The role of the efflux mechanisms in multidrug resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Abstract The emergence of multi and extensively drug resistant tuberculosis (MDRTB and XDRTB) has increased the concern of public health authorities around the world. The World Health Organization has defined MDRTB as tuberculosis (TB) caused by organisms resistant to at least isoniazid and rifampicin, the main first-line drugs used in TB therapy, whereas XDRTB refers to TB resistant not only to isoniazid and rifampicin, but also to a fluoroquinolone and to at least one of the three injectable second-line drugs, kanamycin, amikacin and capreomycin. Resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis is mainly due to the occurrence of spontaneous mutations and followed by selection of mutants by subsequent treatment. However, some resistant clinical isolates do not present mutations in any genes associated with resistance to a given antibiotic, which suggests that other mechanism(s) are involved in the development of drug resistance, namely the presence of efflux pump systems that extrude the drug to the exterior of the cell, preventing access to its target. Increased efflux activity can occur in response to prolonged exposure to subinhibitory concentrations of anti-TB drugs, a situation that may result from inadequate TB therapy. The inhibition of efflux activity with a non-antibiotic inhibitor may restore activity of an antibiotic subject to efflux and thus provide a way to enhance the activity of current anti-TB drugs. The work described in this thesis foccus on the study of efflux mechanisms in the development of multidrug resistance in M. tuberculosis and how phenotypic resistance, mediated by efflux pumps, correlates with genetic resistance. In order to accomplish this goal, several experimental protocols were developed using biological models such as Escherichia coli, the fast growing mycobacteria Mycobacterium smegmatis, and Mycobacterium avium, before their application to M. tuberculosis. This approach allowed the study of the mechanisms that result in the physiological adaptation of E. coli to subinhibitory concentrations of tetracycline (Chapter II), the development of a fluorometric method that allows the detection and quantification of efflux of ethidium bromide (Chapter III), the characterization of the ethidium bromide transport in M. smegmatis (Chapter IV) and the contribution of efflux activity to macrolide resistance in Mycobacterium avium complex (Chapter V). Finally, the methods developed allowed the study of the role of efflux pumps in M. tuberculosis strains induced to isoniazid resistance (Chapter VI). By this manner, in Chapter II it was possible to observe that the physiological adaptation of E. coli to tetracycline results from an interplay between events at the genetic level and protein folding that decrease permeability of the cell envelope and increase efflux pump activity. Furthermore, Chapter III describes the development of a semi-automated fluorometric method that allowed the correlation of this efflux activity with the transport kinetics of ethidium bromide (a known efflux pump substrate) in E. coli and the identification of efflux inhibitors. Concerning M. smegmatis, we have compared the wild-type M. smegmatis mc2155 with knockout mutants for LfrA and MspA for their ability to transport ethidium bromide. The results presented in Chapter IV showed that MspA, the major porin in M. smegmatis, plays an important role in the entrance of ethidium bromide and antibiotics into the cell and that efflux via the LfrA pump is involved in low-level resistance to these compounds in M. smegmatis. Chapter V describes the study of the contribution of efflux pumps to macrolide resistance in clinical M. avium complex isolates. It was demonstrated that resistance to clarithromycin was significantly reduced in the presence of efflux inhibitors such as thioridazine, chlorpromazine and verapamil. These same inhibitors decreased efflux of ethidium bromide and increased the retention of [14C]-erythromycin in these isolates. Finaly, the methods developed with the experimental models mentioned above allowed the study of the role of efflux pumps on M. tuberculosis strains induced to isoniazid resistance. This is described in Chapter VI of this Thesis, where it is demonstrated that induced resistance to isoniazid does not involve mutations in any of the genes known to be associated with isoniazid resistance, but an efflux system that is sensitive to efflux inhibitors. These inhibitors decreased the efflux of ethidium bromide and also reduced the minimum inhibitory concentration of isoniazid in these strains. Moreover, expression analysis showed overexpression of genes that code for efflux pumps in the induced strains relatively to the non-induced parental strains. In conclusion, the work described in this thesis demonstrates that efflux pumps play an important role in the development of drug resistance, namely in mycobacteria. A strategy to overcome efflux-mediated resistance may consist on the use of compounds that inhibit efflux activity, restoring the activity of antimicrobials that are efflux pump substrates, a useful approach particularly in TB where the most effective treatment regimens are becoming uneffective due to the increase of MDRTB/XDRTB.

