Helix-coil-transition in solid polypeptides

Abstract Poly(L-glutamic acid) (PLGA) was synthesized by living anionic ring-opening polymerization of the NCA monomer, which was obtained by reacting diphosgene with an amino acid derivative. The chemical structures and thermal properties were characterized by 1H-NMR, 13C-NMR, TGA and DSC. XRD powder patterns found to be amorphous for all polymers obtained. The molecular weights could be determined under severe limitations due to low solubility and high aggregation tendency. The secondary structure of the PLGA films was analyzed in the solid state by IR spectroscopy; the order was determined mainly by XRD. Uniform bulk films (1-5 µm) were produced by drop-casting of PLGA solutions in TFA on silica. The XRD film analysis indicated the absence of a long range order or an orientation even if a helical microstructure was confirmed by IR spectroscopy. The coil solvent TFA delivered constantly a helical or a β-sheet structure in the solid state depending on the water content of the solvent which was observed for the first time to exhibit a high influence on the crystallization process for PLGA. Temperature dependent in-situ IR measurements were examined to analyze if a helix-coil transition occurs, but there could be no solvent system determined, which resulted in a disordered coil structure in the solid state. General parameters like solvent systems, evaporation conditions, concentration, substrates etc. were analyzed. New crystallizations were obtained on silica prepared by drop-casting of solutions of PLGA in DMF, DMA, TMU, NMP, and pyridine/water mixtures, respectively. PSCBC in DMF, CDCl3/TFA-d, and PSBC in CDCl3/TFA-d exhibited the same crystalline diffraction patterns like PLGA. The long range order in the X-ray diffraction pattern is proven by extremely sharp crystalline signals, which are not changing the shape or the position of the peak by increasing the temperature up to 160°C. The substrate seems to play a decisive role because the crystalline structures were not obtainable on glass. The crystal structure consists probably of two different layered structures based on the intensity ratios of the two series of crystalline signals in the X-ray diffraction patterns. The source of the layered structure remains unclear and needs further studies to investigate the spatial arrangement of the chains in more detail. The secondary structure was still not changing upon heating even if a highly crystalline diffraction pattern occurs. Concluding that even the newly investigated crystallization did not show a helix-coil transition in the solid state by annealing, the phenomenon known in solution has to be claimed as unachievable in the solid state based on the results of this work. A remaining open question represents the observation that the same crystalline pattern can be reproducibly prepared with exhibiting two different ordered secondary structures (helix and β-sheet). After the investigation that the evaporation time cannot be decisive for the crystal growth, the choice of a strong hydrogen bonding interrupting solvent is most probably the key to support and induce the crystallization process.

Structure and dynamics of supramolecular assemblies studied by advanced solid-state NMR spectroscopy

Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit ist die Aufklärung von Struktur und Dynamik komplexer supramolekularer Systeme mittels Festkörper NMR Spektroskopie. Die Untersuchung von pi-pi Wechselwirkungen, welche einen entscheidenden Einfluss auf die strukturellen und dynamischen Eigenschaften supra- molekularer Systeme haben, hilft dabei, die Selbst- organisationsprozesse dieser komplexen Materialien besser zu verstehen. Mit dipolaren 1H-1H and 1H-13C Wiedereinkopplungs NMR Methoden unter schnellem MAS können sowohl 1H chemische Verschiebungen als auch dipolare 1H-1H und 1H-13C Kopplungen untersucht werden, ohne dass eine Isotopenmarkierung erforderlich ist. So erhält man detaillierte Informationen über die Struktur und die Beweglichkeit einzelner Molekül- segmente. In Verbindung mit sogenannten nucleus independent chemical shift (NICS) maps (berechnet mit ab-initio Methoden) lassen sich Abstände von Protonen relativ zu pi-Elektronensystemen bestimmen und so Strukturvorschläge ableiten. Mit Hilfe von homo- und heteronuklearen dipolaren Rotationsseitenbandenmustern könnenaußerdem Ordnungs- parameter für verschiedene Molekülsegmente bestimmt werden. Die auf diese Weise gewonnenen Informationen über die strukturellen und dynamischen Eigenschaften supramolekularer Systeme tragen dazu bei, strukturbestimmende Molekül- einheiten und Hauptordnungsphänomene zu identifizieren sowie lokale Wechselwirkungen zu quantifizieren, um so den Vorgang der Selbstorganisation besser zu verstehen.

