latexpartikel

In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden unter Verwendung neuer auf der Isophthalsäure basieren-der polymerisierbaren Tensiden carboxylfunktionalisierte Latexpartikel hergestellt, charakte-risiert und funktionalisiert. Im ersten Teil dieser Arbeit wurden 5-(10-Undecenyloxy)isophthalsäure (ISA-Vinyl), 5-(11-(4-Vinylphenoxy)undecyloxy)isophthal-säure (ISA-Sty), 5-(11-(2-Prop-1-enyl)phenoxy)undecyloxy)isophthalsäure (ISA-Pr), 5-(11-(1-Methacryloxy)undecylen)isophthalsäure (ISA-Met) und 5-(10-(3-Methylbut-3-enyl)oxy-1-oxydecylen)isophthalsäure (ISA-Bu) hergestellt. Die Surfmere wurden mit Styrol bzw. mit n-Butylacrylat copolymerisiert. ISA-Bu und ISA-Pr weisen während der Copolymerisation mit Styrol fast ideale Verläufe der Zeit/Umsatz-Kurven auf. Bei der Copolymerisation von ISA-Bu bzw. ISA-Vinyl mit n-Butylmethacrylat wurden ähnliche Ergebnisse erhalten. Die Carboxylgruppen an der Partikeloberfläche wurden mit Halogenderivaten verestert oder mit primären Aminen amidiert. Die funktionalisierten Partikel wurden mit der Polyelektrolyt-titration und konduktometrischen Titration, der IR- und UV-Spektroskopie, der Transmissi-onselektronenmikroskopie, der Fluoreszenzkorrelationsspektroskopie charakterisiert. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Reaktanden kovalent an der Partikeloberfläche gebunden sind. Die Polymerpartikel wurden bei der Herstellung von Immunoassays genutzt. Die Adsorpti-onsisothermen zeigten, dass eine hohe Menge an Rinderserumalbumin an die Partikeloberflä-che physikalisch gebunden werden kann. In dieser Arbeit wurde ein einfaches Immunoassay hergestellt mit Biotin – Avidin als Modellsystem hergestellt. Die Surfmere wurden zur Stabilisierung von Miniemulsionen für die Miniemulsionspolymeri-sation genutzt. Im Laufe dieser Arbeit konnten mit dieser Methode Rylenfarbstoffe in Po-lystyrolpartikel stabilisiert werden.

EPR-Spektroskopie zur Untersuchung von Struktur und Dynamik in Polymer-Ton-Nanokompositen

Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war die Untersuchung von Struktur und Dynamik in Polymer-Ton-Nanokompositen mittels EPR-Spektroskopie; damit sollten ein Beitrag zur Analyse der Tensidschicht in solchen Systemen geleistet und die Ergebnisse anderer Messmethoden ergänzt werden. Die Tensidschicht in Polymer-Ton-Nanokompositen nimmt großen Einfluss auf das System, denn sie bestimmt die Wechselwirkung zwischen Ton und Polymer: Damit hydrophiler Ton gut mit hydrophobem Polymer (hier Polystyrol) mischbar ist, muss das Schichtsilikat zunächst mit Tensiden organisch-modifiziert werden; dies geschieht durch Kationenaustausch der Natriumionen im Ton gegen Tenside. Um mit Hilfe der EPR einen Einblick in die Tensidschicht zu gewinnen, muss etwa 1% der zur Tonmodifizierung eingesetzten Amphiphile spinmarkiert sein. So gelang es im Rahmen dieser Arbeit, Tenside mit verschiedenen Kopfgruppen, nämlich Trimethylammonium- bzw. Trimethylphosphoniumtenside, zu synthetisieren und sie an verschiedenen Positionen ihrer hydrophoben Alkylkette mit einem Nitroxidradikal zu markieren. Das Nitroxidradikal diente als Spinsonde für die EPR-Experimente. Neben der Synthese verschiedener, spinmarkierter Amphiphile, der anschließenden Darstellung organisch-modifizierten Tons (Kationenaustausch) und verschiedener Polymer-Ton-Nanokomposite (Schmelzinterkalation) wurden alle Proben mittels EPR-Spektroskopie untersucht; dabei wurden sowohl cw- als auch gepulste Messtechniken eingesetzt. Aus cw-Experimenten ging hervor, dass die Dynamik der gesamten Tensidschicht mit der Temperatur zunimmt und die Mobilität der hydrophoben Tensidalkylkette mit wachsendem Abstand zu ihrer Kopfgruppe wächst. Zugabe von Polymer behindert bei steigender Temperatur das Anschwellen des Tons bei Aufschmelzen der Tensidschicht; die Dynamik des Systems ist eingeschränkt. Mit Hilfe gepulster EPR-Messungen (ENDOR und ESEEM), die Informationen über Abstände bzw. Kontakt in den untersuchten Systemen lieferten, ließ sich ein Strukturmodell der Polymer-Ton-Nanokomposite skizzieren, das Vorstellungen anderer, älterer Methoden unterstützt: Hierbei richten sich die Tenside in Multischichten unterschiedlicher Mobilität parallel zur Tonoberfläche aus.

