Avainhyödyke doktriinin kehitys ja soveltaminen Euroopan yhteisön kilpailuoikeudessa

Tutkielmassa tarkastellaan avainhyödyke doktriini kehittymistä ja sen soveltamista Euroopan yhteisön kilpailuoikeudessa. Avainhyödyke doktriinissa määräävässä markkina asemassa olevalla yrityksellä on hallussaan hyödyke, palvelu tai infrastruktuuri, jonka uudelleen tuottaminen samoilla markkinoilla ei ole kannattavaa. Määräävässä asemassa olevan yrityksen kilpailijoille tai alalle pyrkiville uusille yrityksille on kuitenkin välttämätöntä päästä käyttämään kyseistä avainhyödykettä, mikäli he haluavat toimia alalla. Tällaisissa tilanteissa avainhyödykkeen haltijalle voidaan asettaa kilpailuoikeudellinen velvollisuus ryhtyä liikesuhteeseen kilpailijoiden ja alalle pyrkivien yritysten kanssa. Avainhyödyke doktriinin soveltaminen nousee erityisen tärkeäksi aloilla, joilta on juuri purettu sääntely. Näillä aloilla doktriinin voidaan katsoa turvaavan jonkinlaisen tasapuolisuuden markkinoilla ja lisäävän kilpailua. Tästä huolimatta avainhyödyke doktriinia on kritisoitu runsaasti, sillä siinä ei oteta huomioon omistusoikeutta, sopimusvapautta tai yleensä taloudellisen toimijan autonomiaa. Avainhyödyke doktriinin kilpailuoikeudellisesta ristiriitaisuudesta olennaisena osoituksena on, ettei Euroopan yhteisön tuomioistuin ei ole ottanut kantaa doktriinin olemassaoloon.

Intelin, Toshiban ja Samsungin patenttipolitiikka 1990-luvun alusta lähtien

Tämä kandidaatintyö käsittelee puolijohdeteollisuusyritysten Intelin, Toshiban ja Samsungin patenttipolitiikkaa 1990-luvun alusta lähtien. Työn tarkoituksena on antaa vastauksia siihen, miksi patentointiaktiivisuudet (patenttiaineiston määrät) vaihtelevat niin suuresti yrityksestä toiseen saman alan sisällä. Yrityksiä tarkastellaan erityisesti kotimaidensa suhteen. Patentointiaktiivisuuden analyysissä käytetään IPC-luokittain jaoteltua patenttiaineistoa sekä patentointiin liittyviä artikkeleita ja kirjallisuutta. Yritysten sijainti ja paikallinen yrityskulttuuri vaikuttavat merkittävästi yritysten patenttipolitiikkaan. Vertailuyrityksillä on omat arvot ja toimintatavat, joilla patentointiin liittyviä asioita hoidetaan. Puolijohdeteollisuudessa ja yleisesti informaatioteknologiateollisuudessa, joissa käytetään paljon patentointia, on tärkeää, että maan johto suhtautuu positiivisesti immateriaalioikeuksiin. Kyseisen alan merkitys maiden hyvinvoinnille kasvaa koko ajan. Empiria-aineiston mukaan Intelin patentit ovat eteen- ja taaksepäin viittausten perusteella laadukkaimpia. 1990-luvulla Etelä-Korea panosti suuresti immateriaalioikeuksien kehittämiseen, mikä näkyy Samsungin patenttimäärän nousuna. Samsungilla on vertailuyrityksistä eniten patentteja, mutta ne ovat heikkolaatuisimpia. Toshiban patentit eivät saavuta määrällisesti Intelin taakse- ja eteenpäinviittauksia. Laadullisesti Toshiban patentit ovat kuitenkin parempia kuin Samsungin patentit. Kaikkiaan patentointi on lisääntynyt 1990-luvulla lähtien muun muassa parantuneen patenttisuojan ja helpottuneiden hakuprosessien ansiosta. Aasiassa on yleisempää käyttää strategista patentointia, muun muassa portfolion maksimointia. Yhdysvalloissa suhtaudutaan patentointiin enemmän taloudelliselta kannalta, kun taas puolestaan Aasiassa t&k-toiminta on pitkäjänteisempää.

