Comparison of human and computer-based selective cleaning

Abstract

Training executive functions in the laboratory and in real life : cognitive consequences of computer-based exercises and bilingualism

The question of the trainability of executive functions and the impact of such training on related cognitive skills has stirred considerable research interest. Despite a number of studies investigating this, the question has not yet been solved. The general aim of this thesis was to investigate two very different types of training of executive functions: laboratory-based computerized training (Studies I-III) and realworld training through bilingualism (Studies IV-V). Bilingualism as a kind of training of executive functions is based on the idea that managing two languages requires executive resources, and previous studies have suggested a bilingual advantage in executive functions. Three executive functions were studied in the present thesis: updating of working memory (WM) contents, inhibition of irrelevant information, and shifting between tasks and mental sets. Studies I-III investigated the effects of computer-based training of WM updating (Study I), inhibition (Study II), and set shifting (Study III) in healthy young adults. All studies showed increased performance on the trained task. More importantly, improvement on an untrained task tapping the trained executive function (near transfer) was seen in Study I and II. None of the three studies showed improvement on untrained tasks tapping some other cognitive function (far transfer) as a result of training. Study I also used PET to investigate the effects of WM updating training on a neurotransmitter closely linked to WM, namely dopamine. The PET results revealed increased striatal dopamine release during WM updating performance as a result of training. Study IV investigated the ability to inhibit task-irrelevant stimuli in bilinguals and monolinguals by using a dichotic listening task. The results showed that the bilinguals exceeded the monolinguals in inhibiting task-irrelevant information. Study V introduced a new, complementary research approach to study the bilingual executive advantage and its underlying mechanisms. To circumvent the methodological problems related to natural groups design, this approach focuses only on bilinguals and examines whether individual differences in bilingual behavior correlate with executive task performances. Using measures that tap the three above-entioned executive functions, the results suggested that more frequent language switching was associated with better set shifting skills, and earlier acquisition of the second language was related to better inhibition skills. In conclusion, the present behavioral results showed that computer-based training of executive functions can improve performance on the trained task and on closely related tasks, but does not yield a more general improvement of cognitive skills. Moreover, the functional neuroimaging results reveal that WM training modulates striatal dopaminergic function, speaking for training-induced neural plasticity in this important neurotransmitter system. With regard to bilingualism, the results provide further support to the idea that bilingualism can enhance executive functions. In addition, the new complementary research approach proposed here provides some clues as to which aspects of everyday bilingual behavior may be related to the advantage in executive functions in bilingual individuals.

Energiataseen hallinta ja optimointi metsäteollisuusintegraatissa

Diplomityö on tehty UPM-Kymmene Oyj, Kaukaan tehtailla Lappeenrannassa. Integroidussa metsäteollisuudessa energiantuotanto koostuu yleensä sähkön- ja lämmöntuotannosta. Kaukaan tehtailla prosessien lämmöntarve saadaan katettua kokonaisuudessaan omalla tuotannolla, kun taas kulutetusta sähköstä ainoastaan puolet on tuotettu itse. Loput sähköntarpeesta joudutaan ostamaan ulkopuolelta. Tutkimuksen pääpaino on ollut selvittää, miten kustannukset ovat riippuvaisia energiantuotannosta erilaisissa käyttöolosuhteissa. Työn tuloksena on luotu tietokonepohjainen laskentamalli, jonka avulla Kaukaan tehtaiden energiantuotantoa voidaan ohjata taloudellisesti optimaalisimmalla tavalla kulloinkin vallitsevassa käyttötilanteessa. Lisäksi tutkimuksessa on analysoitu tehdasintegraatin lämmönkulutuksen seurannan mahdollisuuksia lämmönsiirtoverkon nykyisten mittausten perusteella. Työssä on kerrottu yleisesti metsäteollisuuden energiankulutuksesta Suomessa. Lisäksi on esitetty arvioita energiankulutuksen kehityksestä tulevaisuudessa sekä keinoja energiatehokkuuden parantamiseksi. Kaukaan tehtailla lämmönkulutuksen seurantaan käytettävät mittausmenetelmät ja -laitteet on esitelty virtausmittausten osalta sekä arvioitu nykyisten mittausten luotettavuutta ja riittävyyttä kokonaisvaltaisen lämpötaseen hallintaan. Kaukaan tehtaiden energiantuotantojärjestelmästä on luotu termodynaaminen malli, johon energiantuotannosta aiheutuneiden kustannusten laskenta perustuu. Energiantuotannon optimoinnilla pyritään määrittelemään tietyn tarkasteluhetken käyttötilanteessa taloudellisesti optimaalisin kattiloiden ajojärjestys. Tarkastelu on rajattu lämmöntuotannon lisäämisen osalta maakaasun käytön lisäämiseen ja höyryturbiinien ohitukseen. Sähkön ja maakaasun hinnan sekä ympäristön lämpötilan vaihtelujen vaikutusta optimaaliseen ajojärjestykseen on havainnollistettu esimerkkien avulla.