Synthesis and surface modification of semiconductor nanocrystals

The last decade has witnessed an exponential growth of activities in the field of nanoscience and nanotechnology worldwide, driven both by the excitement of understanding new science and by the potential hope for applications and economic impacts. The largest activity in this field up to date has been in the synthesis and characterization of new materials consisting of particles with dimensions in the order of a few nanometers, so-called nanocrystalline materials. [1-8] Semiconductor nanomaterials such as III/V or II/VI compound semiconductors exhibit strong quantum confinement behavior in the size range from 1 to 10 nm. Therefore, preparation of high quality semiconductor nanocrystals has been a challenge for synthetic chemists, leading to the recent rapid progress in delivering a wide variety of semiconducting nanomaterials. Semiconductor nanocrystals, also called quantum dots, possess physical properties distinctly different from those of the bulk material. Typically, in the size range from 1 to 10 nm, when the particle size is changed, the band gap between the valence and the conduction band will change, too. In a simple approximation a particle in a box model has been used to describe the phenomenon[9]: at nanoscale dimensions the degenerate energy states of a semiconductor separate into discrete states and the system behaves like one big molecule. The size-dependent transformation of the energy levels of the particles is called “quantum size-effect”. Quantum confinement of both the electron and hole in all three dimensions leads to an increase in the effective bandgap of the material with decreasing crystallite size. Consequently, both the optical absorption and emission of semiconductor nanaocrystals shift to the blue (higher energies) as the size of the particles gets smaller. This color tuning is well documented for CdSe nanocrystals whose absorption and emission covers almost the whole visible spectral range. As particle sizes become smaller the ratio of surface atoms to those in the interior increases, which has a strong impact on particle properties, too. Prominent examples are the low melting point [8] and size/shape dependent pressure resistance [10] of semiconductor nanocrystals. Given the size dependence of particle properties, chemists and material scientists now have the unique opportunity to change the electronic and chemical properties of a material by simply controlling the particle size. In particular, CdSe nanocrystals have been widely investigated. Mainly due to their size-dependent optoelectronic properties [11, 12] and flexible chemical processibility [13], they have played a distinguished role for a number of seminal studies [11, 12, 14, 15]. Potential technical applications have been discussed, too. [8, 16-27] Improvement of the optoelectronic properties of semiconductor nanocrystals is still a prominent research topic. One of the most important approaches is fabricating composite type-I core-shell structures which exhibit improved properties, making them attractive from both a fundamental and a practical point of view. Overcoating of nanocrystallites with higher band gap inorganic materials has been shown to increase the photoluminescence quantum yields by eliminating surface nonradiative recombination sites. [28] Particles passivated with inorganic shells are more robust than nanocrystals covered by organic ligands only and have greater tolerance to processing conditions necessary for incorporation into solid state structures or for other applications. Some examples of core-shell nanocrystals reported earlier include CdS on CdSe [29], CdSe on CdS, [30], ZnS on CdS, [31] ZnS on CdSe[28, 32], ZnSe on CdSe [33] and CdS/HgS/CdS [34]. The characterization and preparation of a new core-shell structure, CdSe nanocrystals overcoated by different shells (CdS, ZnS), is presented in chapter 4. Type-I core-shell structures as mentioned above greatly improve the photoluminescence quantum yield and chemical and photochemical stability of nanocrystals. The emission wavelengths of type-I core/shell nanocrystals