Näkökohtia tutkimusyhteistyössä tapahtuvasta lisensoinnista

Pro gradu- tutkielman tarkoituksena oli perehtyä erilaisiin yritysten välisessä tutkimusyhteistyössä käytettäviin lisensiointijärjestelyihin. Tutkimuksessa pyrittiin ymmärtämään miten tutkimusyhteistyö on kehittynyt 2000-luvulla ja miten erilaiset tutkimusyhteistyöjärjestelyt vaikuttavat kun yritys pyrkii varmistamaan itselleen kilpailuetua. Tutkimuskysymyksiä lähestyttiin kirjallisuuden lisäksi myös teemahaastatteluin. Haastateltavat olivat alan asiantuntijoita. Yritysten verkostoituminen on lisääntynyt, mutta teknologinen yhteistyö toimialojen sisällä on vähentynyt. Yritysten sisällä keksintöjen pitää yhä enemmän liittyä yrityksen strategiaan ja liiketoimintaan. Tutkimusyhteistyössä on usein ratkaistava kuinka menetellään, kun siinä syntyvään tietoon liittyy tutkimusyhteistyön ulkopuolisia teollisoikeuksia, jotka ovat tutkimuksen ja tulosten hyödyntämisen kannalta tarpeellisia. Tällaisissa tapauksissa lisensointi on hyvä vaihtoehto. Yleisin järjestely tutkimusyhteistyössä on kahden yrityksen välinen yhteistyö. Yrityksissä on kasvavaa kiinnostusta Open Innovation –ajattelun suuntaan.

Verkostomaisen asiantuntijayhteisön sopimusverkko

Tutkielmassa kartoitettiin avoimen innovoinnin menetelmin toimivan asiantuntijayhteisön keskeiset oikeudelliset ongelmakentät erään aloittavan yrityksen näkökulmasta. Näkökulmaa pyrittiin laajentamaan sovellettavaksi myös muihin avoimen innovoinnin hankkeisiin. Tutkimuksen tavoitteena on antaa verkoston avainhenkilöille riittävästi tietoa siitä, miten näitä osa-alueita voidaan hallita. Pakottavat työoikeudelliset normit voivat tulla vahingossa voimaan projektityössä ja synnyttää työsuhteen. Työsuhteen status vaikuttaa voimakkaasti myös patenttioikeuksien saamiseen verkostoyhteisön käyttöön. Yrityssalaisuuksien monitahoinen hallinta on myös keskeisessä asemassa verkoston toiminnassa. Työsuhteen syntyminen on hallittavissa oikein toimien, mutta aineettoman omaisuuden sekä yrityssalaisuuksien monimuotoisuuksien vuoksi ne on hyvin haastavaa ennakoivasti hallita.

Application of Open Innovation Paradigm in Small and Medium Enterprises in Russia

The objective of this study is to explore how the Open Innovation paradigm is applied in by small and medium-size enterprises in Russia. The focus of the study is to understand how the processes of research and development and commercialization proceed in these kind of companies and to which extent they apply open innovation principles. Russian leadership makes certain steps for transition from the export of raw materials to an innovative model of economic growth. The research aims to disclose actual impact of these attempts. The closed innovation model and the erosion factors which lead to the destruction of an old one and emergence of new model are described. Features of open innovation implementation and intellectual property rights protection in small and medium enterprises are presented. To achieve the objective, a qualitative case study approach was chosen. Research includes facts and figures, views and opinions of management of studied companies related to innovation process in the company and in Russia in general. The research depicts the features of Open Innovation implementation by SMEs in Russia. A large number of research centers with necessary equipment and qualified personnel allow case companies to use external R&D effectively. They cooperate actively with research institutes, universities and laboratories. Thus, they apply inbound Open Innovation. On the contrary, lack of venture capital, low demand for technologies within the domestic market and weak protection of intellectual property limit the external paths to new markets. Licensing-out and creation of spin-off are isolated cases. Therefore, outbound Open Innovation is not a regular practice.

