Synthesis and characterization of temperature- and light-responsive polymers and block copolymers

In summary, thermoresponsive polyacrylamides with various amounts of different photoswitchable side groups, i. e. azobenzene, salicylideneaniline and fulgimide were successfully prepared. As such, in a first step three different chromophores with an amine functionality were synthesized. The synthesis of the stimuli-responsive materials was based on the RAFT polymerization of activated ester acrylates followed by a polymer analogous reaction with different amines. The procedure has been designed to allow the synthesis of well-defined materials with functional groups. All copolymers prepared in this way showed a LCST in aqueous solution. The LCST was in general decreased by increasing the amount of hydrophobic dye incorporated into the thermoresponsive polymer. However, in the case of the fulgimide, the LCST was hardly affected by the chromophore. For azobenzene containing PNIPAM polymers and analogues, higher LCST values were measured after irradiation of the polymer sample solutions with UV-light (Delta LCSTmax = 7.3°C). A reversible light-induced solubility change within a certain temperature range was possible. In contrast to this, irradiated samples of salicylideneaniline containing thermoresponsive copolymers showed an irreversible increase in the LCST (Delta LCSTmax = 13.0°C). Fulgimide chromophores did not influence the LCST of PNIPAM based copolymers after UV-light exposure.rnSimilar to the thermoresponsive polyacrylamides with azobenzene side groups, poly(oligo(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate) [P(OEGMA)] polymers with azobenzene end groups showed a LCST shift upon UV-irradiation. These polymers were synthesized by RAFT polymerization using a functional chain transfer agent (CTA). For this, PFP-CTA was used as a RAFT-agent for end group functionalization of (thermoresponsive) polymers. In contrast to the statistically arranged copolymers with azobenzene side groups, P(OEGMA) polymers with terminal azobenzene showed a linear increase of the LCST shifts with increasing amount of chromophore (Delta LCSTmax = 4.3°C). Noteworthy, the chemical nature of the end group exhibited a strong influence on the LCST in the case of short thermoresponsive P(OEGMA) polymers.rnThe investigation on temperature- and lightresponsive polymers was transferred onto block copolymers capable to self-assemble into polymeric micelles. Therefore, PEO-b-PNIPAM block copolymers with azobenzene moieties were synthesized successfully. These polymers showed a “smart” behavior in aqueous solution, as the reversible formation and disruption of the micelles could either be controlled by temperature or using light as a stimulus. The usefulness of these materials was demonstrated by encapsulation of a hydrophobic dye in the core of the micelle. Such materials might have a great potential as a model system for several technical or biological applications.rnFinally, double thermoresponsive block copolymers forming micellar structures in a certain temperature range with functional end groups could successfully be synthesized. These “smart materials” based on POEGMA-b-PNIPMAM have been demonstrated to be very promising for a temperature selective immobilization on a protein surface. This might be a suitable concept for further biological applications.rnConcluding, different thermoresponsive copolymers and block copolymers with lightresponsive moieties arranged along the backbone or located at the chain ends were successfully prepared and investigated. By controlling the nature of functional groups and their respective incorporation ratios, the LCST could be dialed in precisely. Further, the LCST of the polymers could be triggered by light. A light-controlled disruption of micellar structures could be shown for functional block copolymers. The importance of end groups of thermoresponsive polymers was demonstrated by a temperature-controlled protein-polymer binding of a terminal biotin-functionalized double thermoresponsive polymer. The synthetic approaches and the material properties presented here should be promising for further research and applications beyond this dissertation.rn

