Cellulose based Lithium ion polymer electrolytes for Lithium batteries

The separator membrane in batteries and fuel cells is of crucial importance for the function of these devices. In lithium ion batteries the separator membrane as well as the polymer matrix of the electrodes consists of polymer electrolytes which are lithium ion conductors. To overcome the disadvantage of currently used polymer electrolytes which are highly swollen with liquids and thus mechanically and electrochemically unstable, the goal of this work is a new generation of solid polymer electrolytes with a rigid backbone and a soft side chain structure. Moreover the novel material should be based on cheap substrates and its synthesis should not be complicated aiming at low overall costs. The new materials are based on hydroxypropylcellulose and oligoethyleneoxide derivatives as starting materials. The grafting of the oligoethyleneoxide side chains onto the cellulose was carried out following two synthetic methods. One is based on a bromide derivative and another based on p-toluolsulfonyl as a leaving group. The side chain reagents were prepared form tri(ethylene glycol) monoethyl ether. In order to improve the mechanical properties the materials were crosslinked. Two different conceptions have been engaged based on either urethane chemistry or photosensitive dimethyl-maleinimide derivatives. PEO - graft - cellulose derivatives with a high degree of substitution between 2,9 and 3,0 were blended with lithium trifluoromethane-sulfonate, lithium bis(trifluorosulfone)imide and lithium tetrafluoroborate. The molar ratios were in the range from 0,02 to 0,2 [Li]/[O]. The products have been characterized with nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), gel permeation chromatography (GPC) and laserlight scattering (LS) with respect to their degree of substitution and molecular weight. The effect of salt concentration on ionic conductivity, thermal behaviour and morphology has been investiga-ted with impedance spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA). The crosslinking reactions were controlled with dynamic mechanical analysis (DMS). The degree of substitution of our products is varying between 2,8 and 3,0 as determined by NMR. PEO - graft - cellulose derivatives are highly viscous liquids at room temperature with glass transition temperatures around 215 K. The glass transition temperature for the Lithium salt complexes of PEO - graft - cellulose deri-vatives increase with increasing salt content. The maximum conductivity at room temperature is about 10-4 and at 100°C around 10-3 Scm-1. The presence of lithium salt decreases the thermal stability of the complexes in comparison to pure PEO - graft - cellulose derivatives. Complexes heated over 140 – 150°C completely lose their ionic conductivity. The temperature dependence of the conductivity presented as Arrhenius-type plots for all samples is similar in shape and follows a VTF behaviour. This proofs that the ionic transport is closely related to the segmental motions of the polymer chains. Novel cellulose derivatives with grafted oligoethylen-oxide side chains with well-defined chemical structure and high side chain grafting density have been synthesized. Cellulose was chosen as stiff, rod like macromolecule for the backbone while oligoethylen-oxides are chosen as flexible side chains. A maximum grafting density of 3.0 have been obtained. The best conductivity reaches 10-3 Scm-1 at 100°C for a Li-triflate salt complex with a [Li]/[O] ratio of 0.8. The cross-linked complexes containing the lithium salts form elastomeric films with convenient mechanical stability. Our method of cellulose modification is based on relatively cheap and commercially available substrates and as such appears to be a promising alternative for industrial applications.

Synthesis and characterization of novel poly(imino ketone)s via palladium-catalyzed aryl amination

The challenge of the present work was to synthesize and to characterize new classes of N-containing polymers via palladium-catalyzed aryl amination. This work was inspired by a desire to combine the properties of high-performance polymers such as PEKs with those of N-containing conductive polymers such as polyaniline (PANI), poly(aromatic amides) (PAAs), and the ready synthesis of N-containing simple aromatic compound by the Buchwald-Hartwig reaction. Careful investigation of a model reaction was carried out to provide insights into the formation of side products which will have a negative effect upon the molecular weight or upon the materials properties of the desired polymers in the polycondensation reaction. In this thesis, five new different polymer classes namely, poly(imino ketone)s (PIKs), poly(imino acridine)s (PIAcs), poly(imino azobenzene)s (PIAzos), poly(imino fluorenone)s (PIFOs), and poly(imino carbazole)s (PICs) were synthesized and fully characterized by means of 1H-NMR, elemental analysis, UV, FT-IR, X-ray, GPC, TGA, DSC, DMA, and dielectric spectroscopy. To optimize the polycondensation process, the influence of the concentration, temperature, ligands and the reactivity of the halogen containing monomers were investigated. A temperature of 100-165 °C and a concentration of 30-36 % were found to be optimal for the palladium-catalyzed polycondensation to produce polymer with high molecular weight (Mn = 85 900, Mw = 474 500, DP = 126). Four different ligands were used successfully in the Pd-catalyzed process, of which the Pd/BINAP system was found to be the most effective catalyst, producing the highest yield and highest molecular weight polymers. It was found that the reactivity decreases strongly with increasing electronegativity of the halogen atoms, for example better yields, and higher molecular weights were obtained by using dibromo compounds than dichloro compounds while difluoro compounds were totally unreactive. Polymer analogous transformations, such as the protonation reaction of the ring nitrogens in PIAcs, or of the azobenzene groups of PIAzos, the photo and thermal cis-trans-isomerization of PIAzos, and of poly(imino alcohol)s were also studied. The values of the dielectric constants of PIKs at 1 MHz were in the range 2.71-3.08. These low values of the dielectric constant are lower than that of "H Film", a polyimide Kapton film which is one of the most preferred high-performance dielectrics in microelectronic applications having a dielectric constant of 3.5. In addition to the low values of the dielectric constants, PIKs have lower and glass transition temperatures (Tgs) than arimides such as Kapton which may make them more easily processable. Cyclic voltammetry showed that PICs exhibited low oxidation and reduction potentials and their values were shifted to low values with increasing degree of polymerization i.e. with increasing of the carbazole content in backbone of PICs (PIC-7, 0.44, 0.33 V, DP= 37, PIC-5, 0.63, 0.46, DP= 16, respectively).