Uuden riskien arviointityökalun käyttöönotto metsäteollisuusyrityksessä

Vuonna 2003 uudistunut työturvallisuuslaki lisäsi yritysten vastuuta oman työympäristön riskien tunnistamisessa. Laki velvoittaa yritykset tunnistamaan, selvittämään ja arvioimaan työstä ja työolosuhteista johtuvat vaara- ja haittatekijät. Perinteisesti yritykset ovat suorittaneet riskien arviointia erilaisten tarkistuslistojen avulla, mutta nykyään tietotekniikan käytön lisääntyminen on tuonut tietotekniikan myös yhdeksi riskienhallinnan työvälineeksi. Tämän työn tavoitteena oli tutkia If Vahinkovakuutusyhtiön uuden riskien arviointiohjelman käyttöönottoa metsäteollisuuden yrityksessä, ja selvittää sen vaikutuksia turvallisuustoimenpiteiden hallintaan ja vastaavuutta sille ennakkoon asetettuihin käytettävyysvaatimuksiin. Riskien arviointiohjelmaa tutkittiin pilottikohteessa Stora Enson Anjalankoskentehtailla. Tietoa kerättiin mm. käyttäjäkoulutustilaisuuksien palautekyselyillä, haastattelemalla arvioijia ja osallistumalla riskien arviointikierroksille. Tutkimuksessa seurattiin mm. ohjelman avulla syntyneiden toimenpide-ehdotuksien määrää ja laatua, ja sitä kuinka hyvin ohjelmalle suunniteltu sisältö sopii käyttöön. Tämän tutkimuksen perusteella havaittiin, että riskien arviointiin tarkoitettu tietokoneohjelma voidaan suunnitella helppokäyttöiseksi ja toimivaksi. Myös ohjelman sisältö, joka oli tarkoitettu kattamaan työturvallisuuden eri osa-alueet, havaittiin tarkoitukseen sopivaksi. Riskien arvioinnin ongelmallisin alue, eli turvallisuustoimenpiteiden suunnittelu ja seuranta, havaittiin haasteelliseksi toteutettavaksi ohjelman avulla. Yritysten erilaisiin riskien arviointikäytäntöihinsopivan raportointijärjestelmän ja toimenpideseurannan kehittäminen tulee olemaan tulevaisuudessakin tärkeä osa-alue riskien arviointiohjelmien kehittämisessä.