typically only shows a small red-shift when compared to the plain core nanocrystals. [30, 31, 35] In contrast to type-I core-shell nanocrystals, only few studies have been conducted on colloidal type-II core/shell structures [36-38] which are characterized by a staggered alignment of conduction and valence bands giving rise to a broad tunability of absorption and emission wavelengths, as was shown for CdTe/CdSe core-shell nanocrystals. [36] The emission of type-II core/shell nanocrystals mainly originates from the radiative recombination of electron-hole pairs across the core-shell interface leading to a long photoluminescence lifetime. Type-II core/shell nanocrystals are promising with respect to photoconduction or photovoltaic applications as has been discussed in the literature.[39] Novel type-II core-shell structures with ZnTe cores are reported in chapter 5. The recent progress in the shape control of semiconductor nanocrystals opens new fields of applications. For instance, rod shaped CdSe nanocrystals can enhance the photo-electro conversion efficiency of photovoltaic cells, [40, 41] and also allow for polarized emission in light emitting diodes. [42, 43] Shape control of anisotropic nanocrystals can be achieved by the use of surfactants, [44, 45] regular or inverse micelles as regulating agents, [46, 47] electrochemical processes, [48] template-assisted [49, 50] and solution-liquid-solution (SLS) growth mechnism. [51-53] Recently, formation of various CdSe nanocrystal shapes has been reported by the groups of Alivisatos [54] and Peng, [55] respectively. Furthermore, it has been reported by the group of Prasad [56] that noble metal nanoparticles can induce anisotropic growth of CdSe nanocrystals at lower temperatures than typically used in other methods for preparing anisotropic CdSe structures. Although several approaches for anisotropic crystal growth have been reported by now, developing new synthetic methods for the shape control of colloidal semiconductor nanocrystals remains an important goal. Accordingly, we have attempted to utilize a crystal phase control approach for the controllable synthesis of colloidal ZnE/CdSe (E = S, Se, Te) heterostructures in a variety of morphologies. The complex heterostructures obtained are presented in chapter 6. The unique optical properties of nanocrystals make them appealing as in vivo and in vitro fluorophores in a variety of biological and chemical investigations, in which traditional fluorescence labels based on organic molecules fall short of providing long-term stability and simultaneous detection of multiple emission colours [References]. The ability to prepare water soluble nanocrystals with high stability and quantum yield has led to promising applications in cellular labeling, [57, 58] deep-tissue imaging, [59, 60] and assay labeling [61, 62]. Furthermore, appropriately solubilized nanocrystals have been used as donors in fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) couples. [63-65] Despite recent progress, much work still needs to be done to achieve reproducible and robust surface functionalization and develop flexible (bio-) conjugation techniques. Based on multi-shell CdSe nanocrystals, several new solubilization and ligand exchange protocols have been developed which are presented in chapter 7. The organization of this thesis is as follows: A short overview describing synthesis and properties of CdSe nanocrystals is given in chapter 2. Chapter 3 is the experimental part providing some background information about the optical and analytical methods used in this thesis. The following chapters report the results of this work: synthesis and characterization of type-I multi-shell and type-II core/shell nanocrystals are described in chapter 4 and chapter 5, respectively. In chapter 6, a high–yield synthesis of various CdSe architectures by crystal phase control is reported. Experiments about surface modification of nanocrystals are described in chapter 7. At last, a short summary of the results is given in chapter 8.

Synthesis and characterization of structurally well-defined polymer-layered silicate nanocomposites