Strukturfaktoren, Modenkopplungsgleichungen und Glasübergang molekularer Kristalle

In dieser Arbeit wird der Orientierungsglasübergang ungeordneter, molekularer Kristalle untersucht. Die theoretische Behandlung ist durch die Anisotropie der Einteilchen-Verteilungsfunktion und der Paarfunktionen erschwert. Nimmt man ein starres Gitter, wird der reziproke Raum im Gegenzug auf die 1. Brillouin-Zone eingeschränkt. Der Orientierungsglasübergang wird im Rahmen der Modenkopplungsgleichungen studiert, die dazu hergeleitet werden. Als Modell dienen harte Rotationsellipsoide auf einem starren sc Gitter. Zur Berechnung der statischen tensoriellen Strukturfaktoren wird die Ornstein-Zernike(OZ)-Gleichung molekularer Kristalle abgeleitet und selbstkonsistent zusammen mit der von molekularen Flüssigkeiten übernommenen Percus-Yevick(PY)-Näherung gelöst. Parallel dazu werden die Strukturfaktoren durch MC-Simulationen ermittelt. Die OZ-Gleichung molekularer Kristalle ähnelt der von Flüssigkeiten, direkte und totale Korrelationsfunktion kommen jedoch wegen des starren Gitters nur ohne Konstantanteile in den Winkelvariablen vor, im Gegensatz zur PY-Näherung. Die Anisotropie bringt außerdem einen nichttrivialen Zusatzfaktor. OZ/PY-Strukturfaktoren und MC-Ergebnisse stimmen gut überein. Bei den Matrixelementen der Dichte-Dichte-Korrelationsfunktion gibt es drei Hauptverläufe: oszillatorisch, monoton und unregelmäßig abfallend. Oszillationen gehören zu alternierenden Dichtefluktuationen, führen zu Maxima der Strukturfaktoren am Zonenrand und kommen bei oblaten und genügend breiten prolaten, schwächer auch bei dünnen, nicht zu langen prolaten Ellipsoiden vor. Der exponentielle monotone Abfall kommt bei allen Ellipsoiden vor und führt zu Maxima der Strukturfaktoren in der Zonenmitte, was die Tendenz zu nematischer Ordnung zeigt. Die OZ/PY-Theorie ist durch divergierende Maxima der Strukturfaktoren begrenzt. Bei den Modenkopplungsgleichungen molekularer Kristalle zeigt sich eine große Ähnlichkeit mit denen molekularer Flüssigkeiten, jedoch spielen auf einem starrem Gitter nur die Matrixelemente mit l,l' > 0 eine Rolle und es finden Umklapps von reziproken Vektoren statt. Die Anisotropie bringt auch hier nichtkonstante Zusatzfaktoren ins Spiel. Bis auf flache oblate Ellipsoide wird die Modenkopplungs-Glaslinie von der Divergenz der Strukturfaktoren bestimmt. Für sehr lange Ellipsoide müssen die Strukturfaktoren zur Divergenz hin extrapoliert werden. Daher treibt nicht der Orientierungskäfigeffekt den Glasübergang, sondern Fluktuationen an einer Phasengrenze. Nahe der Kugelform ist keine zuverlässige Glasline festlegbar. Die eingefrorenen kritischen Dichte-Dichte-Korrelatoren haben nur in wenigen Fällen die Oszillationen der statischen Korrelatoren. Der monotone Abfall bleibt dagegen für lange Zeiten meist erhalten. Folglich haben die kritischen Modenkopplungs-Nichtergodizitätsparameter abgeschwächte Maxima in der Zonenmitte, während die Maxima am Zonenrand meist verschwunden sind. Die normierten Nichtergodizitätsparameter zeigen eine Fülle von Verläufen, besonders tiefer im Glas.

Theoretical investigation of the interaction of a polymer film with a nanoparticle

The fundamental aim in our investigation of the interaction of a polymer film with a nanoparticle is the extraction of information on the dynamics of the liquid using a single tracking particle. In this work two theoretical methods were used: one passive, where the motion of the particle measures the dynamics of the liquid, one active, where perturbations in the system are introduced through the particle. In the first part of this investigation a thin polymeric film on a substrate is studied using molecular dynamics simulations. The polymer is modeled via a 'bead spring' model. The particle is spheric and non structured and is able to interact with the monomers via a Lennard Jones potential. The system is micro-canonical and simulations were performed for average temperatures between the glass transition temperature of the film and its dewetting temperature. It is shown that the stability of the nanoparticle on the polymer film in the absence of gravity depends strongly on the form of the chosen interaction potential between nanoparticle and polymer. The relative position of the tracking particle to the liquid vapor interface of the polymer film shows the glass transition of the latter. The velocity correlation function and the mean square displacement of the particle has shown that it is caged when the temperature is close to the glass transition temperature. The analysis of the dynamics at long times shows the coupling of the nanoparticle to the center of mass of the polymer chains. The use of the Stokes-Einstein formula, which relates the diffusion coefficient to the viscosity, permits to use the nanoparticle as a probe for the determination of the bulk viscosity of the melt, the so called 'microrheology'. It is shown that for low frequencies the result obtained using microrheology coincides with the results of the Rouse model applied to the polymer dynamics. In the second part of this investigation the equations of Linear Hydrodynamics are solved for a nanoparticle oscillating above the film. It is shown that compressible liquids have mechanical response to external perturbations induced with the nanoparticle. These solutions show strong velocity and pressure profiles of the liquid near the interface, as well as a mechanical response of the liquid-vapor interface. The results obtained with this calculations can be employed for the interpretation of experimental results of non contact AFM microscopy