MANAGING STRATEGIC CHANGE:New Business Models Applying Wireless Technology as a Source of Competitive Edge

The diffusion of mobile telephony began in 1971 in Finland, when the first car phones, called ARP1 were taken to use. Technologies changed from ARP to NMT and later to GSM. The main application of the technology, however, was voice transfer. The birth of the Internet created an open public data network and easy access to other types of computer-based services over networks. Telephones had been used as modems, but the development of the cellular technologies enabled automatic access from mobile phones to Internet. Also other wireless technologies, for instance Wireless LANs, were also introduced. Telephony had developed from analog to digital in fixed networks and allowed easy integration of fixed and mobile networks. This development opened a completely new functionality to computers and mobile phones. It also initiated the merger of the information technology (IT) and telecommunication (TC) industries. Despite the arising opportunity for firms' new competition the applications based on the new functionality were rare. Furthermore, technology development combined with innovation can be disruptive to industries. This research focuses on the new technology's impact on competition in the ICT industry through understanding the strategic needs and alternative futures of the industry's customers. The change speed inthe ICT industry is high and therefore it was valuable to integrate the DynamicCapability view of the firm in this research. Dynamic capabilities are an application of the Resource-Based View (RBV) of the firm. As is stated in the literature, strategic positioning complements RBV. This theoretical framework leads theresearch to focus on three areas: customer strategic innovation and business model development, external future analysis, and process development combining these two. The theoretical contribution of the research is in the development of methodology integrating theories of the RBV, dynamic capabilities and strategic positioning. The research approach has been constructive due to the actual managerial problems initiating the study. The requirement for iterative and innovative progress in the research supported the chosen research approach. The study applies known methods in product development, for instance, innovation process in theGroup Decision Support Systems (GDSS) laboratory and Quality Function Deployment (QFD), and combines them with known strategy analysis tools like industry analysis and scenario method. As the main result, the thesis presents the strategic innovation process, where new business concepts are used to describe the alternative resource configurations and scenarios as alternative competitive environments, which can be a new way for firms to achieve competitive advantage in high-velocity markets. In addition to the strategic innovation process as a result, thestudy has also resulted in approximately 250 new innovations for the participating firms, reduced technology uncertainty and helped strategic infrastructural decisions in the firms, and produced a knowledge-bank including data from 43 ICT and 19 paper industry firms between the years 1999 - 2004. The methods presentedin this research are also applicable to other industries.

SELLUTEHTAAN HÖYRYVERKON YLIJÄÄMÄENERGIAN HALLINNAN PARANTAMINEN

Tässä työssä on selvitetty sellutehtaan höyryverkosta tehtaan ulkopuolelle myytävän ylijäämähöyryn määrän ja paineen nopeaan vaihteluun vaikuttavia tekijöitä. Työssä on tarkasteltu höyryn kehityksen ja kulutuksen vaihtelun vaikutusta ylijäämähöyryyn. Lisäksi on tarkasteltu mahdollisuuksia edellä mainittujen häiriöiden tasaamiseksi. Työssä on selvitetty teoriaa, joka vaikuttaa sellutehtaan höyryn kehitykseen ja kulutukseen. Lisäksi on selvitetty energiataselaskennan ja höyryverkon hallintaa parantavien toimenpiteiden teoriaa. Omana kokonaisuutena on sellutehtaan höyryn kehityksen ja kulutuksen tarkastelu sekä selvitys tehtaan höyryverkon hallinnan nykytilasta. Höyryverkolle on muodostettu energiatase. Työn tuloksia varten on kerätty ja tallennettu mittapistetietoa tiedonkeräysjärjestelmän avulla eri höyryverkon mittapisteistä. Työn tuloksina on mainittu useita höyryverkon hallintaa parantavia toteutuskelpoisia asioita ja toimenpiteitä. Työllä on luotu pohjaa menetelmälle, joka ohjaa energian kehitystä vastaamaan sellun tuotannon tarvitsemaa energiamäärää. Samalla saataisiin paremmin hallittua ylijäämähöyryä ja sen määrän sekä paineen vaihtelu vähentyisi.