Hyvitysmaksujärjestelmä - matka kasettimetristä megatavuun

Pro gradu-tutkielman tarkoituksena on selvittää, millaisia vaikutuksia vaihtoehtoisella yksityisen kopioinnin hyvitysmaksujärjestelmällä voisi olla Suomessa. Hyvitysmaksulla tarkoitetaan korvausta, joka maksetaan oikeudesta tehdä teoskappaleesta kopioita yksityiseen käyttöön. Maksu on Suomessa sisällytetty vuodesta 1984 alkaen kopiointilaitteiden hintoihin ja näin vyörytetty valmistajilta ja maahantuojilta kuluttajien maksettavakasi. Maksun alaisia laitteita ovat esimerkiksi C- kasetit, CD- levyt, digiboxit ja ulkoiset kovalevyt. Tutkielmassa kuvataan hyvitysmaksujärjestelmän historiallista kehitystä nykyiseen muotoonsa, sen toimivuutta eri intressiryhmien näkökulmasta sekä arvioidaan varteenotettavia vaihtoehtoja nykyiselle järjestelmälle. Aina uusiutuvan haasteen hyvitysjärjestelmän kehittämisessä muodostaa teknologian jatkuva muuntuminen ja uusien kopiointitekniikoiden yleistyminen. Siihen tekijänoikeuksia koskevat säädökset ovat vastanneet puutteellisesti tai jälkikäteen. Tutkimuskysymyksiä tarkastellaan virallistenlähteiden, kirjallisuuden ja asiasta julkaistujen, eri intressitahojen kannanottojen perusteella. Tutkimuksen toteutus on sekoitus kvalitatiivista, historiallista ja lainopillista tarkastelua sekä oikeustaloustiedettä. Tutkimuksesta selvisi, että hyvitysmaksujärjestelmä ei tällä hetkellä suoriudu sille asetetuista tehtävistä tyydyttävästi, ja vaihtoehtoisen järjestelmän etsiminen on ajankohtaista. Varteenotettavaksi vaihtoehdoksi yksityiseen käyttöön tapahtuvan kopioinnin korvaamiseksi tekijöille ja tuottajille on tässä tutkielmassa arvioitu korvauksen toteuttaminen viestintärahaston kautta. Tämä ratkaisisi monet nykyiset ongelmat, ja näyttäisi tutkimuksen pohjalta arvioituna olevan paras vaihtoehto. Tähän siirtyminen vaatii kuitenkin ratkaisua kohtuullisen hyvityksen määrittämisen ongelmaan.

Strategic alliances as an international entry strategy: Finnish cleantech SMEs and the Indian market

The demand for environmental technologies, also called cleantech, is growing globally but the need is especially high in emerging markets such as India where the rising economy and rapid industrialisation have led to increasing energy needs and environmental degradation. The market is of great potential also for the Finnish cleantech cluster that represents advanced expertise in several fields of environmental technologies. However, most of the Finnish companies in the field are SMEs that face challenges in their internationalisation due to their limited resources. The objective of this study was to estimate, whether strategic alliances could be an efficient entry strategy for Finnish cleantech SMEs entering the Indian market. This was done by studying what are the key factors influencing the international entry mode decision of Finnish cleantech SMEs, what are the major factors affecting the entry of Finnish cleantech SMEs to the Indian market and how do Finnish cleantech SMEs use strategic alliances in their internationalisation process. The study was realised as a qualitative multi-case study through theme interviews of Finnish cleantech SME representatives. The results indicated that Finnish cleantech SMEs prefer to enter international markets through non-equity and collaborative modes of entry. These entry modes are chosen because of the small size and limited resources of companies, but also because they want to protect their innovative technologies from property rights violations. India is an attracting market for Finnish cleantech SMEs mainly because of its size and growth, but insufficient environmental regulation and high import tariffs have hindered entry to the market. Finnish cleantech SMEs commonly use strategic alliances in their internationalisation process but the use is rather one-sided. Most of the formed strategic alliances are low-commitment, international contractual agreement in sales and distribution. Alliance partner selection receives less attention. In the future, providing Finnish cleantech SMEs with international experience and training could help in diversifying the use of strategic alliances and increase their benefits to SME internationalisation.