New proton conducting membranes for fuel cell applications

In order to synthesize proton-conducting materials which retain acids in the membrane during fuel cell operating conditions, the synthesis of poly(vinylphosphonic acid) grafted polybenzimidazole (PVPA grafted PBI) and the fabrication of multilayer membranes are mainly focussed in this dissertation. Synthesis of PVPA grafted PBI membrane can be done according to "grafting through" method. In "grafting through" method (or macromonomer method), monomer (e.g., vinylphosphonic acid) is radically copolymerized with olefin group attached macromonomer (e.g., allyl grafted PBI and vinylbenzyl grafted PBI). This approach is inherently limited to synthesize graft-copolymer with well-defined architectural and structural parameters. The incorporation of poly(vinylphosphonic acid) into PBI lead to improvements in proton conductivity up to 10-2 S/cm. Regarding multilayer membranes, the proton conducting layer-by-layer (LBL) assembly of polymers by various strong acids such as poly(vinylphosphonic acid), poly(vinylsulfonic acid) and poly(styrenesulfonic acid) paired with basic polymers such as poly(4-vinylimidazole) and poly(benzimidazole), which are appropriate for ‘Proton Exchange Membranes for Fuel Cell’ applications have been described. Proton conductivity increases with increasing smoothness of the film and the maximum measured conductivity was 10-4 S/cm at 25°C. Recently, anhydrous proton-conducting membranes with flexible structural backbones, which show proton-conducting properties comparable to Nafion have been focus of current research. The flexible backbone of polymer chains allow for a high segmental mobility and thus, a sufficiently low glass transition temperature (Tg), which is an essential factor to reach highly conductive systems. Among the polymers with a flexible chain backbone, poly(vinylphosphonic acid), poly(vinylbenzylphosphonic acid), poly(2-vinylbenzimidazole), poly(4-styrenesulfonic acid), poly(4-vinylimidazole), poly(4-vinylimidazole-co-vinylphosphonic acid) and poly(4-vinylimidazole-co-4-styrenesulfonic acid) are interesting materials for fuel cell applications. Synthesis of polybenzimidazole with anthracene structural unit was carried out in order to avoid modification reaction in the imidazole ring, because anthracene would encourage the modification reaction with an olefin by Diels-Alder reaction.

Spin-crossover in metallomesogens of iron(II)

Covalent grafting mesogenic groups to the coordination cores of the parent mononuclear low-spin and spin-crossover compounds afforded metallomesogenic complexes of iron(II). In comparison with the parent complexes the spin-crossover properties of the alkylated derivatives are substantially modified. The type of the modification was found to be dependent on the properties of the parent system and the nature of the used anion, however, the general tendency is the destabilization of the low-spin state at the favor of spin-crossover or high-spin behavior below 400 K. The structural insight revealed the micro-segregated layered organization. The effect of the alkylation of the parent compounds consists first of all in the change of the lattice to a two-dimensional lamellar one retaining significant intermolecular contacts only within the ionic bilayers. The comprehensive analysis of the structural and thermodynamic data in the homologous series pointed at the mechanism of the interplay between the structural modification on melting and the induced anomalous change of the magnetic properties. A family of one-dimensional spin-crossover polymers was synthesized and characterized using a series of spectroscopic methods, X-ray powder diffraction, magnetic susceptibility measurements and differential scanning calorimetry. The copper analogue of was also synthesized and its crystal structure solved. In comparison with the mononuclear systems, the polymeric mesogens of iron(II) are less sensitive to the glass transition, which was attributed to the moderate concomitant variation of the structure. Nevertheless, the observed increase of the magnetic hysteresis with lengthening of the alkyl substituents was ascribed to the interplay of the structural reorganization of the coordination core due to spin-crossover with the structural delay in the spatial reorganization of the mesogenic substituents. The classification of mononuclear and polymeric metallomesogens according to the interactions between the structural- and the spin-transition and analysis of the data on the reported spin-crossover metallomesogens led to the separation of three types, namely: Type i: systems with coupling between the electronic structure of the iron(II) ions and the mesomorphic behavior of the substance; Type ii: systems where both transitions coexist in the same temperature region but are not coupled due to competition with the dehydration or due to negligible structural transformation; Type iii: systems where both transitions occur in different temperature regions and therefore are uncoupled. Fine-tuning, in particular regarding the temperature at which the spin-transition occurs with hysteresis properties responsible for the memory effect, are still a major challenge towards practical implementation of spin-crossover materials. A possible answer to the problem could be materials in which the spin-crossover transition is coupled with another transition easily controllable by external stimuli. In the present thesis we have shown the viability of the approach realized in the mesogenic systems with coupled phase- and spin-transitions.