Voimalaitoksen tuotannon optimointijärjestelmän suunnittelu

Tässä diplomityössä on suunniteltu ja toteutettu tuotannon optimointijärjestelmä Kotkan Energia Oy:n tuotantolaitoksille sekä osto- ja myyntisopimuksille. Työssä on kerätty ja laskettu Kotkan Energian tuotantolaitosten teknisiä ja suunnittelutietoja, sekä esitelty eri laitteiden ja tuotantolaitosten toimintaa. Lisäksi on käyty läpi kaukolämmön ja prosessihöyryn kulutusta, kulutuksien ennustamista ja tuotantojärjestelmiä, sekä sähkökauppaa ja laitoksilla käytettävien polttoaineiden ominaisuuksia ja hintoja. Voimalaitoksen laitteille on laskettu hyötysuhteet ja tuotteiden hinnat erilaisilla kuormilla. Laskelmien avulla on tehty polynomisovitteet laitteiden hyötysuhteille. Polynomisovitteet ja muu laitosten toiminnasta kerätty ja laskettu tieto on siirretty Kotkan Energian tietohallintopäällikön kanssa yhteistyössä kehitettyyn tietokonepohjaiseen optimointiohjelmaan. Myös optimoinnin teoriaa ja menetelmiä on käyty lyhyesti läpi. Optimointiohjelman avulla pystytään nyt laskemaan erilaisten kaukolämmön, prosessihöyryn ja sähkön hintojen ja kulutusten mukaisia optimaalisia ajotapoja Hovinsaaren voimalaitoksen tuotannolle ja hankintasopimuksille. Optimointiohjelmalla pyritään maksimoimaan energiantuotannon kokonaistuottoa tai minimoimaan tuotantokustannuksia annettujen ja ennustettujen alkuarvojen mukaisesti. Ohjelman antamia tuloksia voidaan käyttää apuna esimerkiksi tuotannon suunnittelussa ja budjetoinnissa. Laskelmat ja ohjelman kehittäminen ovat onnistuneet hyvin ja ohjelman käyttämisestä ja testaamisesta saadut tulokset vaikuttavat oikeanlaisilta ja luotettavilta. Optimointiohjelma on nyt käytössä ja jatkokehittely jatkuu myös diplomityön valmistumisen jälkeen.

Tuotannonohjauksen kehittäminen piensarjatuotannossa

Tämä diplomityö käsittelee teollisen yrityksen tuotannonohjauksen kehittämistä piensarjatuotannossa. Työn kohteena on ABB Oy:n Tuulivoimageneraattorit-tulosyksikkö, joka valmistaa vakiotuotteita asiakasohjautuvasti. Työssä esitellään aluksi tuotannon ja tuotannonohjauksen teoriaa. Lävitse käydään perusasioiden kuten määritelmien, tavoitteiden ja tehtävien lisäksi tuotannonohjausprosessia sekä tuotannonohjauksen tietotekniikkaa. Teorian jälkeisessä empiriaosuudessa esitellään työssä kehitettyjä keinoja tuotannonohjauksen parantamiseksi. Tutkimus on toteutettu teoreettisen ja empiirisen tutkimustyön avulla. Teoreettiseen tutkimustyöhön sisältyi suomalaisiin ja ulkomaalaisiin kirjallisuuslähteisiin perehtyminen. Empiirinen tutkimustyö suoritettiin itsenäisen ongelman ratkaisutyön avulla. Tämä sisälsi kehittämiskohteiden analysoinnin, tarkempien kehittämistarpeiden määrityksen sekä kokeilujen kautta tapahtuneen kehittämistyön. Tutkimuksen päätavoitteena oli selvittää, miten tuotannonohjauksen kehittämisellä voidaan parantaa kohteena olevan tulosyksikön tuottavuutta ja kannattavuutta. Päätavoitteen pohjalta muodostettiin kuusi osatavoitetta: toimitusvarmuuden parantaminen, kapasiteetin kuormitusasteen nostaminen, kapasiteetin suunnittelun kehittäminen, läpäisyaikojen lyhentäminen, uuden ERP-järjestelmän vaatimusmäärittely sekä tuotannonohjausprosessin määrittäminen. Työssä rakennettiin neljään ensiksi mainittuun osatavoitteeseen tietotekniset sovellukset, jotka mahdollistavat osatavoitteiden suunnittelun ja ohjaamisen. Sovelluksia varten kullekin tuotteelle määriteltiin esimerkiksi työnvaiheketjut läpäisyaikoineen, kuormitusryhmät, kuormitusryhmien kapasiteetit, tuotteiden kuormittavuudet sekä kriittiset työvälineet. Työ osoitti, että tietotekniikka auttaa suuresti tuotannonohjauksessa. Lisääntynyt läpinäkyvyys, parantunut tiedonkulku, simulointimahdollisuudet sekä graafinen esitystapa helpottavat erilaisten suunnitelmien teossa ja parantavat siten päätöksenteon laatua. Tietotekniikan hyväksikäytön pohjana toimii tuotannon perus- ja tapahtumatietojen kurinalainen päivitys. Tämän vuoksi tietojärjestelmistä kannattaa rakentaa mahdollisimman yksinkertaisia.