Structure property relations in complex copolymer systems

A thorough investigation was made of the structure-property relation of well-defined statistical, gradient and block copolymers of various compositions. Among the copolymers studied were those which were synthesized using isobornyl acrylate (IBA) and n-butyl acrylate (nBA) monomer units. The copolymers exhibited several unique properties that make them suitable materials for a range of applications. The thermomechanical properties of these new materials were compared to acrylate homopolymers. By the proper choice of the IBA/nBA monomer ratio, it was possible to tune the glass transition temperature of the statistical P(IBA-co-nBA) copolymers. The measured Tg’s of the copolymers with different IBA/nBA monomer ratios followed a trend that fitted well with the Fox equation prediction. While statistical copolymers showed a single glass transition (Tg between -50 and 90 ºC depending on composition), DSC block copolymers showed two Tg’s and the gradient copolymer showed a single, but very broad, glass transition. PMBL-PBA-PMBL triblock copolymers of different composition ratios were also studied and revealed a microphase separated morphology of mostly cylindrical PMBL domains hexagonally arranged in the PBA matrix. DMA studies confirmed the phase separated morphology of the copolymers. Tensile studies showed the linear PMBL-PBA-PMBL triblock copolymers having a relatively low elongation at break that was increased by replacing the PMBL hard blocks with the less brittle random PMBL-r-PMMA blocks. The 10- and 20-arm PBA-PMBL copolymers which were studied revealed even more unique properties. SAXS results showed a mixture of cylindrical PMBL domains hexagonally arranged in the PBA matrix, as well as lamellar. Despite PMBL’s brittleness, the triblock and multi-arm PBA-PMBL copolymers could become suitable materials for high temperature applications due to PMBL’s high glass transition temperature and high thermal stability. The structure-property relation of multi-arm star PBA-PMMA block copolymers was also investigated. Small-angle X-ray scattering revealed a phase separated morphology of cylindrical PMMA domains hexagonally arranged in the PBA matrix. DMA studies found that these materials possess typical elastomeric behavior in a broad range of service temperatures up to at least 250°C. The ultimate tensile strength and the elastic modulus of the 10- and 20-arm star PBA-PMMA block copolymers are significantly higher than those of their 3-arm or linear ABA type counterparts with similar composition, indicating a strong effect of the number of arms on the tensile properties. Siloxane-based copolymers were also studied and one of the main objectives here was to examine the possibility to synthesize trifluoropropyl-containing siloxane copolymers of gradient distribution of trifluoropropyl groups along the chain. DMA results of the PDMS-PMTFPS siloxane copolymers synthesized via simultaneous copolymerization showed that due to the large difference in reactivity rates of 2,4,6-tris(3,3,3-trifluoropropyl)-2,4,6-trimethylcyclotrisiloxane (F) and hexamethylcyclotrisiloxane (D), a copolymer of almost block structure containing only a narrow intermediate fragment with gradient distribution of the component units was obtained. A more dispersed distribution of the trifluoropropyl groups was obtained by the semi-batch copolymerization process, as the DMA results revealed more ‘‘pure gradient type’’ features for the siloxane copolymers which were synthesized by adding F at a controlled rate to the polymerization of the less reactive D. As with trifluoropropyl-containing siloxane copolymers, vinyl-containing polysiloxanes may be converted to a variety of useful polysiloxane materials by chemical modification. But much like the trifluoropropyl-containing siloxane copolymers, as a result of so much difference in the reactivities between the component units 2,4,6-trivinyl-2,4,6-trimethylcyclotrisiloxane (V) and hexamethylcyclotrisiloxane (D), thermal and mechanical properties of the PDMS-PMVS copolymers obtained by simultaneous copolymerization was similar to those of block copolymers. Only the copolymers obtained by semi-batch method showed properties typical for gradient copolymers.

Coil-ring-coil block copolymers as building blocks of supramolecular hollow cylindrical brushes

This work describes the synthesis of a new class of rod-coil block copolymers, oligosubstituted shape persistent macrocycles, (coil-ring-coil block copolymers), and their behavior in solution and in the solid state.The coil-ring-coil block copolymers are formed by nanometer sized shape persistent macrocycles based on the phenyl-ethynyl backbone as rigid block and oligomers of polystyrene or polydimethylsiloxane as flexible blocks. The strategy that has been followed is to synthesize the macrocycles with an alcoholic functionality and the polymer carboxylic acids independently, and then bind them together by esterification. The ester bond is stable and relatively easy to form.The synthesis of the shape persistent macrocycles is based on two separate steps. In the first step the building blocks of the macrocycles are connected by Hagiara-Sogonaschira coupling to form an 'half-ring' as precursor, that contains two free acetylenes. In the second step the half-ring is cyclized by forming two sp-sp bonds via a copper-catalyzed Glaser coupling under pseudo-high-dilution conditions. The polystyrene carboxylic acid was prepared directly by siphoning the living anionic polymer chain into a THF solution, saturated with CO2, while the polydimethylsiloxane carboxylic acid was obtained by hydrosilylating an unsaturated benzylester with an Si-H terminated polydimethylsiloxane, and cleavage of the ester. The carbodiimide coupling was found to be the best way to connect macrocycles and polymers in high yield and high purity.The polystyrene-ring-polystyrene block copolymers are, depending on the molecular weight of the polystyrene, lyotropic liquid crystals in cyclohexane. The aggregation behavior of the copolymers in solution was investigated in more detail using several technique. As a result it can be concluded that the polystyrene-ring-polystyrene block copolymers can aggregate into hollow cylinder-like objects with an average length of 700 nm by a combination of shape complementary and demixing of rigid and flexible polymer parts. The resulting structure can be described as supramolecular hollow cylindrical brush.If the lyotropic solution of the polystyrene-ring-polystyrene block copolymers are dried, they remain birefringent indicating that the solid state has an ordered structure. The polydimethylsiloxane-ring-polydimethylsiloxane block copolymers are more or less fluid at room temperature, and are all birefringent (termotropic liquid crystals) as well. This is a prove that the copolymers are ordered in the fluid state. By a careful investigation using electron diffraction and wide-angle X-ray scattering, it has been possible to derive a model for the 3D-order of the copolymers. The data indicate a lamella structure for both type of copolymers. The macrocycles are arranged in a layer of columns. These crystalline layers are separated by amorphous layers which contain the polymers substituents.