Generierung leicht dispergierbarer Inhalationspulver mittels Sprühtrocknung

Das Ziel dieser Arbeit besteht darin, die Möglichkeiten der Sprühtrocknung für die Generierung von Inhalationspulvern zur Therapie von Lungenkrankheiten zu nutzen. Die Erzeugung von physikalisch stabilen und leicht dispergierbaren Partikeln steht hierbei im Vordergrund. Aufgrund von physiko-chemischen Untersuchungen (Glasübergangstemperatur, Fragilität, Relaxationsverhalten, Hygroskopizität) unterschiedlicher amorpher Hilfsstoffe (Lactose, Raffinose, Dextrane, Cyclodextrine) ist für Hydroxypropyl-β-Cyclodextrin das größte Potential für die Stabilisierung eines Wirkstoffes innerhalb einer amorphen Matrix erkennbar. Sprühgetrocknete Partikel weisen im Vergleich zu strahlgemahlenen Partikeln günstigere Dispergier- und Depositionseigenschaften auf. Dies ist vorrangig auf größere Berührungsflächen zwischen strahlgemahlenen Partikeln zurückzuführen. Kugelförmige sprühgetrocknete Partikel besitzen dagegen aufgrund einer punktförmigen Berührung geringere Haftkräfte. Versuche mit unterschiedlich stark gefalteten Partikeloberflächen weisen auf geringere Haftkräfte hin, wenn sich die Partikel an Stellen geringerer Krümmungsradien berühren. Dispergierversuche in einer definierten Rohrströmung (Deagglomerator) lassen auf einen kaskadenartigen Agglomeratzerfall schließen. Durch Sprüheinbettung unterschiedlicher Modellwirkstoffe (Salbutamolsulfat, Ipratropiumbromid, Budesonid) in Hydroxypropyl-β-Cyclodextrin konnten sowohl Einzelformulierungen als auch eine Kombinationsformulierung mit allen drei Wirkstoffen erzeugt werden. Diese weisen bei einem Wirkstoffgehalt bis max. 14% selbst nach vierwöchiger Offenlagerung bei 40°C und 75% r.F. keine bzw. nur geringfügige Veränderungen in der „Fine Particle Dose“ (FPD) auf. Die „Fine Particle Fraction“ (FPF) liegt bei diesen Formulierungen im Bereich von 40% bis 75%. In Verbindung mit einem geeigneten Pack- bzw. Trockenmittel, ist hierbei mit einer physikalischen Stabilität zu rechnen, die eine sinnvolle Produktlaufzeit eines Inhalationspulvers ermöglicht. Formulierungen mit höheren Wirkstoffkonzentrationen zeigen dagegen stärkere Veränderungen nach Stresslagerung. Als Beispiel einer kristallinen Sprühtrocknungsformulierung konnte ein Pulver bestehend aus Mannitol und Budesonid erzeugt werden.

Dynamics, rheology and critical properties of colloidal fluid mixtures

Liquids under the influence of external fields exhibit a wide range of intriguing phenomena that can be markedly different from the behaviour of a quiescent system. This work considers two different systems — a glassforming Yukawa system and a colloid-polymer mixture — by Molecular Dynamics (MD) computer simulations coupled to dissipative particle dynamics. The former consists of a 50-50 binary mixture of differently-sized, like-charged colloids interacting via a screened Coulomb (Yukawa) potential. Near the glass transition the influence of an external shear field is studied. In particular, the transition from elastic response to plastic flow is of interest. At first, this model is characterised in equilibrium. Upon decreasing temperature it exhibits the typical dynamics of glassforming liquids, i.e. the structural relaxation time τα grows strongly in a rather small temperature range. This is discussed with respect to the mode-coupling theory of the glass transition (MCT). For the simulation of bulk systems under shear, Lees-Edwards boundary conditions are applied. At constant shear rates γ˙ ≫ 1/τα the relevant time scale is given by 1/γ˙ and the system shows shear thinning behaviour. In order to understand the pronounced differences between a quiescent system and a system under shear, the response to a suddenly commencing or terminating shear flow is studied. After the switch-on of the shear field the shear stress shows an overshoot, marking the transition from elastic to plastic deformation, which is connected to a super-diffusive increase of the mean squared displacement. Since the average static structure only depends on the value of the shear stress, it does not discriminate between those two regimes. The distribution of local stresses, in contrast, becomes broader as soon as the system starts flowing. After a switch-off of the shear field, these additional fluctuations are responsible for the fast decay of stresses, which occurs on a time scale 1/γ˙ . The stress decay after a switch-off in the elastic regime, on the other hand, happens on the much larger time scale of structural relaxation τα. While stresses decrease to zero after a switch-off for temperatures above the glass transition, they decay to a finite value for lower temperatures. The obtained results are important for advancing new theoretical approaches in the framework of mode-coupling theory. Furthermore, they suggest new experimental investigations on colloidal systems. The colloid-polymer mixture is studied in the context of the behaviour near the critical point of phase separation. For the MD simulations a new effective model with soft interaction potentials is introduced and its phase diagram is presented. Here, mainly the equilibrium properties of this model are characterised. While the self-diffusion constants of colloids and polymers do not change strongly when the critical point is approached, critical slowing down of interdiffusion is observed. The order parameter fluctuations can be determined through the long-wavelength limit of static structure factors. For this strongly asymmetric mixture it is shown how the relevant structure factor can be extracted by a diagonalisation of a matrix that contains the partial static structure factors. By presenting first results of this model under shear it is demonstrated that it is suitable for non-equilibrium simulations as well.

