Laser assisted directional solidification of zirconia-based eutectics

Directionally solidified zirconia-based eutectic (DSE) fibres were obtained using the laser floating zone (LFZ) method. Two systems were investigated: zirconia-barium zirconate and zirconia-mullite. The purpose was to take advantage of zirconia properties, particularly as an ionic conductor and a mechanical rein-forcement phase. The influence of processing conditions in the structural and microstructural characteristics and their consequences on the electrical and mechanical behaviour were the focus of this thesis. The novel zirconia-barium zirconate eutectic materials were developed in order to combine oxygen ionic conduction through zirconia with protonic conduction from barium zirconate, promoting mixed ionic conduction behaviour. The mi-crostructure of the fibres comprises two alternated regions: bands having coarser zirconia-rich microstructure; and inter-band regions changing from a homogeneous coupled eutectic, at the lowest pulling rate, to columnar colony microstructure, for the faster grown fibres. The bands inter-distance increases with the growth rate and, at 300 mm/h, zirconia dendrites develop enclosed in a fine-interpenetrated network of 50 vol.% ZrO2-50 vol.% BaZrO3. Both phases display contiguity without interphase boundaries, according to impedance spec-troscopy data. Yttria-rich compositions were considered in order to promote the yttrium incorporation in both phases, as revealed by Raman spectroscopy and corroborated by the elemental chemical analysis in energy dispersive spectros-copy. This is a mandatory condition to attain simultaneous contribution to the mixed ionic conduction. Such results are supported by impedance spectrosco-py measurements, which clearly disclose an increase of total ionic conduction for lower temperatures in wet/reduction atmospheres (activation energies of 35 kJ/mol in N2+H2 and 48 kJ/mol in air, in the range of 320-500 ºC) compared to the dry/oxidizing conditions (attaining values close to 90 kJ/mol, above 500 ºC). At high temperatures, the proton incorporation into the barium zirconate is un-favourable, so oxygen ion conduction through zirconia prevails, in dry and oxi-dizing environments, reaching a maximum of 1.3x10-2 S/cm in dry air, at ~1000 ºC. The ionic conduction of zirconia was alternatively combined with another high temperature oxygen ion conductor, as mullite, in order to obtain a broad elec-trolytic domain. The growth rate has a huge influence in the amount of phases and microstructure of the directionally solidified zirconia-mullite fibres. Their microstructure changes from planar coupled eutectic to dendritic eutectic mor-phology, when the growth rate rises from 1 to 500 mm/h, along with an incre-ment of tetragonal zirconia content. Furthermore, high growth rates lead to the development of Al-Si-Y glassy phase, and thus less mullite amount, which is found to considerably reduce the total ionic conduction of as-grown fibres. The reduction of the glassy phase content after annealing (10h; 1400 ºC) promotes an increase of the total ionic conduction (≥0.01 S/cm at 1370 °C), raising the mullite and tetragonal zirconia contents and leading to microstructural differ-ences, namely the distribution and size of the zirconia constituent. This has important consequences in conductivity by improving the percolation pathways. A notable increase in hardness is observed from 11.3 GPa for the 10 mm/h pulled fibre to 21.2 GPa for the fibre grown at 500 mm/h. The ultra-fine eutectic morphology of the 500 mm/h fibres results in a maximum value of 534 MPa for room temperature bending strength, which decreases to about one-fourth of this value at high temperature testing (1400 ºC) due to the soft nature of the glassy-matrix.

Multilayered micro/nanocrystalline CVD diamond coatings for biotribology

In the present work multilayered micro/nanocrystalline (MCD/NCD) diamond coatings were developed by Hot Filament Chemical Vapour Deposition (HFCVD). The aim was to minimize the surface roughness with a top NCD layer, to maximize adhesion onto the Si3N4 ceramic substrates with a starting MCD coating and to improve the mechanical resistance by the presence of MCD/NCD interfaces in these composite coatings. This set of features assures high wear resistance and low friction coefficients which, combined to diamond biocompatibility, set this material as ideal for biotribological applications. The deposition parameters of MCD were optimized using the Taguchi method, and two varieties of NCD were used: NCD-1, grown in a methane rich gas phase, and NCD-2 where a third gas, Argon, was added to the gas mixture. The best combination of surface pre-treatments in the Si3N4 substrates is obtained by polishing the substrates with a 15 μm diamond slurry, further dry etching with CF4 plasma for 10 minutes and final ultrasonic seeding in a diamond powder suspension in ethanol for 1 hour. The interfaces of the multilayered CVD diamond films were characterized with high detail using HRTEM, STEM-EDX and EELS. The results show that at the transition from MCD to NCD a thin precursor graphitic film is formed. On the contrary, the transition of the NCD to MCD grade is free of carbon structures other than diamond, as a result of the richer atomic hydrogen content and of the higher substrate temperature for MCD deposition. At those transitions, WC nanoparticles were found due to contamination from the filament, being also present at the first interface of the MCD layer with the silicon nitride substrate. In order to study the adhesion and mechanical resistance of the diamond coatings, indentation and particle jet blasting tests were conducted, as well as tribological experiments with homologous pairs. Indentation tests proved the superior behaviour of the multilayered coatings that attained a load of 800 N without delamination, when compared to the mono and bilayered ones. The multilayered diamond coatings also reveal the best solid particle erosion resistance, due to the MCD/NCD interfaces that act as crack deflectors. These results were confirmed by an analytical model on the stress field distribution based on the von Mises criterion. Regarding the tribological testing under dry sliding, multilayered coatings also exhibit the highest critical load values (200N for Multilayers with NCD-2). Low friction coefficient values in the range μ=0.02- 0.09 and wear coefficient values in the order of ~10-7 mm3 N-1 m-1 were obtained for the ball and flat specimens indicating a mild wear regime. Under lubrication with physiological fluids (HBSS e FBS), lower wear coefficient values ~10-9-10-8 mm3 N-1 m-1) were achieved, governed by the initial surface roughness and the effective contact pressure.