Au-nanossondas aplicação na detecção de Mycobacterium tuberculosis e plasmodium berghei

Dissertação apresentada na Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia da Universidade Nova de Lisboa para a obtenção do grau de Mestre em Biotecnologia

Caracterização de estirpes de Mycobacterium bovis: estudos de crescimento e de interacção com macrófagos

Dissertação para obtenção do Grau de Mestre em Genética Molecular e Biomedicina

Caracterização de estirpes Mycobacterium Tuberculosis da família Lisboa: análise de regiões de diferença e single nucleotide polymorphisms

Dissertação apresentada para a obtenção do Grau de Mestre em Genética Molecular e Biomedicina, pela Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia

Gold nanoprobes for the detection of mutations associated with antibiotic resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex

Dissertação para obtenção do Grau de Mestre em Genética Molecular e Biomedicina

Novas estratégias no combate à tuberculose: a NADH-MENAQUINONA desidrogenase do tipo II de Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Dissertação para obtenção do Grau de Mestre em Microbiologia Médica

Lab on paper: biossensores colorimétricos de papel para a detecção de membros do complexo Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Este trabalho foi realizado no âmbito do projecto Lab on Paper, desenvolvido no Centro de Investigação de Materiais (CENIMAT) da Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia da Universidade Nova de Lisboa (FCT - UNL)

Infeção por Mycobacterium Tuberculosis em profissionais de saúde : metodologia de avaliação do risco e sua aplicação num hospital central

RESUMO - A Tuberculose surge, de acordo com o último relatório da Organização Mundial da Saúde, como a segunda principal causa de morte em todo o mundo, de entre as doenças infeciosas. Em 2012, 1.3 milhões de pessoas morreram devido a esta patologia e surgiram 8.6 milhões de novos casos. De entre os grupos de risco de infeção, surgem os profissionais de saúde. A dificuldade no diagnóstico da Tuberculose, o contacto próximo com os pacientes, as medidas de controlo de infeção por vezes inadequadas são algumas das razões que explicam o risco mais elevado de contrair Tuberculose no local de trabalho. Esta Dissertação de Mestrado pretende estabelecer uma nova classificação de risco de infeção por M. tuberculosis em estabelecimentos de saúde, com vista a promover a saúde destes profissionais, inovadora nos critérios de avaliação das medidas de controlo de infeção e de análise dos casos de exposição não protegida a Tuberculose ativa. Esta metodologia de avaliação foi o resultado de uma revisão bibliográfica sobre a temática, tendo sido aplicada num hospital para verificar a sua adequabilidade e mais-valia.

Molecular tools in the diagnostic and epidemiology of infections caused by members of Mycobacterium avium Complex

Mycobacterium avium Complex (MAC) comprises microorganisms that affect a wide range of animals including humans. The most relevant are Mycobacterium avium subspecies hominissuis (Mah) with a high impact on public health affecting mainly immunocompromised individuals and Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (Map) causing paratuberculosis in animals with a high economic impact worldwide. In this work, we characterized 28 human and 67 porcine Mah isolates and evaluated the relationship among them by Multiple-Locus Variable number tandem repeat Analysis (MLVA). We concluded that Mah population presented a high genetic diversity and no correlations were inferred based on geographical origin, host or biological sample. For the first time in Portugal Map strains, from asymptomatic bovine faecal samples were isolated highlighting the need of more reliable and rapid diagnostic methods for Map direct detection. Therefore, we developed an IS900 nested real time PCR with high sensitivity and specificity associated with optimized DNA extraction methodologies for faecal and milk samples. We detected 83% of 155 faecal samples from goats, cattle and sheep, and 26% of 98 milk samples from cattle, positive for Map IS900 nested real time PCR. A novel SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms) assay to Map characterization based on a Whole Genome Sequencing analysis was developed to elucidate the genetic relationship between strains. Based on sequential detection of 14 SNPs and on a decision tree we were able to differentiate 14 phylogenetic groups with a higher discriminatory power compared to other typing methods. A pigmented Map strain was isolated and characterized evidencing for the first time to our knowledge the existence of pigmented Type C strains. With this work, we intended to improve the ante mortem direct molecular detection of Map, to conscientiously aware for the existence of Map animal infections widespread in Portugal and to contribute to the improvement of Map and Mah epidemiological studies.