Crystal phases and glassy dynamics in monodisperse hard ellipsoids

We have performed Monte Carlo and molecular dynamics simulations of suspensions of monodisperse, hard ellipsoids of revolution. Hard-particle models play a key role in statistical mechanics. They are conceptually and computationally simple, and they offer insight into systems in which particle shape is important, including atomic, molecular, colloidal, and granular systems. In the high density phase diagram of prolate hard ellipsoids we have found a new crystal, which is more stable than the stretched FCC structure proposed previously . The new phase, SM2, has a simple monoclinic unit cell containing a basis of two ellipsoids with unequal orientations. The angle of inclination is very soft for length-to-width (aspect) ratio l/w=3, while the other angles are not. A symmetric state of the unit cell exists, related to the densest-known packings of ellipsoids; it is not always the stable one. Our results remove the stretched FCC structure for aspect ratio l/w=3 from the phase diagram of hard, uni-axial ellipsoids. We provide evidence that this holds between aspect ratios 3 and 6, and possibly beyond. Finally, ellipsoids in SM2 at l/w=1.55 exhibit end-over-end flipping, warranting studies of the cross-over to where this dynamics is not possible. Secondly, we studied the dynamics of nearly spherical ellipsoids. In equilibrium, they show a first-order transition from an isotropic phase to a rotator phase, where positions are crystalline but orientations are free. When over-compressing the isotropic phase into the rotator regime, we observed super-Arrhenius slowing down of diffusion and relaxation, and signatures of the cage effect. These features of glassy dynamics are sufficiently strong that asymptotic scaling laws of the Mode-Coupling Theory of the glass transition (MCT) could be tested, and were found to apply. We found strong coupling of positional and orientational degrees of freedom, leading to a common value for the MCT glass-transition volume fraction. Flipping modes were not slowed down significantly. We demonstrated that the results are independent of simulation method, as predicted by MCT. Further, we determined that even intra-cage motion is cooperative. We confirmed the presence of dynamical heterogeneities associated with the cage effect. The transit between cages was seen to occur on short time scales, compared to the time spent in cages; but the transit was shown not to involve displacements distinguishable in character from intra-cage motion. The presence of glassy dynamics was predicted by molecular MCT (MMCT). However, as MMCT disregards crystallization, a test by simulation was required. Glassy dynamics is unusual in monodisperse systems. Crystallization typically intervenes unless polydispersity, network-forming bonds or other asymmetries are introduced. We argue that particle anisometry acts as a sufficient source of disorder to prevent crystallization. This sheds new light on the question of which ingredients are required for glass formation.

Ionenleitfähigkeit in polymeren Matrizes – Synthese, Charakterisierung und Untersuchung dynamischer Prozesse von neuen Lithium- und Protonenleitern

Die vorliegende Dissertation befasst sich mit der Synthese, physikochemischen und polymerspezifischen Charakterisierung und insbesondere der impedanzspektroskopischen Untersuchung von sowohl neuartigen, solvensfreien lithiumionen- als auch protonenleitfähigen Polymermaterialien für potentielle Anwendungen in sekundären Lithiumionenbatterien bzw. in Hochtemperatur-Protonenaustauschmembran-Brennstoffzellen (engl.: proton exchange membrane fuel cell, auch: polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell, PEMFC). Beiden Typen von ionenleitfähigen Membranen liegt das gängige Prinzip der chemischen Anbindung einer für den Ionentransport verantwortlichen Seitengruppe an eine geeignete Polymerhauptkette zugrunde („Entkopplung“; auch Immobilisierung), welcher hinsichtlich Glasübergangstemperatur (Tg), elektrochemischer und thermischer Stabilität (Td) eine dynamisch entkoppelte, aber nicht minder bedeutsame Rolle zukommt. Die Transportaktivierung erfolgt in beiden Fällen thermisch. Im Falle der Protonenleiter liegt die zusätzliche Intention darin, eine Alternative aufzuzeigen, in der die Polymerhauptkette gekoppelt direkt am Protonentransportmechanismus beteiligt ist, d.h., dass der translatorisch diffusive Ionentransport entlang der Hauptkette stattfindet und nicht zwischen benachbarten Seitenketten. Ein Hauptaugenmerk der Untersuchungen liegt sowohl bei den lithiumionen- als auch den protonenleitfähigen Polymermembranen auf temperaturabhängigen dynamischen Prozessen der jeweiligen Ionenspezies in der polymeren Matrix, was die Ionenleitfähigkeit selbst, Relaxationsphänomene, die translatorische Ionendiffusion und im Falle der Protonenleiter etwaige mesomere Grenzstrukturübergänge umfasst. Lithiumionenleiter: Poly(meth)acrylate mit (2-Oxo-1,3-dioxolan)resten (Cyclocarbonat-) in der Seitenkette unterschiedlicher Spacerlänge wurden synthetisiert und charakterisiert. Die Leitfähigkeit s(,T) erreicht bei Poly(2-oxo-[1,3]dioxolan-4-yl)methylacrylat (PDOA): Lithium-bis-trifluormethansulfonimid (LiTFSI) (10:3) ca. 10^-3,5 S cm^-1 bei 150 °C. Weichmachen (Dotieren) mit äquimolaren Mengen an Propylencarbonat (PC) bewirkt in allen Fällen einen enormen Anstieg der Leitfähigkeit. Die höchsten Leitfähigkeiten von Mischungen dieser Polymere mit LiTFSI (und LiBOB) werden nicht beim System mit der niedrigsten Tg gefunden. Auch dient Tg nicht als Referenztemperatur (Tref) nach Williams-Landel-Ferry (WLF), so dass eine WLF-Anpassung der Leitfähigkeitsdaten nur über einen modifizierten WLF-Algorithmus gelingt. Die ermittelten Tref liegen deutlich unterhalb von Tg bei Temperaturen, die charakteristisch für die Seitenkettenrelaxation sind („Einfrieren“). Dies legt nahe, dass der Relaxation der Seitenketten eine entscheidende Rolle im Li^+-Leitfähigkeitsmechanismus zukommt. Die Li^+-Überführungszahlen tLi^+ in diesen Systemen schwanken zwischen 0,13 (40 °C) und 0,55 (160 °C). Protonenleiter: Polymere mit Barbitursäure- bzw. Hypoxanthinresten in der Seitenkette und Polyalkylenbiguanide unterschiedlicher Spacerlänge wurden synthetisiert und charakterisiert. Die Leitfähigkeit s(,T) erreicht bei Poly(2,4,6(1H,3H,5H)-trioxopyrimidin-5-yl)methacrylat (PTPMA) maximal ca. 10^-4,4 S cm^-1 bei 140 °C. Höhere Leitfähigkeiten sind nur durch Mischen mit aprotischen Lösungsmitteln erreichbar. Die höchste Leitfähigkeit wird im Falle der Polyalkylenbiguanide bei Polyethylenbiguanid (PEB) erzielt. Sie erreicht 10^-2,4 S cm^-1 bei 190 °C. Die Aktivierungsenergien EA der Polyalkylenbiguanide liegen (jeweils unterhalb von Tg) zwischen ca. 3 – 6 kJ mol^-1. In allen beobachteten Fällen dient Tg als Tref, so dass eine konventionelle WLF-Behandlung möglich ist und davon auszugehen ist, dass die Leitfähigkeit mit dem freien Volumen Vf korreliert.