1-, 2- and 3-dimensional phenylene-based materials for optoelectronic applications

A series of oligo-phenylene dendronised conjugated polymers was prepared. The divergent synthetic approach adopted allowed for the facile synthesis of a range of dendronised monomers from a common intermediate, e.g. first and second generation fluorene. Only the polymerisation of the first generation and alkylarylamine substituted dendronised fluorene monomers yielded high molecular weight materials, attributed to the low solubility of the remaining dendronised monomers. The alkylarylamine substituted dendronised poly(fluorene) was incorporated into an organic light emitting diode (OLED) and exhibited an increased colour stability in air compared to other poly(fluorenes). The concept of dendronisation was extended to poly(fluorenone), a previously insoluble material. The synthesis of the first soluble poly(fluorenone) was achieved by the incorporation of oligo-phenylene dendrons at the 4-position of fluorenone. The dendronisation of fluorenone allowed for a polymer with an Mn of 4.1 x 104 gmol-1 to be prepared. Cyclic voltammetry of the dendronised poly(fluorenone) showed that the electron affinity of the polymer was high and that the polymer is a promising n-type material. A dimer and trimer of indenofluorene (IF) were prepared from the monobromo IF. These oligomers were investigated by 2-dimensional wide angle x-ray spectroscopy (2D-WAXS), polarised optical microscopy (POM) and dielectric spectroscopy, and found to form highly ordered smetic phases. By attaching perylene dye as the end-capper on the IF oligomers, molecules that exhibited efficient Förster energy transfer were obtained. Indenofluorene monoketone, a potential defect structure for IF based OLED’s, was synthesised. The synthesis of this model defect structure allowed for the long wavelength emission in OLED’s to be identified as ketone defects. The long wavelength emission from the indenofluorene monoketone was found to be concentration dependent, and suggests that aggregate formation is occurring. An IF linked hexa-peri-hexabenzocoronene (HBC) dimer was synthesised. The 2D-WAXS images of this HBC dimer demonstrate that the molecule exhibits intercolumnar organisation perpendicular to the extrusion direction. POM images of mixtures of the HBC dimer mixed with an HBC with a low isotropic temperature demonstrated that the HBC dimer is mixing with the isotropic HBC.

DNA block copolymers - synthesis, morphologies and applications

The last decades have witnessed significant and rapid progress in polymer chemistry and molecular biology. The invention of PCR and advances in automated solid phase synthesis of DNA have made this biological entity broadly available to all researchers across biological and chemical sciences. Thanks to the development of a variety of polymerization techniques, macromolecules can be synthesized with predetermined molecular weights and excellent structural control. In recent years these two exciting areas of research converged to generate a new type of nucleic acid hybrid material, consisting of oligodeoxynucleotides and organic polymers. By conjugating these two classes of materials, DNA block copolymers are generated exhibiting engineered material properties that cannot be realized with polymers or nucleic acids alone. Different synthetic strategies based on grafting onto routes in solution or on solid support were developed which afforded DNA block copolymers with hydrophilic, hydrophobic and thermoresponsive organic polymers in good yields. Beside the preparation of DNA block copolymers with a relative short DNA-segment, it was also demonstrated how these bioorganic polymers can be synthesized exhibiting large DNA blocks (>1000 bases) applying the polymerase chain reaction. Amphiphilic DNA block copolymers, which were synthesized fully automated in a DNA synthesizer, self-assemble into well-defined nanoparticles. Hybridization of spherical micelles with long DNA templates that encode several times the sequence of the micelle corona induced a transformation into rod-like micelles. The Watson-Crick motif aligned the hydrophobic polymer segments along the DNA double helix, which resulted in selective dimer formation. Even the length of the resulting nanostructures could be precisely adjusted by the number of nucleotides of the templates. In addition to changing the structural properties of DNA-b-PPO micelles, these materials were applied as 3D nanoscopic scaffolds for organic reactions. The DNA strands of the corona were organized by hydrophobic interactions of the organic polymer segments in such a fashion that several DNA-templated organic reactions proceeded in a sequence specific manner; either at the surface of the micelles or at the interface between the biological and the organic polymer blocks. The yields of reactions employing the micellar template were equivalent or better than existing template architectures. Aside from its physical properties and the morphologies achieved, an important requirement for a new biomaterial is its biocompatibility and interaction with living systems, i.e. human cells. The toxicity of the nanoparticles was analyzed by a cell proliferation assay. Motivated by the non-toxic nature of the amphiphilic DNA block copolymers, these nanoobjects were employed as drug delivery vehicles to target the anticancer drug to a tumor tissue. The micelles obtained from DNA block copolymers were easily functionalized with targeting units by hybridization. This facile route allowed studying the effect of the amount of targeting units on the targeting efficacy. By varying the site of functionalization, i.e. 5’ or 3’, the outcome of having the targeting unit at the periphery of the micelle or in the core of the micelle was studied. Additionally, these micelles were loaded with an anticancer drug, doxorubicin, and then applied to tumor cells. The viability of the cells was calculated in the presence and absence of targeting unit. It was demonstrated that the tumor cells bearing folate receptors showed a high mortality when the targeting unit was attached to the nanocarrier.

Proton-conducting copolymers, blends and composites with phosphonic acid as protogenic group