Finnish cleantech SMEs in China: Challenges and solutions

The rapid economic growth in China has resulted in environmental challenges ranging from air pollution to water-related issues. Thus supporting clean technology, or cleantech, that encompasses industries that focus on alternative energy, pollution and recycling, power supplies and conservation has become one of the focal points in the Chinese economic policy for the next decade. Simultaneously, the Finnish government has initiated programs to support the internationalisation of domestic cleantech companies in an attempt to spiral the industry into one of the pillars of Finnish economic growth. This study concentrates on the conjunction of these two themes and studies the challenges faced by Finnish cleantech SMEs in the Chinese market. Consequently, the study answers the following sub questions: 1. What human and financial resource-based challenges do Finnish cleantech SMEs face in the Chinese market and what are their solutions? 2. What knowledge-based challenges do Finnish cleantech SMEs face in the Chinese market and how can these difficulties be resolved? 3. What network-based challenges do Finnish cleantech SMEs face in the Chinese market, how do they relate to the resource- and knowledge-based challenges, and how can these difficulties be resolved? This qualitative study is conducted by analysing four semi structured interviews collected from four Finnish SMEs that operate in China. The findings of the study indicate that in human resources the most important challenges are related to the hiring and retaining of employees. In contrast to extant academic literature results distinguish salary and social status as the main solutions to this challenge. Regarding financial resources it is discovered that cleantech companies enjoy a benign business environment in China and benefit from the Chinese government’s support for cleantech industry. Challenges related to knowledge resources can be grouped into categories with the most interesting knowledge flows being the stream of local market knowledge into to the foreign parent company and the outward flow of manufacturing and business practice information into the target venture. The challenge related to the first flow is gathering relevant information and the main solutions are clustering at the foreign location and hiring knowledge prior to internationalisation. Regarding the second flow the main challenge is related to intellectual property rights and the most interesting solution is the purposeful transformation of explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge. Finally, it is discovered that networks, called guanxi in China, greatly affect the business processes. Within the guanxi system there is the concept of face which was found to affect employee propensity to stay as well as, as a novel academic result, employees’ knowledge sharing intention.

Managing Customer Co-creation: Empirical Evidence from Finnish High-tech SMEs

The purpose of this thesis is to find out how customer co-creation activities are managed in Finnish high-tech SMEs by understanding managers’ views on relevant issues. According to theory, issues such as firm size, customer knowledge implementation, lead customers, the fuzzy front-end of product/service development as well as the reluctance to engage in customer co-creation are some of the field’s focal issues. The views of 145 Finnish SME managers on these issues were gathered as empirical evidence through an online questionnaire and analyzed with SPSS statistics software. The results show, firstly, that Finnish SME managers are aware of the issues associated with customer co-creation and are able to actively manage them. Additionally, managers performed well in regards to collaborating with lead customers and implemented customer knowledge evenly in various stages of their new product and service development processes. Intellectual property rights emerged as an obstacle deterring managers from engaging in co-creation. The results suggest that in practice managers would do well by looking for more opportunities to implement customer knowledge in the early and late stages of new product and service development, as well as by actively searching for lead customers.

The best practices in the formation phase of Sino-Finnish joint ventures in China: For Finnish software companies

This study discusses the formation phase of Chinese-Finnish joint ventures in China. The purpose of this thesis is to create best practices for Finnish software companies in forming a joint venture with a local Chinese company in China. Therefore, the main research question, in what are the best practices for forming Sino-Finnish joint ventures in China for Finnish software firms, is examined through four different themes within the joint venture formation phase; the motives, the partner se- lection, the choice of a joint venture type and joint venture negotiations. The theoretical background of the study consists of literature relating to the establishment process of Sino-Western joint ventures in China. The empirical research conducted for this study is based on the expert interviews. The empirical data was gathered via nine semi-structured interviews with both Chinese and Finnish experts in software and technology industry, who have experience or knowledge in establishing Sino-Finnish joint ventures in China. Thematic analysis was used to cat- egorize and interpret the interview data. In addition, a thematic network was built to act as a basis of the analysis. According to the main findings, the main motives for Finnish software companies to establish a joint venture in China are lack of skills or experience, little resources to enter on their own, and China’s large market. The main motives for Chinese companies are to gain new technology or man- agerial skills, and expand internationally. The intellectual property rights (IPR) have recently im- proved a lot in China, but the Finnish companies’ knowledge on IPR is inadequate. The Finnish software companies should conduct a market and industry research in order to understand their po- sition in the market and to find a suitable location and potential joint venture partners. It is essential to define partner selection criteria and partner attributes. In addition, it is important to build the joint venture around complementary motives and a win-win situation between the joint venture partners. The Finnish companies should be prepared that the joint venture negotiations will be challenging and they will take a long time. The challenges can be overcome by gaining understanding about the Chinese culture and business environment. The findings of this study enhance understanding of the joint venture formation phase in China. This study provides guidelines for Finnish software companies to establish a joint venture in China. In addition, this study brings new insights to the Sino-Western joint venture literature with its soft- ware industry context. Future research is, however, necessary in order to gain an understanding of the advantages and disadvantages of a joint venture as an entry mode into China for Finnish soft- ware companies