Structure property relations in complex copolymer systems

A thorough investigation was made of the structure-property relation of well-defined statistical, gradient and block copolymers of various compositions. Among the copolymers studied were those which were synthesized using isobornyl acrylate (IBA) and n-butyl acrylate (nBA) monomer units. The copolymers exhibited several unique properties that make them suitable materials for a range of applications. The thermomechanical properties of these new materials were compared to acrylate homopolymers. By the proper choice of the IBA/nBA monomer ratio, it was possible to tune the glass transition temperature of the statistical P(IBA-co-nBA) copolymers. The measured Tg’s of the copolymers with different IBA/nBA monomer ratios followed a trend that fitted well with the Fox equation prediction. While statistical copolymers showed a single glass transition (Tg between -50 and 90 ºC depending on composition), DSC block copolymers showed two Tg’s and the gradient copolymer showed a single, but very broad, glass transition. PMBL-PBA-PMBL triblock copolymers of different composition ratios were also studied and revealed a microphase separated morphology of mostly cylindrical PMBL domains hexagonally arranged in the PBA matrix. DMA studies confirmed the phase separated morphology of the copolymers. Tensile studies showed the linear PMBL-PBA-PMBL triblock copolymers having a relatively low elongation at break that was increased by replacing the PMBL hard blocks with the less brittle random PMBL-r-PMMA blocks. The 10- and 20-arm PBA-PMBL copolymers which were studied revealed even more unique properties. SAXS results showed a mixture of cylindrical PMBL domains hexagonally arranged in the PBA matrix, as well as lamellar. Despite PMBL’s brittleness, the triblock and multi-arm PBA-PMBL copolymers could become suitable materials for high temperature applications due to PMBL’s high glass transition temperature and high thermal stability. The structure-property relation of multi-arm star PBA-PMMA block copolymers was also investigated. Small-angle X-ray scattering revealed a phase separated morphology of cylindrical PMMA domains hexagonally arranged in the PBA matrix. DMA studies found that these materials possess typical elastomeric behavior in a broad range of service temperatures up to at least 250°C. The ultimate tensile strength and the elastic modulus of the 10- and 20-arm star PBA-PMMA block copolymers are significantly higher than those of their 3-arm or linear ABA type counterparts with similar composition, indicating a strong effect of the number of arms on the tensile properties. Siloxane-based copolymers were also studied and one of the main objectives here was to examine the possibility to synthesize trifluoropropyl-containing siloxane copolymers of gradient distribution of trifluoropropyl groups along the chain. DMA results of the PDMS-PMTFPS siloxane copolymers synthesized via simultaneous copolymerization showed that due to the large difference in reactivity rates of 2,4,6-tris(3,3,3-trifluoropropyl)-2,4,6-trimethylcyclotrisiloxane (F) and hexamethylcyclotrisiloxane (D), a copolymer of almost block structure containing only a narrow intermediate fragment with gradient distribution of the component units was obtained. A more dispersed distribution of the trifluoropropyl groups was obtained by the semi-batch copolymerization process, as the DMA results revealed more ‘‘pure gradient type’’ features for the siloxane copolymers which were synthesized by adding F at a controlled rate to the polymerization of the less reactive D. As with trifluoropropyl-containing siloxane copolymers, vinyl-containing polysiloxanes may be converted to a variety of useful polysiloxane materials by chemical modification. But much like the trifluoropropyl-containing siloxane copolymers, as a result of so much difference in the reactivities between the component units 2,4,6-trivinyl-2,4,6-trimethylcyclotrisiloxane (V) and hexamethylcyclotrisiloxane (D), thermal and mechanical properties of the PDMS-PMVS copolymers obtained by simultaneous copolymerization was similar to those of block copolymers. Only the copolymers obtained by semi-batch method showed properties typical for gradient copolymers.