ABSTRACT: In this work, proton conducting copolymers, polymer blends and composites containing phosphonic acid groups have been prepared. Proton conduction mechanisms in these materials are discussed respectively in both, the anhydrous and humidified state. Atom transfer radical copolymerization (ATRCP) of diisopropyl-p-vinylbenzyl phosphonate (DIPVBP) and 4-vinyl pyridine (4VP) is studied for the first time in this work. The kinetic parameters are obtained by using the 1H-NMR online technique. Proton conduction in poly(vinylbenzyl phosphonic acid) (PVBPA) homopolymer and its statistical copolymers with 4-vinyl pyridine (poly(VBPA-stat-4VP)s) are comprehensively studied in both, the “dry” and “wet” state. Effects of temperature, water content and polymer composition on proton conductivities are studied and proton transport mechanisms under various conditions are discussed. The proton conductivity of the polymers is in the range of 10-6-10-8 S/cm in nominally dry state at 150 oC. However, proton conductivity of the polymers increases rapidly with water content in the polymers which can reach 10-2 S/cm at the water uptake of 25% in the polymers. The highest proton conductivity obtained from the polymers can even reach 0.3 S/cm which was measured at 85oC with 80% relative humidity in the measuring atmosphere. Poly(4-vinyl pyridine) was grafted from the surface of SiO2 nanoparticles using ATRP in this work for the first time. Following this approach, silica nanoparticles with a shell of polymeric layer are used as basic particles in a polymeric acidic matrix. The proton conductivities of the composites are studied under both, humidified and dry conditions. In dry state, the conductivity of the composites is in the range of 10-10~10-4 S/cm at 150 oC. While in humid state, the composites show much higher proton conductivity. The highest proton conductivity obtained with the composites is 0.5 S/cm measured at 85oC with 80% relative humidity in the measuring atmosphere. The miscibility of poly (vinyl phosphonic acid) and PEO is studied for the first time in this work and a phase diagram is plotted based on a DSC study and optical microscopy. With this knowledge, homogeneous PVPA/PEO mixtures are prepared as proton-conducting polymer blends. The mobility of phosphonic acid groups and PEO in the blends is determined by 1H-MAS-NMR in temperature dependent measurements. The effect of composition and the role of PEO on proton conduction are discussed.

Hyperverzweigte Lacton-Copolymere: enzymatische Synthese, Charakterisierung und Darstellung strukturierter Polymernetzwerke = (Hyperbranched lactone copolymers by enzyme catalysis: synthesis, characterization and preparation of structured polymer networks)

Hyperverzweigte Polymere erfuhren in den letzten Jahren immer mehr Beachtung, da sie im Vergleich zu ihren linearen Analoga besondere Eigenschaften besitzen. Im Jahre 2002 wurde die erste enzymkatalysierte Darstellung hyperverzweigter Poly(epsilon-caprolacton)e (hb-PCL) beschrieben. Hier ermöglichte das Konzept der konkurrierenden ringöffnenden Polymerisation und Polykondensation die Kontrolle der Eigenschaften des dargestellten Polymers. Detaillierte Untersuchungen in Hinblick auf Grenzen und Möglichkeiten, aber auch die Synthese im Technikumsmaßstab sind wesentliche Aspekte dieser Arbeit. Außerdem wird ein neues Konzept eingeführt, das Reknitting genannt wurde. Ziel desselben ist das Recycling kommerziellen, linearen PCLs mittels Umesterung zu hb-PCL durch Enzymkatalyse. Diese hb-PCLs zeigen vergleichbare Eigenschaften zu den aus den Comonomeren dargestellten. Ausgehend von hb-PCL sollte eine geeignete Route zu methacrylierten Vernetzerverbindungen entwickelt werden. Aus Mischungen derselben mit 2-Hydroxyethylmethacrylat wurden komplexe Netzwerkarchitekturen durch Copolymerisation erhalten. Diese Netzwerke wurden in Hinblick auf ihre mechanisch physikalischen Eigenschaften untersucht. Zuletzt wurden Screeningexperimente an anderen zyklischen Estern durchgeführt, da ein Transfer des oben vorgestellten Konzepts angestrebt wurde. Zwei neue hyperverzweigte Polymerklassen, hb-Poly(delta-valerolacton) und hb-Polytrimethylencarbonat wurden detaillierter untersucht und in Ihren Eigenschaften mit hb-PCL verglichen.

Solid-state NMR investigation of phosphonic acid based proton conducting materials

In this work, new promising proton conducting fuel cell membrane materials were characterized in terms of their structure and dynamic properties using solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction. Structurally different, phosphonic acid (PA) containing materials were systematically evaluated for possible high-temperature operation (e.g. at T>100°C). Notably, 1H, 2H and 31P magic angle spinning (MAS) NMR provided insight into local connectivities and dynamics of the hydrogen bonded network, while packing arrangements were identified by means of heteronuclear dipolar recoupling techniques.rnThe first part of this work introduced rather crystalline, low molecular weight ionomers for proton conducting membranes, where six different geometries such as line, triangle, screw, tetrahedron, square and hexagon, were investigated. The hexagon was identified as the most promising geometry with high-temperature bulk proton conductivities in the range of 10-3 Scm-1 at a relative humidity of 50%. However, 2H NMR and TGA-MS data suggest that the bulk proton transport is mainly due to the presence of crystal water. Single crystal X-ray data revealed that in the tetrahedron phosphonic acids form tetrameric clusters isolating the mobile protons while the phosphonic acids in the hexagon form zigzag-type pathways through the sample.rnThe second part of this work demonstrates how acid-base pairing and the choice of appropriate spacers may influence proton conduction. Different ratios of statistical copolymers of poly (vinylphosphonic acid) and poly (4-vinylpyridine) were measured to derive information about the local structure and chemical changes. Though anhydrous proton conductivities of all statistical copolymers are rather poor, the conductivity increases to 10-2 S cm-1 when exposing the sample to relative humidity of 80%. In contrast to PVPA, anhydride formation of phosphonic acids in the copolymer is not reversible even when exposing the sample to a relative humidity of 100%.rnIn addition, the influence of both spacers and degree of backbone crystallinity on bulk proton conductivity was investigated. Unlike in systems such as poly benzimidazole (PBI), spacers were inserted between the protogenic groups along the backbone. It was found that dilution of the protogenic groups decreases the conductivity, but compared to PVPA, similar apparent activation energies for local motions were obtained from both variable temperature 1H NMR and impedance spectroscopy data. These observations suggest the formation of phosphonic acid clusters with high degrees of local proton motion, where only a fraction of motions contribute to the observable bulk proton conductivity. Additionally, it was shown that gradual changes of the spacer length lead to different morphologies.rnIn summary, applying advanced solid-state NMR and X-ray analysis, structural and dynamic phenomena in proton conducting materials were identified on a molecular level. The results were discussed with respect to different proton conduction mechanisms and may contribute to a more rational design or improvement of proton conducting membranes.rn