NMR spectroscopy and imaging of hyperpolarized gases

Since the discovery of the nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) phenomenon, countless NMR techniques have been developed that are today indispensable tools in physics, chemistry, biology, and medicine. As one of the main obstacles in NMR is its notorious lack of sensitivity, different hyperpolarization (HP) methods have been established to increase signals up to several orders of magnitude. In this work, different aspects of magnetic resonance, using HP noble gases, are studied, hereby combining different disciplines of research. The first part examines new fundamental effects in NMR of HP gases, in theory and experiment. The spin echo phenomenon, which provides the basis of numerous modern experiments, is studied in detail in the gas phase. The changes of the echo signal in terms of amplitude, shape, and position, due to the fast translational motion, are described by an extension of the existing theory and computer simulations. With this knowledge as a prerequisite, the detection of intermolecular double-quantum coherences was accomplished for the first time in the gas phase. The second part of this thesis focuses on the development of a practical method to enhance the dissolution process of HP 129Xe, without loss of polarization or shortening of T1. Two different setups for application in NMR spectroscopy and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are presented. The continuous operation allows biological and multidimensional spectroscopy in solutions. Also, first in vitro MRI images with dissolved HP 129Xe as contrast agent were obtained at a clinical scanner.

Solubility and permeability as in vitro predictors for in vivo performance of fenofibrate IR solid dosage forms

This current work focused on the simulation of in vivo dissolution and permeation in order to be able to predict the in vivo performance of orally administered fenofibrate immediate release formulations. Therefore, the effects of the formulation surfactants on in vivo solubility and permeation of fenofibrate under physiologically relevant excipient concentrations were emphasized.rnIt was shown that the surfactant sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) may decrease rather than increase the solubility of fenofibrate in vivo. This was related to the interference of SDS with the vesicular system of the biorelevant medium, FaSSIFmod, and therefore its solubilization capacity. rnMoreover, in vitro permeation studies revealed that SDS concentrations inversely correlated with fenofibrate permeability. Through combination of the observed permeation and solubility data a good in vitro/in vivo correlation regarding Cmax values in humans could be established for five fenofibrate formulations which were based on the same manufacturing technique.rnBesides the experimental part, the major characteristics and their potential implementation in a dissolution/permeation device were discussed based on the promising realization of the in vitro solubility and permeation methods. rn

An all-solid state laser system for the laser ion source RILIS and in-source laser spectroscopy of astatine at ISOLDE,CERN

This doctoral thesis describes the extension of the resonance ionization laser ion source RILIS at CERN/ISOLDE by the addition of an all-solid state tunable titanium:sapphire (Ti:Sa) laser system to complement the well-established system of dye lasers. Synchronous operation of the so called Dual RILIS system of Ti:Sa and dye lasers was investigated and the potential for increased ion beam intensity, reliability, and reduced setup time has been demonstrated. In-source resonance ionization spectroscopy was performed at ISOLDE/CERN and at ISAC/TRIUMF radioactive ion beam facilities to develop an efficient and selective three-colour ionization scheme for the purely radioactive element astatine. A LabVIEW based monitoring, control and measurement system was conceived which enabled, in conjunction with Dual RILIS operation, the spectroscopy of high lying Rydberg states, from which the ionization potential of the astatine atom was determined for the first time experimentally.