Investigation of the lithium ion mobility in cyclic model compounds and their ion conducting properties

Efficient energy storage and conversion is playing a key role in overcoming the present and future challenges in energy supply. Batteries provide portable, electrochemical storage of green energy sources and potentially allow for a reduction of the dependence on fossil fuels, which is of great importance with respect to the issue of global warming. In view of both, energy density and energy drain, rechargeable lithium ion batteries outperform other present accumulator systems. However, despite great efforts over the last decades, the ideal electrolyte in terms of key characteristics such as capacity, cycle life, and most important reliable safety, has not yet been identified. rnrnSteps ahead in lithium ion battery technology require a fundamental understanding of lithium ion transport, salt association, and ion solvation within the electrolyte. Indeed, well-defined model compounds allow for systematic studies of molecular ion transport. Thus, in the present work, based on the concept of ‘immobilizing’ ion solvents, three main series with a cyclotriphosphazene (CTP), hexaphenylbenzene (HBP), and tetramethylcyclotetrasiloxane (TMS) scaffold were prepared. Lithium ion solvents, among others ethylene carbonate (EC), which has proven to fulfill together with pro-pylene carbonate safety and market concerns in commercial lithium ion batteries, were attached to the different cores via alkyl spacers of variable length.rnrnAll model compounds were fully characterized, pure and thermally stable up to at least 235 °C, covering the requested broad range of glass transition temperatures from -78.1 °C up to +6.2 °C. While the CTP models tend to rearrange at elevated temperatures over time, which questions the general stability of alkoxide related (poly)phosphazenes, both, the HPB and CTP based models show no evidence of core stacking. In particular the CTP derivatives represent good solvents for various lithium salts, exhibiting no significant differences in the ionic conductivity σ_dc and thus indicating comparable salt dissociation and rather independent motion of cations and ions.rnrnIn general, temperature-dependent bulk ionic conductivities investigated via impedance spectroscopy follow a William-Landel-Ferry (WLF) type behavior. Modifications of the alkyl spacer length were shown to influence ionic conductivities only in combination to changes in glass transition temperatures. Though the glass transition temperatures of the blends are low, their conductivities are only in the range of typical polymer electrolytes. The highest σ_dc obtained at ambient temperatures was 6.0 x 10-6 S•cm-1, strongly suggesting a rather tight coordination of the lithium ions to the solvating 2-oxo-1,3-dioxolane moieties, supported by the increased σ_dc values for the oligo(ethylene oxide) based analogues.rnrnFurther insights into the mechanism of lithium ion dynamics were derived from 7Li and 13C Solid- State NMR investigations. While localized ion motion was probed by i.e. 7Li spin-lattice relaxation measurements with apparent activation energies E_a of 20 to 40 kJ/mol, long-range macroscopic transport was monitored by Pulsed-Field Gradient (PFG) NMR, providing an E_a of 61 kJ/mol. The latter is in good agreement with the values determined from bulk conductivity data, indicating the major contribution of ion transport was only detected by PFG NMR. However, the μm-diffusion is rather slow, emphasizing the strong lithium coordination to the carbonyl oxygens, which hampers sufficient ion conductivities and suggests exploring ‘softer’ solvating moieties in future electrolytes.rn

Mode-coupling theory: generalizations, high dimensions and microscopic dynamics

This work contains several applications of the mode-coupling theory (MCT) and is separated into three parts. In the first part we investigate the liquid-glass transition of hard spheres for dimensions d→∞ analytically and numerically up to d=800 in the framework of MCT. We find that the critical packing fraction ϕc(d) scales as d²2^(-d), which is larger than the Kauzmann packing fraction ϕK(d) found by a small-cage expansion by Parisi and Zamponi [J. Stat. Mech.: Theory Exp. 2006, P03017 (2006)]. The scaling of the critical packing fraction is different from the relation ϕc(d)∼d2^(-d) found earlier by Kirkpatrick and Wolynes [Phys. Rev. A 35, 3072 (1987)]. This is due to the fact that the k dependence of the critical collective and self nonergodicity parameters fc(k;d) and fcs(k;d) was assumed to be Gaussian in the previous theories. We show that in MCT this is not the case. Instead fc(k;d) and fcs(k;d), which become identical in the limit d→∞, converge to a non-Gaussian master function on the scale k∼d^(3/2). We find that the numerically determined value for the exponent parameter λ and therefore also the critical exponents a and b depend on the dimension d, even at the largest evaluated dimension d=800. In the second part we compare the results of a molecular-dynamics simulation of liquid Lennard-Jones argon far away from the glass transition [D. Levesque, L. Verlet, and J. Kurkijärvi, Phys. Rev. A 7, 1690 (1973)] with MCT. We show that the agreement between theory and computer simulation can be improved by taking binary collisions into account [L. Sjögren, Phys. Rev. A 22, 2866 (1980)]. We find that an empiric prefactor of the memory function of the original MCT equations leads to similar results. In the third part we derive the equations for a mode-coupling theory for the spherical components of the stress tensor. Unfortunately it turns out that they are too complex to be solved numerically.