From amphiphilic block copolymers to ferrocenyl-functionalized polymers for biosensoric applications

The present thesis can be divided in three main parts. In all parts new polymer architecturesrnwere synthesized and characterized concerning their special features.rnThe first part will emphasize the advantage of a polystyrene-block-(hyperbranchedrnpolyglycerol) copolymer in comparison to an analogue polystyrene-block-(linear polyglycerol)rncopolymer. Therefore a synthethic route to prepare linear block copolymersrnhas been developed. Two strategies were examined. One strategy was based on thernclassic, sequential anionic polymerization; the second strategy was based on arn“Click-Chemistry” coupling reaction. In a following step glycidol was hypergraftedrnfrom these block copolymers by applying a hypergrafting reaction with glycidol. Thernbehavior of the amphiphilic block copolymers synthesized was studied in differentrnsolvents. Furthermore the polarity of the solvent was changed to form the correspondingrninverse micelles. DLS, SLS, SEC-MALLS-VISCO, AFM and Cyro TEMrnmeasurements were performed to obtain a visual image from the appearance of thernaggregates. It was found that a linear-hyperbranched architecture is necessary, ifrnwell defined, monodisperse aggregates are required, e.g. for the preparation of orderedrnnanoarrays. Linear-linear block copolymers formed only polydisperse aggregates.rnAdditionally it was found that size distribution could be improved dramaticallyrnby passing the aggregates through a SEC column with large pores. The SEC columnsrnacted like a template in which the aggregates adopt a more stable conformation.rnIn the second part anionic polymerization was employed to synthesize silaneendfunctionalizedrnmacromonomers with different molecular weights based on polybutadienernand polyisoprene. These were polymerized by a hydrosilylation reaction inrnbulk to obtain branched polymers, using Karstedt’s catalyst. Surprisingly the additionrnof monofunctional silanes during the polymerization had only a minimal effect concerningrnthe degree of polymerization. It was possible to introduce silanes without increasingrnthe overall number of reaction steps by a very convenient “pseudo-copolymerization”rnmethod. All branched polymers were analyzed by SEC, SEC-MALLS,rnSEC-viscometry, 1H-NMR-spectroscopy and DSC concerning their branching ratio.rnThe branching parameters for the branched polymers exhibited similar characteristicsrnas hyperbranched polymers based on AB2 monomers. Detailed kinetic study showedrnthat the polymerization occurred very rapidly in comparison to the hydrosilylation polymerizationrnof classical AB2 type carbosilanes monomers.rnThe last part will deal with ferrocenyl-functionalized polymers. On the one hand,rnferrocenyl-functionalized polyglycerols (PG) were studied. Esterification of PGs withrndifferent molecular weight using ferrocenemonocarboxylic acid gave the ferrocenylrnfuntionalized polymers in high yields. On the other hand three different block copolymersrnwere prepared with different ratios of styrene to butadiene units (10:1, 4:1, 2:1).rnThe double bonds of the 1,2-PB block were hydrosilylated using silanes bearing onern(HSiMe2Fc) or two (HSiMeFc2) ferrocene units. High degrees of functionalizationrnwere obtained (up to 83 %). In this manner, six different ferrocenyl-rich block copolymersrnwith different fractions of ferrocene were prepared and analyzed, employingrnNMR-spectroscopy, SEC, SEC/MALLS/viscometry, DLS and cyclic voltammetry. Thernredox properties of the studied polymers varied primarily with the nature of the silanernunit attached. Additionally, the redox properties in solution of the studied polymersrnwere influenced by the block length ratio of the block copolymers. Unexpectedly, withrnincreasing block length of the ferrocenyl block the fraction of active ferrocenes decreased.rnNevertheless, in case of thin monolayer films this behaviour was not observed.rnAll polymers (PG and PS-b-PB based) exhibited good electrochemical propertiesrnin a wide range of solvents, which rendered them very interesting for biosensoricrnapplications.