Development of Calculation Procedures for Wastewater Treatment Technologies for a Training System

Efficient designs and operations of water and wastewater treatment systems are largely based on mathematical calculations. This even applies to training in the treatment systems. Therefore, it is necessary that calculation procedures are developed and computerised a priori for such applications to ensure effectiveness. This work was aimed at developing calculation procedures for gas stripping, depth filtration, ion exchange, chemical precipitation, and ozonation wastewater treatment technologies to include them in ED-WAVE, a portable computer based tool used in design, operations and training in wastewater treatment. The work involved a comprehensive online and offline study of research work and literature, and application of practical case studies to generate ED-WAVE compatible representations of the treatment technologies which were then uploaded into the tool.

Parallella, dynamiska representationer i gymnasiefysiken : implementering av ett interaktivt datorverktyg i didaktiska situationer och uppfattning av effektivt lärande

The computer is a useful tool in the teaching of upper secondary school physics, and should not have a subordinate role in students' learning process. However, computers and computer-based tools are often not available when they could serve their purpose best in the ongoing teaching. Another problem is the fact that commercially available tools are not usable in the way the teacher wants. The aim of this thesis was to try out a novel teaching scenario in a complicated subject in physics, electrodynamics. The didactic engineering of the thesis consisted of developing a computer-based simulation and training material, implementing the tool in physics teaching and investigating its effectiveness in the learning process. The design-based research method, didactic engineering (Artigue, 1994), which is based on the theoryof didactical situations (Brousseau, 1997), was used as a frame of reference for the design of this type of teaching product. In designing the simulation tool a general spreadsheet program was used. The design was based on parallel, dynamic representations of the physics behind the function of an AC series circuit in both graphical and numerical form. The tool, which was furnished with possibilities to control the representations in an interactive way, was hypothesized to activate the students and promote the effectiveness of their learning. An effect variable was constructed in order to measure the students' and teachers' conceptions of learning effectiveness. The empirical study was twofold. Twelve physics students, who attended a course in electrodynamics in an upper secondary school, participated in a class experiment with the computer-based tool implemented in three modes of didactical situations: practice, concept introduction and assessment. The main goal of the didactical situations was to have students solve problems and study the function of AC series circuits, taking responsibility for theirown learning process. In the teacher study eighteen Swedish speaking physics teachers evaluated the didactic potential of the computer-based tool and the accompanying paper-based material without using them in their physics teaching. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected using questionnaires, observations and interviews. The result of the studies showed that both the group of students and the teachers had generally positive conceptions of learning effectiveness. The students' conceptions were more positive in the practice situation than in the concept introduction situation, a setting that was more explorative. However, it turned out that the students' conceptions were also positive in the more complex assessment situation. This had not been hypothesized. A deeper analysis of data from observations and interviews showed that one of the students in each pair was more active than the other, taking more initiative and more responsibilityfor the student-student and student-computer interaction. These active studentshad strong, positive conceptions of learning effectiveness in each of the threedidactical situations. The group of less active students had a weak but positive conception in the first iv two situations, but a negative conception in the assessment situation, thus corroborating the hypothesis ad hoc. The teacher study revealed that computers were seldom used in physics teaching and that computer programs were in short supply. The use of a computer was considered time-consuming. As long as physics teaching with computer-based tools has to take place in special computer rooms, the use of such tools will remain limited. The affordance is enhanced when the physical dimensions as well as the performance of the computer are optimised. As a consequence, the computer then becomes a real learning tool for each pair of students, smoothly integrated into the ongoing teaching in the same space where teaching normally takes place. With more interactive support from the teacher, the computer-based parallel, dynamic representations will be efficient in promoting the learning process of the students with focus on qualitative reasoning - an often neglected part of the learning process of the students in upper secondary school physics.