Heteronuclear recoupling methods in solid-state NMR

This thesis is focused on the development of heteronuclear correlation methods in solid-state NMR spectroscopy, where the spatial dependence of the dipolar coupling is exploited to obtain structural and dynamical information in solids. Quantitative results on dipolar coupling constants are extracted by means of spinning sideband analysis in the indirect dimension of the two-dimensional experiments. The principles of sideband analysis were established and are currently widely used in the group of Prof. Spiess for the special case of homonuclear 1H double-quantum spectroscopy. The generalization of these principles to the heteronuclear case is presented, with special emphasis on naturally abundant 13C-1H systems. For proton spectroscopy in the solid state, line-narrowing is of particular importance, and is here achieved by very-fast sample rotation at the magic angle (MAS), with frequencies up to 35 kHz. Therefore, the heteronuclear dipolar couplings are suppressed and have to be recoupled in order to achieve an efficient excitation of the observed multiple-quantum modes. Heteronuclear recoupling is most straightforwardly accomplished by performing the known REDOR experiment, where pi-pulses are applied every half rotor period. This experiment was modified by the insertion of an additional spectroscopic dimension, such that heteronuclear multiple-quantum experiments can be carried out, which, as shown experimentally and theoretically, closely resemble homonuclear double-quantum experiments. Variants are presented which are well-suited for the recording of high-resolution 13C-1H shift correlation and spinning-sideband spectra, by means of which spatial proximities and quantitative dipolar coupling constants, respectively, of heteronuclear spin pairs can be determined. Spectral editing of 13C spectra is shown to be feasible with these techniques. Moreover, order phenomena and dynamics in columnar mesophases with 13C in natural abundance were investigated. Two further modifications of the REDOR concept allow the correlation of 13C with quadrupolar nuclei, such as 2H. The spectroscopic handling of these nuclei is challenging in that they cover large frequency ranges, and with the new experiments it is shown how the excitation problem can be tackled or circumvented altogether, respectively. As an example, one of the techniques is used for the identification of a yet unknown motional process of the H-bonded protons in the crystalline parts of poly(vinyl alcohol).

Vibrational spectroscopy on thermally and optically switchable spin crossover compounds

Oktaedrisch koordinierte Übergangsmetalle mit der Elektronenkonfiguration [Ar]3d4 - 3d7 können in zwei unterschiedlichen elektronischen Zuständen existieren: im High-Spin (HS) oder im Low-Spin (LS) Zustand. Zum Beispiel kann Fe(II) in 1A1g (LS) oder 5T2g (HS) Konfiguration auftreten.Besonderes Interesse besteht in der Aufklärung des Mechanismus der kooperativen Wechselwirkung, die den Spinübergang im Festkörper bestimmt. Hierzu müssen zunächst die internen Freiheitsgrade der molekularen Einheiten bekannt sein. Besonders der Beitrag der molekularen Schwingungen zur Entropiedifferenz, die die Triebkraft des Spinübergangs darstellt, ist von entscheidender Bedeutung. Bisher existieren nur wenige detaillierte Untersuchungen zu den Schwingungseigenschaften der Spincrossovermoleküle.In Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden die Schwingungseigenschaften einiger Komplexverbindungen, die Spincrossover zeigen, im Detail untersucht. Dazu wurden temperaturabhängige Raman-, Fern- und Mittel-Infrarot-Spektroskopie, Isotopensubstitution und Normalkoordinatenanalysen (NKA) in Verbindung mit Dichtefunktional-Rechnungen (DFT) verwendet.Die gewonnenen Werte der zugeordneten Schwingungsfrequenzen und die bestimmten Kraftkonstantenänderungen können nun zur Verfeinerung von theoretischen Modellen zur Beschreibung des Spinübergangs verwendet werden.

Grundlegende Untersuchungen zur Abbindereaktion von Zinkphosphatzement

Zusammenfassung Das Ziel der Arbeit bestand darin, mit der Aufklärung der Abbindereaktion von Zinkphosphatzement eine Grundlage für eine gezielte Modifikation bzw. Optimierung zu schaffen, insbesondere im Hinblick auf einen Einsatz als permanenter Füllungswerkstoff. Über den Abbindechemismus war bislang lediglich bekannt, daß es sich bei den primär gebildeten Reaktionsprodukten um röntgenamorphe Phasen handelt, die sich nach Wochen bzw. Monaten in das thermodynamisch stabile Reaktionsprodukt alpha-Hopeit (alpha-Zn3(PO4)2·4H2O) umwandeln.Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit gelang durch den Einsatz der Infrarot-Reflexionsspek-troskopie (DRIFT) die Identifikation von Dizink Cyclotetraphosphat-Octahydrat (Zn2P4O12·8H2O) als röntgenamorpher Vorläuferphase. Das kondensierte Phosphat ist hydrolyseempfindlich sowie thermodynamisch instabil. Mit Hilfe der zeitaufgelösten 1H NMR-Spektroskopie konnte gezeigt werden, daß bereits nach ca. 10 Minuten eine Phasenumwandlung (topochemische Disproportionierung) in ein zunächst röntgenamorphes Orthophosphat stattfindet. Mittels 31P Doppelquanten-NMR-Spektroskopie gelang der Nachweis, daß innerhalb des röntgenamorphen Bereiches lokal nahgeordnete (nanokristalline) Bereiche auftreten, deren Ordnung sich auf einer Längenskala von 10 bis 30 Å erstreckt. Die Nanokristallite unterliegen einem Wachstumsprozeß, der schließlich zu alpha-Hopeit-Kristallen mit Ausdehnungen im Mikrometerbereich führt. Die Ursache für die primäre Ausbildung röntgenamorpher Reaktionsprodukte kann zunächst gelösten Aluminophosphatkomplexen zugeordnet werden, die im Verlauf der Abbindereaktion zu anorganischen Polymeren aggregieren und damit als Kristallisationsinhibitoren fungieren.