Fluorenbasierende amphiphile Kammpolymere zur Ausbildung definierter Strukturen an Oberflächen und in Lösungen

Die Dissertation beschreibt die Darstellung und Charakterisierung von neuartigen, amphiphilen Carbazol- und Fluoren-(co)-polymeren, die infolge ihres strukturellen Aufbaus sowohl selbstorganisierende als auch optoelektronische Eigenschaften kombinierten. Zum einen wurden Kammpolymere mit konjugierten, steifen Rückgraten und flexiblen sowie konformativ schaltbaren Polyelektrolytseitenketten dargestellt und auf eine pH-abhängige Selbstorganisation in Lösung und an Oberflächen untersucht. Des Weiteren wurden neutrale, methanollösliche Polyfluorene synthetisiert, die in Kombination mit einem unpolaren Polyindenofluorenderivat zum Aufbau mehrschichtiger PLEDs mittels nasschemischer Verfahren eingesetzt wurden. Zum anderen fand die Synthese von amphiphilen Polyfluorenen statt, die als Emulgatoren zur Stabilisierung von inversen Emulsionen eingesetzt wurden. Dabei konnten mit Hilfe eines bereits für die Darstellung von anorganisch-organischen Kern-Schale-Partikeln etablierten in situ-Verfahrens formanisotrope, kristalline Zinkoxidkerne mit konjugierter Polymerhülle erhalten werden.

Synthetic routes toward functional block copolymers and bioconjugates via RAFT polymerization

Synthetic Routes toward Functional Block Copolymers and Bioconjugates via RAFT PolymerizationrnSynthesewege für funktionelle Blockcopolymere und Biohybride über RAFT PolymerisationrnDissertation von Dipl.-Chem. Kerstin T. WissrnIm Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden effiziente Methoden für die Funktionalisierung beider Polymerkettenenden für Polymer- und Bioanbindung von Polymeren entwickelt, die mittels „Reversible Addition-Fragmentation Chain Transfer“ (RAFT) Polymerisation hergestellt wurden. Zu diesem Zweck wurde ein Dithioester-basiertes Kettentransferagens (CTA) mit einer Aktivestereinheit in der R-Gruppe (Pentafluorphenyl-4-phenylthiocarbonylthio-4-cyanovaleriansäureester, kurz PFP-CTA) synthetisiert und seine Anwendung als universelles Werkzeug für die Funktionalisierung der -Endgruppe demonstriert. Zum Einen wurde gezeigt, wie dieser PFP-CTA als Vorläufer für die Synthese anderer funktioneller CTAs durch einfache Aminolyse des Aktivesters genutzt werden kann und somit den synthetischen Aufwand, der üblicherweise mit der Entwicklung neuer CTAs verbunden ist, reduzieren kann. Zum Anderen konnte der PFP-CTA für die Synthese verschiedener Poly(methacrylate) mit enger Molekulargewichtsverteilung und wohl definierter reaktiver -Endgruppe verwendet werden. Dieses Kettenende konnte dann erfolgreich mit verschiedenen primären Aminen wie Propargylamin, 1-Azido-3-aminopropan und Ethylendiamin oder direkt mit den Amin-Endgruppen verschiedener Peptide umgesetzt werden.rnAus der Reaktion des PFP-CTAs mit Propargylamin wurde ein Alkin-CTA erhalten, der sich als effizientes Werkzeug für die RAFT Polymerisation verschiedener Methacrylate erwiesen hat. Der Einbau der Alkin-Funktion am -Kettenende wurde mittels 1H und 13C NMR Spektroskopie sowie MALDI TOF Massenspektroskopie bestätigt. Als Modelreaktion wurde die Kopplung eines solchen alkin-terminierten Poly(di(ethylenglykol)methylethermethacrylates) (PDEGMEMA) mit azid-terminiertem Poly(tert-butylmethacrylat), das mittels Umsetzung einer Aktivester-Endgruppe erhalten wurde, als kupferkatalysierte Azid-Alkin-Cycloaddition (CuAAC) durchgeführt. Die Aufarbeitung des resultierenden Diblockcopolymers durch Fällen ermöglichte die vollständige Abtrennung des Polymerblocks 1, der im Überschuss eingesetzt wurde. Darüber hinaus blieb nur ein sehr kleiner Anteil (< 2 Gew.-%) nicht umgesetzten Polymerblocks 2, was eine erfolgreiche Polymeranbindung und die Effizienz der Endgruppen-Funktionalisierung ausgehend von der Aktivester--Endgruppe belegt.rnDie direkte Reaktion von stimuli-responsiven Polymeren mit Pentafluorphenyl(PFP)ester-Endgruppen, namentlich PDEGMEMA und Poly(oligo(ethylenglykol)methylethermethacrylat), mit kollagen-ähnlichen Peptiden ergab wohl definierte Polymer-Peptid-Diblockcopolymere und Polymer-Peptid-Polymer-Triblockcopolymer unter nahezu quantitativer Umsetzung der Endgruppen. Alle Produkte konnten vollständig von nicht umgesetztem Überschuss des Homopolymers befreit werden. In Analogie zu natürlichem Kollagen und dem nicht funktionalisierten kollagen-ähnlichen Peptid bilden die PDEGMEMA-basierten, entschützten Hybridcopolymere Trimere mit kollagen-ähnlichen Triple-Helices in kalter wässriger Lösung, was mittels Zirkular-Dichroismus-Spektroskopie (CD) nachgewiesen werden konnte. Temperaturabhängige CD-Spektroskopie, Trübungsmessungen und dynamische Lichtstreuung deuteten darauf hin, dass sie bei höheren Temperaturen doppelt stimuli-responsive Überstrukturen bilden, die mindestens zwei konformative Übergänge beim Aufheizen durchlaufen. Einer dieser Übergänge wird durch den hydrophoben Kollaps des Polymerblocks induziert, der andere durch Entfalten der kollagen-ähnlichen Triple-Helices.rnAls Ausweitung dieser synthetischen Strategie wurde homotelecheles PDEGMEMA mit zwei PFP-Esterendgruppen dargestellt, wozu der PFP-CTA für die Funktionalisierung der -Endgruppe und die radikalische Substitution des Dithioesters durch Behandlung mit einem Überschuss eines funktionellen AIBN-Derivates für die Funktionalisierung der -Endgruppe ausgenutzt wurde. Die Umsetzung der beiden reaktiven Kettenenden mit dem N-Terminus eines Peptidblocks ergab ein Peptid-Polymer-Peptid Triblockcopolymer.rnSchließlich konnten die anorganisch-organischen Hybridmaterialien PMSSQ-Poly(2,2-diethoxyethylacrylat) (PMSSQ-PDEEA) und PMSSQ-Poly(1,3-dioxolan-2-ylmethylacrylat) (PMSSQ-PDMA) für die Herstellung robuster, peptid-reaktiver Oberflächen durch Spin Coaten und thermisch induziertes Vernetzen angewendet werden. Nach saurem Entschützen der Acetalgruppen in diesen Filmen konnten die resultierenden Aldehydgruppen durch einfaches Eintauchen in eine Lösung mit einer Auswahl von Aminen und Hydroxylaminen umgesetzt werden, wodurch die Oberflächenhydrophilie modifiziert werden konnte. Darüber hinaus konnten auf Basis der unterschiedlichen Stabilität der zwei hier verglichenen Acetalgruppen Entschützungsprotokolle für die exklusive Entschützung der Diethylacetale in PMSSQ-PDEEA und deren Umsetzung ohne Entschützung der zyklischen Ethylenacetale in PMSSQ-PDMA entwickelt werden, die die Herstellung multifunktioneller Oberflächenbeschichtungen z.B. für die Proteinimmobilisierung ermöglichen.