Formal development and quantitative verification of dependable systems

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Rigorous development of safety-critical systems

Nowadays, computer-based systems tend to become more complex and control increasingly critical functions affecting different areas of human activities. Failures of such systems might result in loss of human lives as well as significant damage to the environment. Therefore, their safety needs to be ensured. However, the development of safety-critical systems is not a trivial exercise. Hence, to preclude design faults and guarantee the desired behaviour, different industrial standards prescribe the use of rigorous techniques for development and verification of such systems. The more critical the system is, the more rigorous approach should be undertaken. To ensure safety of a critical computer-based system, satisfaction of the safety requirements imposed on this system should be demonstrated. This task involves a number of activities. In particular, a set of the safety requirements is usually derived by conducting various safety analysis techniques. Strong assurance that the system satisfies the safety requirements can be provided by formal methods, i.e., mathematically-based techniques. At the same time, the evidence that the system under consideration meets the imposed safety requirements might be demonstrated by constructing safety cases. However, the overall safety assurance process of critical computerbased systems remains insufficiently defined due to the following reasons. Firstly, there are semantic differences between safety requirements and formal models. Informally represented safety requirements should be translated into the underlying formal language to enable further veri cation. Secondly, the development of formal models of complex systems can be labour-intensive and time consuming. Thirdly, there are only a few well-defined methods for integration of formal verification results into safety cases. This thesis proposes an integrated approach to the rigorous development and verification of safety-critical systems that (1) facilitates elicitation of safety requirements and their incorporation into formal models, (2) simplifies formal modelling and verification by proposing specification and refinement patterns, and (3) assists in the construction of safety cases from the artefacts generated by formal reasoning. Our chosen formal framework is Event-B. It allows us to tackle the complexity of safety-critical systems as well as to structure safety requirements by applying abstraction and stepwise refinement. The Rodin platform, a tool supporting Event-B, assists in automatic model transformations and proof-based verification of the desired system properties. The proposed approach has been validated by several case studies from different application domains.

Study of ligand-based virtual screening tools in computer-aided drug design

Virtual screening is a central technique in drug discovery today. Millions of molecules can be tested in silico with the aim to only select the most promising and test them experimentally. The topic of this thesis is ligand-based virtual screening tools which take existing active molecules as starting point for finding new drug candidates. One goal of this thesis was to build a model that gives the probability that two molecules are biologically similar as function of one or more chemical similarity scores. Another important goal was to evaluate how well different ligand-based virtual screening tools are able to distinguish active molecules from inactives. One more criterion set for the virtual screening tools was their applicability in scaffold-hopping, i.e. finding new active chemotypes. In the first part of the work, a link was defined between the abstract chemical similarity score given by a screening tool and the probability that the two molecules are biologically similar. These results help to decide objectively which virtual screening hits to test experimentally. The work also resulted in a new type of data fusion method when using two or more tools. In the second part, five ligand-based virtual screening tools were evaluated and their performance was found to be generally poor. Three reasons for this were proposed: false negatives in the benchmark sets, active molecules that do not share the binding mode, and activity cliffs. In the third part of the study, a novel visualization and quantification method is presented for evaluation of the scaffold-hopping ability of virtual screening tools.