The best practices in the formation phase of Sino-Finnish joint ventures in China: For Finnish software companies

This study discusses the formation phase of Chinese-Finnish joint ventures in China. The purpose of this thesis is to create best practices for Finnish software companies in forming a joint venture with a local Chinese company in China. Therefore, the main research question, in what are the best practices for forming Sino-Finnish joint ventures in China for Finnish software firms, is examined through four different themes within the joint venture formation phase; the motives, the partner se-lection, the choice of a joint venture type and joint venture negotiations. The theoretical background of the study consists of literature relating to the establishment process of Sino-Western joint ventures in China. The empirical research conducted for this study is based on the expert interviews. The empirical data was gathered via nine semi-structured interviews with both Chinese and Finnish experts in software and technology industry, who have experience or knowledge in establishing Sino-Finnish joint ventures in China. Thematic analysis was used to cat-egorize and interpret the interview data. In addition, a thematic network was built to act as a basis of the analysis. According to the main findings, the main motives for Finnish software companies to establish a joint venture in China are lack of skills or experience, little resources to enter on their own, and China’s large market. The main motives for Chinese companies are to gain new technology or man-agerial skills, and expand internationally. The intellectual property rights (IPR) have recently im-proved a lot in China, but the Finnish companies’ knowledge on IPR is inadequate. The Finnish software companies should conduct a market and industry research in order to understand their po-sition in the market and to find a suitable location and potential joint venture partners. It is essential to define partner selection criteria and partner attributes. In addition, it is important to build the joint venture around complementary motives and a win-win situation between the joint venture partners. The Finnish companies should be prepared that the joint venture negotiations will be challenging and they will take a long time. The challenges can be overcome by gaining understanding about the Chinese culture and business environment. The findings of this study enhance understanding of the joint venture formation phase in China. This study provides guidelines for Finnish software companies to establish a joint venture in China. In addition, this study brings new insights to the Sino-Western joint venture literature with its soft-ware industry context. Future research is, however, necessary in order to gain an understanding of the advantages and disadvantages of a joint venture as an entry mode into China for Finnish soft-ware companies.

The collective dimension of freedom of religion or belief in international law : the application of findings to the case of Turkey

Pertinent domestic and international developments involving issues related to tensions affecting religious or belief communities have been increasingly occupying the international law agenda. Those who generate and, thus, shape international law jurisprudence are in the process of seeking some of the answers to these questions. Thus the need for reconceptualization of the right to freedom of religion or belief continues as demands to the right to freedom of religion or belief challenge the boundaries of religious freedom in national and international law. This thesis aims to contribute to the process of “re-conceptualization” by exploring the notion of the collective dimension of freedom of religion or belief with a view to advance the protection of the right to freedom of religion or belief. The case of Turkey provides a useful test case where both the domestic legislation can be assessed against international standards, while at the same time lessons can be drawn for the improvement of the standard of international review of the protection of the collective dimension of freedom of religion or belief. The right to freedom of religion or belief, as enshrined in international human rights documents, is unique in its formulation in that it provides protection for the enjoyment of the rights “in community with others”.1 It cannot be realized in isolation; it crosses categories of human rights with aspects that are individual, aspects that can be effectively realized only in an organized community of individuals and aspects that belong to the field of economic, social and cultural rights such as those related to religious or moral education. This study centers on two primary questions; first, what is the scope and nature of protection afforded to the collective dimension of freedom of religion or belief in international law, and, secondly, how does the protection of the collective dimension of freedom of religion or belief in Turkey compare and contrast to international standards? Section I explores and examines the notion of the collective dimension of freedom of religion or belief, and the scope of its protection in international law with particular reference to the right to acquire legal personality and autonomy religious/belief communities. In Section II, the case study on Turkey constitutes the applied part of the thesis; here, the protection of the collective dimension is assessed with a view to evaluate the compliance of Turkish legislation and practice with international norms as well as seeking to identify how the standard of international review of the collective dimension of freedom of religion or belief can be improved.