Zusammenfassung Nanokomposite aus Polymeren und Schichtsilikaten werden zumeist auf der Basis natürlicher Tone wie Montmorillonit hergestellt. Für NMR- und EPR-Untersuchungen der Tensidschicht, die das Silikat mit dem Polymer kompatibilisiert, ist der Eisengehalt natürlicher Tone jedoch abträglich, weil er zu einer Verkürzung der Relaxationszeiten und zu einer Linienverbreiterung in den Spektren führt. Dieses Problem konnte überwunden werden, indem als Silikatkomponente eisenfreies, strukturell wohldefiniertes Magadiit hydrothermal synthetisiert und für die Kompositbildung eingesetzt wurde. Die Morphologie des Magadiits wurde durch Rasterelektronenmikroskopie charakterisiert und der Interkalationsgrad von schmelzinterkalierten Polymer-Nanokompositen wurde durch Weitwinkelröntgenstreuung bestimmt. Polymere mit Carbonylgruppen scheinen leichter zu interkalieren als solche ohne Carbonylgruppen. Polycaprolacton interkalierte sowohl in Oragnomagadiite auf der Basis von Ammoniumtensiden als auch in solche auf der Basis von Phosphoniumtensiden. Die Dynamik auf einer Nanosekundenzeitskala und die Struktur der Tensidschicht wurden mittels ortsspezifisch spinmarkierter Tensidsonden unter Nutzung von Dauerstrich- (CW) und Puls-Methoden der elektronenparamagnetischen Resonanzspektroskopie (EPR) untersucht. Zusätzlich wurde die statische 2H-Kernmagnetresonanz (NMR) an spezifisch deuterierten Tensiden angewendet, um die Tensiddynamik auf einer komplementären Zeitskala zwischen Mikrosekunden und Millisekunden zu erfassen. Sowohl die CW-EPR- als auch die 2H-NMR-Ergebnisse zeigen eine Beschleunigung der Tensiddynamik durch Interkalation von Polycaprolacton auf, während sich in den nichtinterkalierten Mikrokompositen mit Polystyrol die Tensiddynamik verlangsamt. Die Rotationskorrelationszeiten und Aktivierungsenergien offenbaren verschiedene Regime der Tensiddynamik. In Polystyrol-Mikrokompositen entspricht die Übergangstemperatur zwischen den Regimen der Glasübergangstemperatur von Polystyrol, während sie in Polycaprolacton-Nanokompositen bei der Schmelztemperatur von Polycaprolacton liegt. Durch die erhebliche Verlängerung der Elektronenspin-Relaxationszeiten bei Verwendung von eisenfreiem Magadiit können Messdaten hoher Qualität mit Puls-EPR-Experimenten erhalten werden. Insebsondere wurden die Vier-Puls-Elektron-Elektron-Doppelresonanz (DEER), die Elektronenspinechoenveloppenmodulation (ESEEM) und die Elektronen-Kern-Doppelresonanz (ENDOR) an spinmarkierten sowie spezifisch deuterierten Tensiden angewandt. Die ENDOR-Ergebnisse legen ein Model der Tensidschicht nahe, in dem zusätzlich zu den Oberflächenlagen auf dem Silikat eine wohldefinierte mittlere Lage existiert. Dieses Modell erklärt auch Verdünnungseffekte durch das Polymer in Kompositen mit Polycaprolacton und Polystyrol. Die umfangreiche Information aus den Magnetresonanztechniken ergänzt die Information aus konventionellen Charakterisierungstechniken wie Röntgendiffraktion und Transmissionselektronenmikroskopie und führt so zu einem detaillierteren Bild der Struktur und Dynamik der Tensidschicht in Nanokompositen aus Polymeren und Schichtsilikaten.

Organokompatible Zinnoxid-Nanopartikel

In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden verschiedene Methoden der Synthese von Zinn(IV)oxid Nanopartikeln, deren Stabilisierung durch unterschiedliche Surfactants und der Einbau der Nanomaterialien in PMMA beschrieben und die erhaltenen Materialien charakterisiert. Die Darstellung der Zinnoxid Nanopartikel wurde über drei verschiedene Synthesewege durchgeführt: a) Polymeric Precursor Methode, b) Solvothermal-Synthese und c) säurekatalysierte Fällungsreaktion. Im Rahmen von a) konnte neben der thermodynamisch stabilen Phase von Zinn(IV)oxid ebenfalls die metastabile orthorhombische Phase synthetisiert werden. Durch eine Analyse der Pyrolysebedingungen konnte der Kristallisationsmechanismus des Zinnoxids ausgehend vom Precursor bis zur tetragonalen Phase des Zinn(IV)oxid diskutiert werden. Die Synthesemethoden b) und c) boten sich zur Darstellung von oberflächenmodifizierten Zinnoxid Nanopartikeln an. Als Surfactant benutzte man unter anderem Alkylphosphonsäuren, da eine hydrophobe Oberfläche die Dispersion in MMA ermöglichte. Abschließend wurde eine radikalische in situ-Polymerisation von MMA in Gegenwart von oberflächenmodifizierten Partikeln durchgeführt. Der erhaltene Verbundwerkstoff zeichnete sich durch eine erhöhte thermische Stabilität aufgrund weniger Strukturdefekte des Polymers aus. Durch eine Untersuchung des Polymerisationsmechanismus konnte die Wirkung der oberflächenmodifizierten Nanopartikel auf die Polymerisation veranschaulicht werden. Aufgrund der nicht homogenen Verteilung der Nanopartikel im Verbundwerkstoff konnte jedoch keine Charakterisierung der optischen Eigenschaften durchgeführt werden.