Supramolecular order and dynamics of discotic materials studied by solid-state NMR recoupling methods

The topic of this thesis is the investigation of structure,order and dynamics in discotic mesogens by advancedsolid-state NMR spectroscopy. Most of the discotic mesogensunder investigation are hexa-peri-hexabenzocoronene (HBC)derivatives which are of particular interest for potentialdevice applications due to their high one-dimensional chargecarrier mobilities. The supramolecular stacking arrangement of the discoticcores was investigated by 2D 1H-1H double-quantum (DQ)methods, which were modified by incorporating the WATERGATEsuppression technique into the experiments in order toovercome severe phase problems arising from the strongsignal of the long alkyl sidechains. Molecular dynamics and sample orientation was probed throughthe generation of sideband patterns by reconversion rotorencoding in 2D recoupling experiments. These experimentswere extended by new recoupling schemes to enable thedistinction of motion and orientation effects. The solid-state NMR studies presented in this work aim tothe understanding of structure-property relationships in theinvestigated discotic materials, while the experimentsapplied to these materials include new recoupling schemeswhich make the desired information on molecular orientationand dynamics accessible without isotope labelling.

New discotic liquid crystals based on large polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons as materials for molecular electronics

A series of new columnar discotic liquid crystalline materials based on the superphenalene (C96) core has been synthesized by oxidative cyclodehydrogenation with iron(III) chloride of suitable three-dimensional oligophenylene precursors. These compounds were investigated by means of differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), polarized optical microscopy (POM) and wide angle X-ray scattering (WAXS), and showed highly ordered supramolecular arrays and mesophase behavior over a broad temperature range. Good solubility, through the introduction of long alkyl chains, and the fact that these new superphenalene derivatives were found to be liquid crystalline at room temperature enabled the formation of highly ordered films (using the zone-casting technique), a requirement for application in organic electronic devices. The one-dimensional, intracolumnar charge carrier mobilities of superphenalene derivatives were determined using the pulse-radiolysis time-resolved microwave conductivity technique (PR-TRMC). Electrical properties of different C96-C12 architectures on mica surfaces were examined by using Electrostatic Force Microscopy (EFM) and Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy (KPFM). Hexa-peri-hexabenzocoronene (C42) derivatives substituted at the periphery with six branched alkyl ether chains were also synthesized. It was found that the introduction of ether groups within the side chains enhances the affinity of the discotic molecules towards polar surfaces, resulting in homeotropic self-assembly (as shown by POM and 2D-WAXS) when the compounds are processed from the isotropic state between two surfaces. A new, insoluble, superphenalene building block bearing six reactive sites was prepared, and was further used for the preparation of dendronized superphenalenes with bulky dendritic substituents around the core. UV/Vis and fluorescence experiments suggest reduced π-π stacking of the superphenalene cores as a result of steric hindrance between the peripheral dendritic units. A new family of graphitic molecules with partial ”zig-zag” periphery has been established. The incorporation of ”zig-zag” edges was shown to have a strong influence on the electronic properties of the new molecules (as studied by solution and solid-state UV/Vis, and fluorescence spectroscopy), leading to a significant bathochromic shift with respect to the parent PAHs (C42 and C96). The reactivity of the additional double bonds was examined. The attachment of long alkyl chains to a ”zig-zag” superphenalene core afforded a new, processable, liquid crystalline material.