Functional polymer based nanoparticles : development of defined complex structures as basis for in-vitro and in-vivo applications

In Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde ein neuartiger Zugang zu einer Vielzahl von Polymerstrukturen auf Basis des klinisch zugelassenen Polymers Poly(N-(2-Hydroxypropyl)-methacrylamide) (PHPMA) entwickelt. Der synthetische Zugang beruht zum einen auf der Verwendung von Reaktivesterpolymeren und zum anderen auf der Reversible Addition Fragmentation Chain Transfer (RAFT) Polymerisationsmethode. Diese Form einer kontrollierten radikalischen Polymerisation ermöglichte es, neben der Synthese von besser definierten Homopolymeren auch statistische und Blockcopolymere herzustellen. Die Reaktivesterpolymere können durch einfache Aminolyse in HPMA-basierte Systeme überführt werden. Somit können sie als eine vielversprechende Basis zur Synthese von umfangreichen Polymerbibliotheken angesehen werden. Die hergestellten Polymere kombinieren verschiedene Funktionalitäten bei konstantem Polymerisationsgrad. Dies ermöglicht eine Optimierung auf eine gezielte Anwendung hin ohne den Parameter der Kettenlänge zu verändern.rnIm weiteren war es durch Verwendung der RAFT Polymerisation möglich partiell bioabbaubare Blockcopolymere auf Basis von Polylactiden und HPMA herzustellen, in dem ein Kettentransferreagenz (CTA) an ein wohl definiertes Polylactid Homopolymer gekoppelt wurde. Diese Strukturen wurden in ihrer Zusammensetzung variiert und mit Erkennungsstrukturen (Folaten) und markierenden Elementen (Fluoreszenzfarbstoffe und +-emittierenden Radionukleide) versehen und im weiteren in vitro und in vivo evaluiert.rnAuf Grund dieser Errungenschaften war es möglich den Einfluss der Polymermikrostruktur auf das Aggregationsverhalten hin mittel Lichtstreuung und Fluoreszenzkorrelationsspektroskopie zu untersuchen. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass erst diese Informationen über die Überstrukturbildung die Kinetik der Zellaufnahme erklären können. Somit wurde die wichtige Rolle von Strukturwirkungsbeziehungen nachgewiesen.rnSomit konnte neben der Synthese, Charakterisierung und ersten biologischen Evaluierungen ein Beitrag zum besseres Verständnis zur Interaktion von polymeren Partikeln mit biologischen Systemen geleistet werden.

Poly(lactide): from hyperbranched copolyesters to new block copolymers with functional methacrylates