Heteroatom containing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons with positive charge - synthesis and characterization

The synthesis and characterization of various heteroatom containing PAHs with positive charge were investigated in this work: 1. A series of 2-phenyl-benzo[8,9]quinolizino[4,5,6,7-fed]phenanthridinylium (PQP) salts with different alkyl chains and anions were synthesized. The synthesis of the extended derivates of PQP salts with two fused benzene rings, 2-phenyl-naphthacene[1,2]quinolizino[3,4,5,6-def]benzo[i]phenanthridinium (DBPQP) tetrafluoroborate was also developed. The self-assembly behavior of these amphiphilic PAHs was investigated in methanolic solution as well as in the bulk. Various aggregates with different morphologies such as fibers, tubes and vesicals were obtained from their solution. All of these morphology changes could be ascribed to the changes in intermolecular interactions which resulting from the difference in the molecular structures such as aromatic cores, alkyl chains and counterions. 2. The synthetic strategy of oxygen containing positively charged PAHs, benzo[5,6]naphthaceno[1,12,11,10-jklmna]xanthylium (BNAX) salts and its dibenzo derivates, DBNAX salts were developed. With a similar method, sulfur containing benzo[5,6]naphthaceno[1,12,11,10-jklmna]thioxanthylium (BNATX) salts were also synthesized. Various BNAX salts with different alkyl chains could be obtained and their supramolecular behavior were investigated. A discotic liquid crystalline behavior was observed for di- (3-25) and tridodecyl (3-27) substituted BNAX salts and both compounds exhibited large unit cell in their 2D-WAXS patterns which could be attributed to the formation of dimer structures. By drop casting their methanolic solution on silicon wafers, similar nanoscaled fibers from monododecyl substituted BNAX bromide 3-24 and DBNAX bromide 3-35 could be observed. 3. A novel synthetic method toward nitrogen containing 14-phenyl-dibenzo[jk,mn]naphtho[2,1,8-fgh]thebenidinium (DBNT) salts was also developed. In this method, the undehydrogenated precursor of DBNT, dibenzoacridinium salt could be produced directly from the reaction between dibenzoxanthenylium derivates and amine/aniline in reasonable yields. Various DBNT salts with different alkyl and alkylphenyl chains on their nitrogen atom were synthesized in this two-step method. The self-assembly behavior of two alkylated DBNT salts, 4-15a and 4-18b was also studied in this work. Compound 4-15a formed nanoscaled fibers and helical aggregates were obtained from 4-18b in their methanolic solutions. 4. Various ionic complexes were derived by complexing PQP and DBPQP cations with different sulfate/sulfonate group containing anionic surfactants. The ionic complexes resulting from the ionic self-assembly (ISA) method exhibited self-assembly behavior which was controllable by the species and shape of cations and anions. Various aggregates such as nanofibers and spherical aggregates could be produced from their methanolic solution in a defined manner conveniently.