The nature of communication structures of university students in an international web-based computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) course

Communication, the flow of ideas and information between individuals in a social context, is the heart of educational experience. Constructivism and constructivist theories form the foundation for the collaborative learning processes of creating and sharing meaning in online educational contexts. The Learning and Collaboration in Technology-enhanced Contexts (LeCoTec) course comprised of 66 participants drawn from four European universities (Oulu, Turku, Ghent and Ramon Llull). These participants were split into 15 groups with the express aim of learning about computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL). The Community of Inquiry model (social, cognitive and teaching presences) provided the content and tools for learning and researching the collaborative interactions in this environment. The sampled comments from the collaborative phase were collected and analyzed at chain-level and group-level, with the aim of identifying the various message types that sustained high learning outcomes. Furthermore, the Social Network Analysis helped to view the density of whole group interactions, as well as the popular and active members within the highly collaborating groups. It was observed that long chains occur in groups having high quality outcomes. These chains were also characterized by Social, Interactivity, Administrative and Content comment-types. In addition, high outcomes were realized from the high interactive cases and high-density groups. In low interactive groups, commenting patterned around the one or two central group members. In conclusion, future online environments should support high-order learning and develop greater metacognition and self-regulation. Moreover, such an environment, with a wide variety of problem solving tools, would enhance interactivity.

Emotions in a Web-based Learning Environment

The aim of this thesis was to examine emotions in a web-based learning environment (WBLE). Theoretically, the thesis was grounded on the dimensional model of emotions. Four empirical studies were conducted. Study I focused on students’ anxiety and their self-efficacy in computer-using situations. Studies II and III examined the influence of experienced emotions on students’ collaborative visible and non-collaborative invisible activities and lurking in a WBLE. Study II also focused on the antecedents of the emotions students experience in a web-based learning environment. Study IV concentrated on clarifying the differences between emotions experienced in face-to-face and web-based collaborative learning. The results of these studies are reported in four original research articles published in scientific journals. The present studies demonstrate that emotions are important determinants of student behaviour in a web-based learning, and justify the conclusion that interactions on the web can and do have an emotional content. Based on the results of these empirical studies, it can be concluded that the emotions students experience during the web-based learning result mostly from the social interactions rather than from the technological context. The studies indicate that the technology itself is not the only antecedent of students’ emotional reactions in the collaborative web-based learning situations. However, the technology itself also exerted an influence on students’ behaviour. It was found that students’ computer anxiety was associated with their negative expectations of the consequences of using technology-based learning environments in their studies. Moreover, the results also indicated that student behaviours in a WBLE can be divided into three partially overlapping classes: i) collaborative visible ii) non-collaborative invisible activities, and iii) lurking. What is more, students’ emotions experienced during the web-based learning affected how actively they participated in such activities in the environment. Especially lurkers, i.e. students who seldom participated in discussions but frequently visited the online environment, experienced more negatively valenced emotions during the courses than did the other students. This result indicates that such negatively toned emotional experiences can make the lurking individuals less eager to participate in other WBLE courses in the future. Therefore, future research should also focus more precisely on the reasons that cause individuals to lurk in online learning groups, and the development of learning tasks that do not encourage or permit lurking or inactivity. Finally, the results from the study comparing emotional reactions in web-based and face-to-face collaborative learning indicated that the learning by means of web-based communication resulted in more affective reactivity when compared to learning in a face-to-face situation. The results imply that the students in the web-based learning group experienced more intense emotions than the students in the face-to-face learning group.The interpretations of this result are that the lack of means for expressing emotional reactions and perceiving others’ emotions increased the affectivity in the web-based learning groups. Such increased affective reactivity could, for example, debilitate individual’s learning performance, especially in complex learning tasks. Therefore, it is recommended that in the future more studies should be focused on the possibilities to express emotions in a text-based web environment to ensure better means for communicating emotions, and subsequently, possibly decrease the high level of affectivity. However, we do not yet know whether the use of means for communicating emotional expressions via the web (for example, “smileys” or “emoticons”) would be beneficial or disadvantageous in formal learning situations. Therefore, future studies should also focus on assessing how the use of such symbols as a means for expressing emotions in a text-based web environment would affect students’ and teachers’ behaviour and emotional state in web-based learning environments.