The prologue of this thesis (Chapter 1.0) gives a general overview on lactone based poly(ester) chemistry with a focus on advanced synthetic strategies for ring-opening polymerization, including the emerging field of organo catalysis. This section is followed by a presentation of the state-of the art regarding the two central fields of the thesis: (i) polyfunctional and branched poly(ester)s in Chapter 1.1 as well as (ii) the development of new poly(ester) based block copolymers with functional methacrylates (Chapter 1.2). Chapter 2 deals with the synthesis of new, non-linear poly(ester) structures. In Chapter 2.1, the synthesis of poly(lactide)-based multiarm stars, prepared via a grafting-from method, is described. The hyperbranched poly(ether)-poly(ol) poly(glycerol) is employed as a hydrophilic core molecule. The resulting star block copolymers exhibit potential as phase transfer agents and can stabilize hydrophilic dyes in a hydrophobic environment. In Chapter 2.2, this approach is expanded to poly(glycolide) multiarm star polymers. The problem of the poor solubility of linear poly(glycolide)s in common organic solvents combined with an improvement of the thermal properties has been approached by the reduction of the total chain length. In Chapter 2.3, the first successful synthesis of hyperbranched poly(lactide)s is presented. The ring-opening, multibranching copolymerization of lactide with the “inimer” 5HDON (a hydroxyl-functional lactone monomer) was carefully examined. Besides a precise molecular characterization involving the determination of the degree of branching, we were able to put forward a reaction model for the formation of branching during polymerization. Several innovative approaches to amphiphilic poly(ester)/poly(methacrylate)-based block copolymers are presented in the third part of the thesis (Chapter 3). Block copolymer build-up especially relies on the combination of ring-opening and living radical polymerization. Atom transfer radical polymerization has been successfully combined with lactide ring-opening, using a “double headed” initiator. This strategy allowed for the realization of poly(lactide)-block-poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) copolymers, which represent promising materials for tissue engineering scaffolds with anti-fouling properties (Chapter 3.1). The two-step/one-pot approach forgoes the use of protecting groups for HEMA by a careful selection of the reaction conditions. A series of potentially biocompatible and partially biodegradable homo- and block copolymers is described in Chapter 3.2. In order to create a block copolymer with a comparably strong hydrophilic character, a new acetal-protected glycerol monomethacrylate monomer (cis-1,3- benzylidene glycerol methacrylate/BGMA) was designed. The hydrophobic poly(BGMA) could be readily transformed into the hydrophilic and water-soluble poly(iso-glycerol methacrylate) (PIGMA) by mild acidic hydrolysis. Block copolymers of PIGMA and poly(lactide) exhibited interesting spherical aggregates in aqueous environment which could be significantly influenced by variation of the poly(lactide)s stereo-structure. In Chapter 3.3, pH-sensitive poly(ethylene glycol)-b-PBGMA copolymers are described. At slightly acidic pH values (pH 4/37°C), they decompose due to a polarity change of the BGMA block caused by progressing acetal cleavage. This stimuli-responsive behavior renders the system highly attractive for the targeted delivery of anti-cancer drugs. In Chapter 3.4, which was realized in cooperation, the concept of biocompatible, amphiphilic poly(lactide) based polymer drug conjugates, was pursued. This was accomplished in the form of fluorescently labeled poly(HPMA)-b-poly(lactide) copolymers. Fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) of partially biodegradable block copolymer aggregates exhibited fast cellular uptake by human cervix adenocarcinoma cells without showing toxic effects in the examined concentration range (Chapter 4.1). The current state of further projects which will be pursued in future studies is addressed in Chapter 4. This covers the synthesis of biocompatible star block copolymers (Chapter 4.2) and the development of new methacrylate monomers for biomedical applications (Chapters 4.3 and 4.4). Finally, the further investigation of hydroxyl-functional lactones and carbonates which are promising candidates for the synthesis of new hydrophilic linear or hyperbranched biopolymers, is addressed in Chapter 4.5.

Computer simulation of rod-coil block copolymers and tetrapod,polymer mixtures

In this thesis I present a new coarse-grained model suitable to investigate the phase behavior of rod-coil block copolymers on mesoscopic length scales. In this model the rods are represented by hard spherocylinders, whereas the coil block consists of interconnected beads. The interactions between the constituents are based on local densities. This facilitates an efficient Monte-Carlo sampling of the phase space. I verify the applicability of the model and the simulation approach by means of several examples. I treat pure rod systems and mixtures of rod and coil polymers. Then I append coils to the rods and investigate the role of the different model parameters. Furthermore, I compare different implementations of the model. I prove the capability of the rod-coil block copolymers in our model to exhibit typical micro-phase separated configurations as well as extraordinary phases, such as the wavy lamellar state, percolating structuresrnand clusters. Additionally, I demonstrate the metastability of the observed zigzag phase in our model. A central point of this thesis is the examination of the phase behavior of the rod-coil block copolymers in dependence of different chain lengths and interaction strengths between rods and coil. The observations of these studies are summarized in a phase diagram for rod-coil block copolymers. Furthermore, I validate a stabilization of the smectic phase with increasing coil fraction.rnIn the second part of this work I present a side project in which I derive a model permitting the simulation of tetrapods with and without grafted semiconducting block copolymers. The effect of these polymers is added in an implicit manner by effective interactions between the tetrapods. While the depletion interaction is described in an approximate manner within the Asakura-Oosawa model, the free energy penalty for the brush compression is calculated within the Alexander-de Gennes model. Recent experiments with CdSe tetrapods show that grafted tetrapods are clearly much better dispersed in the polymer matrix than bare tetrapods. My simulations confirm that bare tetrapods tend to aggregate in the matrix of excess polymers, while clustering is significantly reduced after grafting polymer chains to the tetrapods. Finally, I propose a possible extension enabling the simulation of a system with fluctuating volume and demonstrate its basic functionality. This study is originated in a cooperation with an experimental group with the goal to analyze the morphology of these systems in order to find the ideal morphology for hybrid solar cells.