Perfluorinated compounds in environmental matrices of Lake Victoria Gulf

ABSTRACT One of the major ecological challenges on Lake Victoria resources is the existence of “hot spots”, caused by human waste, urban runoff, and industrial effluents. The lake is tending towards eutrophication which is attributed to the increasing human population in its watershed. A report of the levels of perfluorooctane sulfonate and perfluorooctanoic acid in environmental matrices of Lake Victoria is presented, and the management implication of perfluorinated compounds and similar potential organic pollutants examined. Two widely consumed and economically important fish species namely Lates niloticus (Nile perch) and Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia) were obtained from Winam gulf of Lake Victoria, Kenya, and analysed for perfluorooctane sulfonate and perfluorooctanoic acid in muscles and liver using liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectroscopy. Variability in the concentrations of perfluorooctanoic acid or perfluorooctane sulfonate in river waters (range perfluorooctanoic acid 0.4 – 96.4 ng/L and perfluorooctane sulfonate < 0.4 – 13.2 ng/L) was higher than for Lake waters (range perfluorooctanoic acid 0.4 – 11.7 ng/L and perfluorooctane sulfonate < 0.4 – 2.5 ng/L respectively). Significant correlations were tested between perfluorinated compounds levels in sediments, fish and water. Wastewater treatment plants and other anthropogenic sources have been identified as significant sources or pathways for the introduction of perfluoroalkyl compounds into Lake Victoria ecosystem. In this study, elevated concentrations of perfluorooctanoic acid and perfluorooctane sulfonate was found in two wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Kisumu, City of Kenya. An alternative analytical method to liquid chromatography/ mass spectroscopy for analysis of perfluorocarboxylic acids in abiotic and biotic matrices where high concentrations are expected is also presented. Derivatisation of the acid group to form a suitable alkyl ester provided a suitable compound for mass spectroscopy detection coupled to gas chromatography instrumental analysis. The acid is esterified by an alkyl halide i.e benzyl bromide as the alkylating agent for Perfluorocarboxylic acids quantification. The study also involved degradability measurements of emerging perfluorinated surfactants substitutes. The stability of the substitutes of perfluorinated surfactants was tested by employing advanced oxidation processes, followed by conventional tests, among them an automated method based on the manometric respirometry test and standardized fix bed bioreactor [FBBR] on perfluorobutane sulfonate (PFBS), a fluoroethylene polymer, fluorosurfactant (Zonyl), two fluoraliphaticesters (NOVEC ™ FC4430 and NOVEC ™ FC4432) and 10-(trifluoromethoxy) decane-sulfonate. Most of these emmerging surfactants are well-established in the market and have been used in several applications as alternatives to PFOS and PFOA based surfactants. The results of this study can be used as pioneer information for further studies on the sources, behaviour and fate of PFOA and PFOS and other related compounds in both abiotic and biota compartments of Lake Victoria and other lakes. Further an overview in degradation of emerging perfluorinated compounds substitutes is presented. Contribution in method development especially for acid group based fluorosurfactants is presented. The data obtained in this study can particularly be considered when formulating policies and management measures for preservation and sustainability of Lake Victoria resources.

Solubility and permeability as in vitro predictors for in vivo performance of fenofibrate IR solid dosage forms

This current work focused on the simulation of in vivo dissolution and permeation in order to be able to predict the in vivo performance of orally administered fenofibrate immediate release formulations. Therefore, the effects of the formulation surfactants on in vivo solubility and permeation of fenofibrate under physiologically relevant excipient concentrations were emphasized.rnIt was shown that the surfactant sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) may decrease rather than increase the solubility of fenofibrate in vivo. This was related to the interference of SDS with the vesicular system of the biorelevant medium, FaSSIFmod, and therefore its solubilization capacity. rnMoreover, in vitro permeation studies revealed that SDS concentrations inversely correlated with fenofibrate permeability. Through combination of the observed permeation and solubility data a good in vitro/in vivo correlation regarding Cmax values in humans could be established for five fenofibrate formulations which were based on the same manufacturing technique.rnBesides the experimental part, the major characteristics and their potential implementation in a dissolution/permeation device were discussed based on the promising realization of the in vitro solubility and permeation methods. rn

Structure formation as studied by EPR spectroscopy: From simple solutions to nanoparticles