Laser heating of polymers

Zur Untersuchung von Effekten beim Laserheizen von Polymeren wurde ein Temperaturmessaufbau entwickelt. Das Messprinzip basiert auf der Auswertung der thermischen Emission. Der Messaufbau besteht aus einer hochauflösenden Kamera, ausgestattet mit Bildverstärker, sowie Interferenzfiltern um eine spektrale Auflösung zu gewährleisten und einem gepulster NIR-Heizlaser. Die Pulsdauer des Lasers liegt in der Größenordnung von 10 µs, der Strahldurchmesser durch entsprechende Fokussierung in der Größenordnung von 10 µm. Mittels Fit des Planck‘schen Strahlungsgesetzes an die aufgenommene thermische Emission konnten 2D Temperaturgraphen erhalten werden. Eine Ortsauflösung von 1 µm und eine Zeitauflösung von 1 µs konnten realisiert werden. In Kombination mit Finite-Elemente-Simulationen wurde mit diesem Aufbau die Laserablation verschiedener Polymere untersucht. Dabei hat sich gezeigt, dass bei Polymeren mit einem Glasübergang im Temperaturbereich zwischen Raum- und Zerfallstemperatur, photomechanische Ablation stattfand. Die Ablationsschwelle lag für diese Polymere mehrere 10 K über dem Glasübergang, weit unter der Zerfallstemperatur aus thermogravimetrischen Experimenten mit typischen Heizraten von 10 K/min. Bei hohen Laserenergien und damit verbundenen hohen Temperaturen konnte dagegen thermischer Zerfall beobachtet werden. Ein Übergang des Mechanismus von photomechanischer Ablation zu Ablation durch thermischen Zerfall ergab sich bei Temperaturen deutlich über der Zerfallstemperatur des Polymers aus der Thermogravimetrie. Dies wurde bedingt durch die kurzen Reaktionszeiten des Laserexperiments in der Größenordnung der Pulsdauer und steht im Einklang mit dem Gesetz von Arrhenius. Polymere ohne Glasübergang im Heizbereich zeigten dagegen keine photomechanische Ablation, sondern ausschließlich thermischen Zerfall. Die Ablationsschwelle lag auch hier bei höheren Temperaturen, entsprechend dem Gesetz von Arrhenius. Hohe Temperaturen, mehrere 100 K über der Zerfallstemperatur, ergaben sich darüber hinaus bei hohen Laserenergien. Ein drastisches Überhitzen des Polymers, wie in der Literatur beschrieben, konnte nicht beobachtet werden. Experimentelle Befunde deuten vielmehr darauf hin, dass es sich bei dem heißen Material um thermische Zerfallsprodukte, Polymerfragmente, Monomer und Zerfallsprodukte des Monomers handelte bzw. das Temperaturprofil der Zerfallsreaktion selbst visualisiert wurde.

Polymer surfaces on small length- and short time-scales

The behaviour of a polymer depends strongly on the length- and time scale as well as on the temperature rnat which it is probed. In this work, I describe investigations of polymer surfaces using scanning probe rnmicroscopy with heatable probes. With these probes, surfaces can be heated within seconds down to rnmicroseconds. I introduce experiments for the local and fast determination of glass transition and melting rntemperatures. I developed a method which allows the determination of glass transition and melting rntemperatures on films with thicknesses below 100 nm: A background measurement on the substrate was rnperformed. The resulting curve was subtracted from the measurement on the polymer film. The rndifferential measurement on polystyrene films with thicknesses between 35 nm and 160 nm showed rncharacteristic signals at 95 ± 1 °C, in accordance with the glass transition of polystyrene. Pressing heated rnprobes into polymer films causes plastic deformation. Nanometer sized deformations are currently rninvestigated in novel concepts for high density data storage. A suitable medium for such a storage system rnhas to be easily indentable on one hand, but on the other hand it also has to be very stable towards rnsurface induced wear. For developing such a medium I investigated a new approach: A comparably soft rnmaterial, namely polystyrene, was protected with a thin but very hard layer made of plasma polymerized rnnorbornene. The resulting bilayered media were tested for surface stability and deformability. I showed rnthat the bilayered material combines the deformability of polystyrene with the surface stability of the rnplasma polymer, and that the material therefore is a very good storage medium. In addition we rninvestigated the glass transition temperature of polystyrene at timescales of 10 µs and found it to be rnapprox. 220 °C. The increase of this characteristic temperature of the polymer results from the short time rnat which the polymer was probed and reflects the well-known time-temperature superposition principle. rnHeatable probes were also used for the characterization of silverazide filled nanocapsules. The use of rnheatable probes allowed determining the decomposition temperature of the capsules from few rnnanograms of material. The measured decomposition temperatures ranged from 180 °C to 225 °C, in rnaccordance with literature values. The investigation of small amounts of sample was necessary due to the rnlimited availability of the material. Furthermore, investigating larger amounts of the capsules using rnconventional thermal gravimetric analysis could lead to contamination or even damage of the instrument. rnBesides the analysis of material parameters I used the heatable probes for the local thermal rndecomposition of pentacene precursor material in order to form nanoscale conductive structures. Here, rnthe thickness of the precursor layer was important for complete thermal decomposition. rnAnother aspect of my work was the investigation of redox active polymers - Poly-10-(4-vinylbenzyl)-10H-rnphenothiazine (PVBPT)- for data storage. Data is stored by changing the local conductivity of the material rnby applying a voltage between tip and surface. The generated structures were stable for more than 16 h. It rnwas shown that the presence of water is essential for succesfull patterning.