Photoemissions-Elektronenmikroskopie an Adsorbatsystemen

Die Photoemissions-Elektronenmikroskopie ist eine hervorragend geeignete Methode zur Untersuchung dynamischer Vorgänge auf realen polykristallinen Oberflächen im sub-μm Bereich. Bei der Anwendung auf Adsorbatsysteme lassen sich geringe Bedeckungsunterschiede, sowie Adsorbatstrukturen und -phasen unterscheiden. Die Methode erlaubt dabei ein breites Anwendungsspektrum über weite Temperaturbereiche und Systeme unterschiedlichster Bindungsenergie. Bei der Chemisorption von Sauerstoff auf polykristallinen Metallen wird unterschiedliches Aufwachsverhalten in den Helligkeitswerten im Mikroskopbild widergespiegelt. Bei Kupferproben zeigen Oberflächen mit unterschiedlicher kristalliner Richtung aufgrund der Symmetrie des fcc-Gitters ein ähnliches Verhalten. Das hexagonale Gitter des Titans zeigt dagegen große Unterschiede im Adsorptionsverhalten in Abhängigkeit der kristallinen Richtung. Diese Unterschiede konnten auf verschiedene Haftkoeffizienten und Oxidationsstufen der Metalle zurückgeführt werden. In einem Modell zur Photostromanalyse konnte beim Kupfer der Übergang von verschiedenen Überstrukturen bei wachsender Bedeckung gezeigt und die Übergänge ermittelt werden.. Auf den Titanoberflächen wurde so das Wachstum der Oxide TiO, TiO₂ und Ti₂O₃ unterschieden und die Übergänge des unterschiedlichen Wachstums ermittelt. Bei der thermischen Desorption der Schichten konnten unterschiedliche Haftkoeffizient auf einzelnen Kristalliten qualitativ gezeigt werden. Diese erstmalig eingesetzte Analysemethode weist Ähnlichkeiten zur Thermo-Desorptions-Spektroskopie (TDS) auf, zeigt jedoch ortsaufgelöst lokale Unterschiede auf polykristallinen Oberflächen. Bei thermisch gestützten Oberflächenreaktionen ließen sich die Reaktionskeime deutlich identifizieren und mit einer Grauwertanalyse konnte die Oxidation der karbidischen Lagen zu Kohlenmonoxid und die Metalloxidation unterschieden werden. Dabei konnte gezeigt werden, daß die Reaktionskeime nur an Plattengrenzen auftreten, nicht jedoch auf der Oberfläche. Durch die Aufrauhung der Plattengrenzen mit zunehmender Reaktionsdauer nimmt die Zahl der Reaktionskeime kontinuierlich zu, die laterale Ausdehnung der Einzelreaktionen bleibt aber konstant. Bei der Physisorption von Xenon auf Graphit wurde erstmals für die Photoemissionsmikroskopie die resonanten Anregung ausgenutzt. Die verschiedenen Phasen des Adsorbats können dabei deutlich unterschieden werden; bei niedrigen Temperaturen (40K) findet ein gleichmäßiges Wachstum auf der gesamten Oberfläche statt, bei höheren Temperaturen von 60-65K ist dagegen ein Inselwachstum in verschiedenen Phasen zu beobachten. Die zeitliche Entwicklung des Wachstums, die örtliche Lage der Phasen und die Phasenübergänge (gas, fest inkommensurabel, fest kommensurabel) konnten bestimmt werden. Bei der Desorption der Schichten konnten die einzelnen Phasen ebenfalls getrennt werden und das unterschiedliche Desorptionsverhalten sowie die Phasenübergänge selber verifiziert werden.