Diagnóstico molecular da tuberculose bovina

Dissertação apresentada para a obtenção do Grau de Mestre em Genética Molecular e Biomedicina, pela Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia

Noble metal nanoparticles - Au and Ag - for biodetection

Dissertation submitted for obtainment of the Master’s Degree in Biotechnology, by the Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia

Aplicação de sistemas moleculares na detecção rápida de MDR-TB e XDR-TB

Mycobacterium tuberculosis é o agente etiológico da tuberculose em humanos e segundo as estimativas da Organização Mundial da Saúde, um terço da população mundial está infectada com esta bactéria, calculando-se que no ano de 2008 aproximadamente 9,4 milhões de pessoas contraíram tuberculose activa. Associada a esta tendência, encontra-se o aumento alarmante da incidência de tuberculose resistente aos antibióticos, mais propriamente da tuberculose multirresistente e extensivamente resistente. Nesta Dissertação estudaram-se três sistemas de detecção molecular (INNO-LiPA Rif. TB, Innogenetics, Ghent, Bélgica, MTBDRplus e MTBDRsl, GenoType, GmbH, Nehren, Alemanha), que permitem detectar o complexo M. tuberculosis e as mutações mais comuns associadas à resistência aos antibióticos de primeira e segunda linha. Para o efeito, na primeira parte do trabalho os três sistemas em estudo foram testados em 21 isolados clínicos pertencentes à colecção do Laboratório de Micobactérias do Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical (IHMT, UNL), com o propósito de avaliar a sua capacidade para identificar o complexo M. tuberculosis e detectar mutações ligadas à resistência aos fármacos de primeira e segunda linha. Na segunda parte do trabalho, os sistemas INNO-LiPA Rif. TB e MTBDRplus foram testados em 33 amostras respiratórias com baciloscopia positiva, com o propósito de aferir a “performance” destes sistemas para a detecção directa de tuberculose multirresistente em amostras respiratórias. Na primeira parte do trabalho os três sistemas em estudo apresentaram elevada sensibilidade na identificação do complexo M. tuberculosis em culturas, bem como na detecção de mutações ligadas à resistência aos antibióticos de primeira linha, com excepção do etambutol. No que diz respeito à detecção da resistência aos antibióticos de segunda linha, não foi possível calcular os valores de sensibilidade e especificidade. Na segunda parte do trabalho, o INNO-LiPA Rif. TB demonstrou ser o sistema mais robusto para a análise directa de amostras respiratórias com baciloscopia positiva, para um diagnóstico precoce de tuberculose e detecção de resistência à rifampicina. O MTBDRplus não se mostrou uma alternativa viável ao INNO-LiPA Rif. TB, pois apresentou baixa sensibilidade para a identificação do complexo M. tuberculosis e vários problemas no passo de amplificação. O MTBDRsl não foi testado, por não ter sido detectada nenhuma amostra multirresistente.

Positive Epistasis Drives the Acquisition of Multidrug Resistance

The evolution of multiple antibiotic resistance is an increasing global problem. Resistance mutations are known to impair fitness, and the evolution of resistance to multiple drugs depends both on their costs individually and on how they interact-epistasis. Information on the level of epistasis between antibiotic resistance mutations is of key importance to understanding epistasis amongst deleterious alleles, a key theoretical question, and to improving public health measures. Here we show that in an antibiotic-free environment the cost of multiple resistance is smaller than expected, a signature of pervasive positive epistasis among alleles that confer resistance to antibiotics. Competition assays reveal that the cost of resistance to a given antibiotic is dependent on the presence of resistance alleles for other antibiotics. Surprisingly we find that a significant fraction of resistant mutations can be beneficial in certain resistant genetic backgrounds, that some double resistances entail no measurable cost, and that some allelic combinations are hotspots for rapid compensation. These results provide additional insight as to why multi-resistant bacteria are so prevalent and reveal an extra layer of complexity on epistatic patterns previously unrecognized, since it is hidden in genome-wide studies of genetic interactions using gene knockouts.