In this thesis, three nitroxide based ionic systems were used to investigate structure and dynamics of their respective solutions in mixed solvents by means of electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and electron nuclear double resonance (ENDOR) spectroscopy at X- and W-band (9.5 and 94.5 GHz, respectively). rnFirst, the solvation of the inorganic radical Fremy’s salt (K2ON(SO3)2) in isotope substituted binary solvent mixtures (methanol/water) was investigated by means of high-field (W-band) pulse ENDOR spectroscopy and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. From the analysis of orientation-selective 1H and 2H ENDOR spectra the principal components of the hyperfine coupling (hfc) tensor for chemically different protons (alcoholic methyl vs. exchangeable protons) were obtained. The methyl protons of the organic solvent approach with a mean distance of 3.5 Å perpendicular to the approximate plane spanned by ON(S)2 of the probe molecule. Exchangeable protons were found to be distributed isotropically, approaching closest to Fremy’s salt from the hydrogen-bonded network around the sulfonate groups. The distribution of exchangeable and methyl protons as found in MD simulations is in full agreement with the ENDOR results. The solvation was found to be similar for the studied solvent ratios between 1:2.3 and 2.3:1 and dominated by an interplay of H-bond (electrostatic) interactions and steric considerations with the NO group merely involved into H-bonds.rnFurther, the conformation of spin labeled poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride) (PDADMAC) solutions in aqueous alcohol (methanol, ethanol, n-propanol, ethylene glycol, glycerol) mixtures in dependence of divalent sodium sulfate was investigated with double electron-electron resonance (DEER) spectroscopy. The DEER data was analyzed using the worm-like chain model which suggests that in organic-water solvent mixtures the polymer backbones are preferentially solvated by the organic solvent. We found a less serve impact on conformational changes due to salt than usually predicted in polyelectrolyte theory which stresses the importance of a delicate balance of hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions, in particular in the presence of organic solvents.rnFinally, the structure and dynamics of miniemulsions and polymerdispersions prepared with anionic surfactants, that were partially replaced by a spin labeled fatty acid in presence and absence of a lanthanide beta-diketonate complex was characterized by CW EPR spectroscopy. Such miniemulsions form multilayers with the surfactant head group bound to the lanthanide ion. Beta-diketonates were formerly used as NMR shift reagents and nowadays find application as luminescent materials in OLEDs and LCDs and as contrast agent in MRT. The embedding of the complex into a polymer matrix results in an easy processable material. It was found that the structure formation takes place in miniemulsion and is preserved during polymerization. For surfactants with carboxyl-head group a higher order of the alkyl chains and less lateral diffusion is found than for sulfat-head groups, suggesting a more uniform and stronger coordination to the metal ion. The stability of these bilayers depends on the temperature and the used surfactant which should be considered for the used polymerization temperature if a maximum output of the structured regions is wished.

Structured antibody surfaces for bio-recognition and a label-free detection of bacteria

Antibody microarrays are of great research interest because of their potential application as biosensors for high-throughput protein and pathogen screening technologies. In this active area, there is still a need for novel structures and assemblies providing insight in binding interactions such as spherical and annulus-shaped protein structures, e.g. for the utilization of curved surfaces for the enhanced protein-protein interactions and detection of antigens. Therefore, the goal of the presented work was to establish a new technique for the label-free detection of bio-molecules and bacteria on topographically structured surfaces, suitable for antibody binding.rnIn the first part of the presented thesis, the fabrication of monolayers of inverse opals with 10 μm diameter and the immobilization of antibodies on their interior surface is described. For this purpose, several established methods for the linking of antibodies to glass, including Schiff bases, EDC/S-NHS chemistry and the biotin-streptavidin affinity system, were tested. The employed methods included immunofluorescence and image analysis by phase contrast microscopy. It could be shown that these methods were not successful in terms of antibody immobilization and adjacent bacteria binding. Hence, a method based on the application of an active-ester-silane was introduced. It showed promising results but also the need for further analysis. Especially the search for alternative antibodies addressing other antigens on the exterior of bacteria will be sought-after in the future.rnAs a consequence of the ability to control antibody-functionalized surfaces, a new technique employing colloidal templating to yield large scale (~cm2) 2D arrays of antibodies against E. coli K12, eGFP and human integrin αvβ3 on a versatile useful glass surface is presented. The antibodies were swept to reside around the templating microspheres during solution drying, and physisorbed on the glass. After removing the microspheres, the formation of annuli-shaped antibody structures was observed. The preserved antibody structure and functionality is shown by binding the specific antigens and secondary antibodies. The improved detection of specific bacteria from a crude solution compared to conventional “flat” antibody surfaces and the setting up of an integrin-binding platform for targeted recognition and surface interactions of eukaryotic cells is demonstrated. The structures were investigated by atomic force, confocal and fluorescence microscopy. Operational parameters like drying time, temperature, humidity and surfactants were optimized to obtain a stable antibody structure.