Visualization, manipulation and force spectroscopy of cylindrical polymer brushes

The Ph.D. thesis deals with the conformational study of individual cylindrical polymer brush molecules using atomic force microscopy (AFM). Imaging combined with single molecule manipulation has been used to unravel questions concerning conformational changes, desorption behavior and mechanical properties of individual macromolecules and supramolecular structures. In the first part of the thesis (chapter 5) molecular conformations of cylindrical polymer brushes with poly-(N-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM) side chains were studied in various environmental conditions. Also micelle formation of cylindrical brush-coil blockcopolymers with polyacrylic acid side chains and polystyrene coil have been visualized. In chapter 6 the mechanical properties of single cylindrical polymer brushes with (PNIPAM) side chains were investigated. Assuming that the brushes adopt equilibrium conformation on the surface, an average persistence length of lp= (29 ± 3) nm was determined by the end-to-end distance vs. contour length analysis in terms of the wormlike chain (WLC) model. Stretching experiments suggest that an exact determination of the persistence length using force extension curves is impeded by the contribution of the side chains. Modeling the stretching of the bottle brush molecule as extension of a dual spring (side chain and main chain) explains the frequently observed very low persistence length arising from a dominant contribution of the side chain elasticity at small overall contour lengths. It has been shown that it is possible to estimate the “true” persistence length of the bottle brush molecule from the intercept of a linear extrapolation of the inverse square root of the apparent persistence length vs. the inverse contour length plot. By virtue of this procedure a “true” persistence length of 140 nm for the PNIPAM brush molecules is predicted. Chapter 7 and 8 deal with the force-extension behavior of PNIPAM cylindrical brushes studied in poor solvent conditions. The behavior is shown to be qualitatively different from that in a good solvent. Force induced globule-cylinder conformational changes are monitored using “molecule specific force spectroscopy��� which is a combined AFM imaging and SMFS technique. An interesting behavior of the unfolding-folding transitions of single collapsed PNIPAM brush molecules has been observed by force spectroscopy using the so called “fly-fishing” mode. A plateau force is observed upon unfolding the collapsed molecule, which is attributed to a phase transition from a collapsed brush to a stretched conformation. Chapter 9 describes the desorption behavior of single cylindrical polyelectrolyte brushes with poly-L-lysine side chains deposited on a mica surface using the “molecule specific force spectroscopy��� technique to resolve statistical discrepancies usually observed in SMFS experiments. Imaging of the brushes and inferring the persistence length from a end-to-end distance vs. contour length analysis results in an average persistence length of lp = (25 ± 5) nm assuming that the chains adopt their equilibrium conformation on the surface. Stretching experiments carried out on individual poly-L-lysine brush molecules by force spectroscopy using the “fly-fishing” mode provide a persistence length in the range of 7-23 nm in reasonable accordance with the imaging results. In chapter 10 the conformational behavior of cylindrical poly-L-lysine brush-sodium dodecyl sulfate complexes was studied using AFM imaging. Surfactant induced cylinder to helix like to globule conformational transitions were observed.

Grazing incidence pumped Zr x-ray laser for spectroscopy on Li-like ions

X-ray laser fluorescence spectroscopy of the 2s-2p transition in Li-like ions is promising to become a widely applicable tool to provide information on the nuclear charge radii of stable and radioactive isotopes. For performing such experiments at the Experimental Storage Ring ESR, and the future NESR within the FAIR Project, a grazing incidence pumped (GRIP) x-ray laser (XRL) was set up at GSI Darmstadt using PHELIX (Petawatt High Energy Laser for heavy Ions eXperiments). The experiments demonstrated that lasing using the GRIP geometry could be achieved with relatively low pump energy, a prerequisite for higher repetition rate. In the first chapter the need of a plasma XRL is motivated and a short history of the plasma XRL is presented. The distinctive characteristic of the GRIP method is the controlled deposition of the pump laser energy into the desired plasma density region. While up to now the analysis performed were mostly concerned with the plasma density at the turning point of the main pump pulse, in this thesis it is demonstrated that also the energy deposition is significantly modified for the GRIP method, being sensitive in different ways to a large number of parameters. In the second chapter, the theoretical description of the plasma evolution, active medium and XRL emission properties are reviewed. In addition an innovative analysis of the laser absorption in plasma which includes an inverse Bremsstrahlung (IB) correction factor is presented. The third chapter gives an overview of the experimental set-up and diagnostics, providing an analytical formula for the average and instantaneous traveling wave speed generated with a tilted, on-axis spherical mirror, the only focusing system used up to now in GRIP XRL. The fourth chapter describes the experimental optimization and results. The emphasis is on the effect of the incidence angle of the main pump pulse on the absorption in plasma and on output and gain in different lasing lines. This is compared to the theoretical results for two different incidence angles. Significant corrections for the temperature evolution during the main pump pulse due to the incidence angle are demonstrated in comparison to a simple analytical model which does not take into account the pumping geometry. A much better agreement is reached by the model developed in this thesis. An interesting result is also the appearance of a central dip in the spatially resolved keV emission which was observed in the XRL experiments for the first time and correlates well with previous near field imaging and plasma density profile measurements. In the conclusion also an outlook to the generation of shorter wavelength XRL’s is given.