Identificação de micobactérias não tuberculosas através de métodos moleculares não comerciais

Embora Mycobacterium tuberculosis, o agente etiológico da tuberculose humana, seja a principal causa de micobacteriose no Homem, outras micobactérias não tuberculosas (MNT), podem também causar infecção em seres humanos, sendo cada vez mais frequentemente isoladas no laboratório de micobacteriologia. Dada a morosidade da identificação de MNT por métodos convencionais, torna-se essencial o desenvolvimento de métodos rápidos e fiáveis para a sua identificação. Neste estudo foram comparados três métodos moleculares para a identificação de MNT, baseados na análise de restrição enzimática após amplificação de: (i) região rRNA 16S-23S “Internal Transcribed Spacer” (ITS), (ii) gene hsp65, e (iii) zona ITS e regiões adjacentes, 16S e 23S rDNA. Para este fim, avaliamos 50 isolados, correspondendo a 47 isolados clínicos de MNT e três estirpes de referência, representando as 11 espécies de MNT mais frequentemente isoladas no laboratório de Micobactérias do Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical (IHMT, UNL) e uma estirpe referência de M. tuberculosis, e identificadas anteriormente utilizando o sistema comercial GenoType® Mycobacterium CM/AS (Hain Lifescience). O PCR-RFLP do gene hsp65 proporcionou os melhores resultados, identificando correctamente 42 dos 49 isolados de MNT, pertencentes a M. avium, M. gordonae, M. intracellulare, M. kansasii, M. chelonae, M. fortuitum, M. abscessus, M. szulgai, M. peregrinum e M. xenopi. O PCR-RFLP da região ITS identificou correctamente 28 dos 49 isolados testados, não distinguindo M. intracellulare/M. scrofulaceum, M. avium/M. bohemicum e M. kansasii/M. szulgai. Finalmente, o PCR-RFLP da região ITS e regiões adjacentes mostrou o pior desempenho, com apenas oito isolados correctamente identificados e falhando na amplificação de diversos isolados. Dos três métodos testados, o PCR-RFLP do gene hsp65 e da região ITS mostraram maior capacidade de identificação e reprodutibilidade. No entanto, a sua aplicação exige uma optimização cuidadosa das condições de análise e a sua aplicabilidade depende, em grande parte, da diversidade xi de MNT em cada laboratório. Verificaram-se também várias dificuldades a nível da interpretação dos resultados. Assim, apesar das vantagens referidas na literatura para estes três métodos, verificou-se que o grau de variabilidade e dificuldade de interpretação associados aos padrões obtidos, limitam a sua implementação no laboratório de diagnóstico de micobacteriologia.

Design and development of a microfluidic platform for use with colorimetric gold nanoprobe assays

Due to the importance and wide applications of the DNA analysis, there is a need to make genetic analysis more available and more affordable. As such, the aim of this PhD thesis is to optimize a colorimetric DNA biosensor based on gold nanoprobes developed in CEMOP by reducing its price and the needed volume of solution without compromising the device sensitivity and reliability, towards the point of care use. Firstly, the price of the biosensor was decreased by replacing the silicon photodetector by a low cost, solution processed TiO2 photodetector. To further reduce the photodetector price, a novel fabrication method was developed: a cost-effective inkjet printing technology that enabled to increase TiO2 surface area. Secondly, the DNA biosensor was optimized by means of microfluidics that offer advantages of miniaturization, much lower sample/reagents consumption, enhanced system performance and functionality by integrating different components. In the developed microfluidic platform, the optical path length was extended by detecting along the channel and the light was transmitted by optical fibres enabling to guide the light very close to the analysed solution. Microfluidic chip of high aspect ratio (~13), smooth and nearly vertical sidewalls was fabricated in PDMS using a SU-8 mould for patterning. The platform coupled to the gold nanoprobe assay enabled detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis using 3 8l on DNA solution, i.e. 20 times less than in the previous state-of-the-art. Subsequently, the bio-microfluidic platform was optimized in terms of cost, electrical signal processing and sensitivity to colour variation, yielding 160% improvement of colorimetric AuNPs analysis. Planar microlenses were incorporated to converge light into the sample and then to the output fibre core increasing 6 times the signal-to-losses ratio. The optimized platform enabled detection of single nucleotide polymorphism related with obesity risk (FTO) using target DNA concentration below the limit of detection of the conventionally used microplate reader (i.e. 15 ng/μl) with 10 times lower solution volume (3 μl). The combination of the unique optical properties of gold nanoprobes with microfluidic platform resulted in sensitive and accurate sensor for single nucleotide polymorphism detection operating using small volumes of solutions and without the need for substrate functionalization or sophisticated instrumentation. Simultaneously, to enable on chip reagents mixing, a PDMS micromixer was developed and optimized for the highest efficiency, low pressure drop and short mixing length. The optimized device shows 80% of mixing efficiency at Re = 0.1 in 2.5 mm long mixer with the pressure drop of 6 Pa, satisfying requirements for the application in the microfluidic platform for DNA analysis.