Synthetical engineering of supramolecular properties of large polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

An important property for devices is the charge-carrier mobility values for discotic organic materials like hexa-peri-hexabenzocoronenes. A close relation exists between the degree of their columnar self-arrangement of the molecules and their mobilities. Within this first step an induction of a higher order via hydrogen-bonding was considered, which mainly pointed towards the improvement of the intracolumnar stacking of the materials. For the analytics a broad range of methods was used including differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), wide-angle X-ray diffractometry (WAXS), solid-state NMR spectroscopy and scanning tunneling microscopy (STM). Indeed, a specific influence of the hydrogen-bonds could be identified, although in several cases by the cost of a severe reduction of solubility and processability. This effect was dampened by the addition of a long alkyl chain next to the hydrogen-bond exerting functional group, which resulted in an improved columnar arrangement by retention of processability. In contrast to the before mentioned example of inducing a higher intracolumnar order by hydrogen-bonding, the focus was also be set upon larger aromatic systems. The charge-carrier mobility is also in close relation to the size of the aromatic core and larger π-areas are expected to lead to improved mobilities. For photovoltaic applications a high extinction coefficient over a broad range of the spectrum is favorable, which can also be achieved by enlarging the aromatic core component. In addition the stronger π-interactions between the aromatic core components should yield an improved columnar stability and order. However the strengthening of the π-interactions between the aromatic core components led to a reduction of the solubility and the processability due to the stronger aggregation of the molecules. This required the introduction of efficiently solubilizing features in terms of long alkyl chains in the corona of the aromatic entity, in combination of a distortion of the aromatic core moiety by bulky tert-butyl groups. By this approach not only the processing and cleaning of the materials with standard laboratory techniques became possible, but moreover the first structure-rich UV/vis and a resolved 1H-NMR spectra for an aromatic system two times larger than hexa-peri-hexabenzocoronene were recorded. The bulk properties in an extruded fiber as well as on the surface showed a columnar self-assembly including a phase in which a homeotropic alignment on a substrate was observed, which turns the material into an interesting candidate for future applications in electronic devices.

Optimised polyolefin branch quantification by 13 C NMR spectroscopy

Quantitative branch determination in polyolefins by solid- and melt-state 13C NMR has been investigated. Both methods were optimised toward sensitivity per unit time. While solid-state NMR was shown to give quick albeit only qualitative results, melt-state NMR allowed highly time efficient accurate branch quantification. Comparison of spectra obtained using spectrometers operating at 300, 500 and 700 MHz 1H Larmor frequency, with 4 and 7~mm MAS probeheads, showed that the best sensitivity was achieved at 500 MHz using a 7 mm 13C-1H optimised high temperature probehead. For materials available in large quantities, static melt-state NMR, using large diameter detection coils and high coil filling at 300 MHz, was shown to produce comparable results to melt-state MAS measurements in less time. While the use of J-coupling mediated polarisation transfer techniques was shown to be possible, direct polarisation via single-pulse excitation proved to be more suitable for branch quantification in the melt-state. Artificial line broadening, introduced by FID truncation, was able to be reduced by the use of π pulse-train heteronuclear dipolar decoupling. This decoupling method, when combined with an extended duty-cycle, allowed for significant improvement in resolution. Standard setup, processing and analysis techniques were developed to minimise systematic errors contributing to the measured branch contents. The final optimised melt-state MAS NMR method was shown to allow time efficient quantification of comonomer content and distribution in both polyethylene- and polypropylene-co-α-olefins. The sensitivity of the technique was demonstrated by quantifying branch concentrations of 8 branches per 100,000 CH2 for an industrial ‘linear’ polyethylene in only 13 hours. Even lower degrees of 3–8 long-chain branches per 100,000 carbons were able to be estimated in just 24 hours for a series of γ-irradiated polypropylene homopolymers.