Monte Carlo studies of phase transitions and adsorption : application to n-6 Lennard-Jones, C60 and zeolite systems

The solid-fluid transition properties of the n - 6 Lennard-Jones system are studied by means of extensive free energy calculations. Different values of the parameter n which regulates the steepness of the short-range repulsive interaction are investigated. Furthermore, the free energies of the n < 12 systems are calculated using the n = 12 system as a reference. The method relies on a generalization of the multiple histogram method that combines independent canonical ensemble simulations performed with different Hamiltonians and computes the free energy difference between them. The phase behavior of the fullerene C60 solid is studied by performing NPT simulations using atomistic models which treat each carbon in the molecule as a separate interaction site with additional bond charges. In particular, the transition from an orientationally frozen phase at low temperatures to one where the molecules are freely rotating at higher temperatures is studied as a function of applied pressure. The adsorption of molecular hydrogen in the zeolite NaA is investigated by means of grand-canonical Monte Carlo, in a wide range of temperatures and imposed gas pressures, and results are compared with available experimental data. A potential model is used that comprises three main interactions: van der Waals, Coulomb and induced polarization by the permanent electric field in the zeolite.

Estudo de defeitos em filmes finos de ZnO depositados por Rf-sputtering

Neste trabalho foram estudados diferentes filmes finos de ZnO depositados por Rf-Sputtering. Filmes finos de ZnO com diferentes propriedades óticas foram obtidos intencionalmente variando os parâmetros de deposição. De modo a correlacionar as propriedades óticas e estruturais com os parâmetros de deposição, foram utilizadas diferentes técnicas de caracterização avançadas, tais como, fotoluminescência, microscopia de força atómica, difração de raios- X e retrodispersão de Rutherford. Este trabalho centra-se na discussão e análise das bandas de emissão vermelha, verde e azul, comumente observadas em amostras de ZnO e cuja natureza tem sido objeto de grande controvérsia na literatura. A utilização de técnicas de caracterização estrutural revelou-se de extrema importância para correlacionar as propriedades físicas de composição e estrutura com os centros óticos observados nos filmes. Nesta base, foram propostos e discutidos diferentes modelos de recombinação ótica associados à qualidade estrutural dos filmes, considerando modelos de camadas que descrevem a heterogeneidade lateral e em profundidade. Desta análise verificou-se a presença de heterogeneidade estrutural e composicional, que aumenta a complexidade na compreensão da correlação dos parâmetros de deposição com as propriedades óticas dos filmes. Foi discutida a limitação e validade de diferentes modelos tendo em conta a presença da heterogeneidade existente nos filmes estudados. Este trabalho contribui assim para uma melhor compreensão da complexidade de interação dos diferentes defeitos e o seu efeito nas propriedades óticas, nomeadamente o papel dos defeitos de interface, na superfície, nas fronteiras de grão e junto ao substrato.

Anodes for protonic ceramic fuel cells (PCFCs)

One of the more promising possibilities for future “green” electrical energy generation is the protonic ceramic fuel cell (PCFC). PCFCs offer a low-pollution technology to generate electricity electrochemically with high efficiency. Reducing the operating temperature of solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) to the 500-700°C range is desirable to reduce fabrication costs and improve overall longevity. This aim can be achieved by using protonic ceramic fuel cells (PCFCs) due to their higher electrolyte conductivity at these temperatures than traditional ceramic oxide-ion conducting membranes. This thesis deals with the state of the art Ni-BaZr0.85Y0.15O3-δ cermet anodes for PCFCs. The study of PCFCs is in its initial stage and currently only a few methods have been developed to prepare suitable anodes via solid state mechanical mixing of the relevant oxides or by combustion routes using nitrate precursors. This thesis aims to highlight the disadvantages of these traditional methods of anode preparation and to, instead, offer a novel, efficient and low cost nitrate free combustion route to prepare Ni-BaZr0.85Y0.15O3-δ cermet anodes for PCFCs. A wide range of techniques mainly X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), environmental scanning electron microscopy, (ESEM) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) were employed in the cermet anode study. The work also offers a fundamental examination of the effect of porosity, redox cycling behaviour, involvement of proton conducting oxide phase in PCFC cermet anodes and finally progresses to study the electrochemical performance of a state of the art anode supported PCFC. The polarisation behaviour of anodes has been assessed as a function of temperature (T), water vapour (pH2O), hydrogen partial pressures (pH2) and phase purity for electrodes of comparable microstructure. The impedance spectra generally show two arcs at high frequency R2 and low frequency R3 at 600 °C, which correspond to the electrode polarisation resistance. Work shows that the R2 and R3 terms correspond to proton transport and dissociative H2 adsorption on electrode surface, respectively. The polarization resistance of the cermet anode (Rp) was shown to be significantly affected by porosity, with the PCFC cermet anode with the lowest porosity exhibiting the lowest Rp under standard operating conditions. This result highlights that porogens are not required for peak performance in PCFC anodes, a result contrary to that of their oxide-ion conducting anode counterparts. In-situ redox cycling studies demonstrate that polarisation behaviour was drastically impaired by redox cycling. In-situ measurements using an environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM) reveal that degradation proceeds due to volume expansion of the Ni-phase during the re-oxidation stage of redox cycling.The anode supported thin BCZY44 based protonic ceramic fuel cell, formed using a peak performing Ni-BaZr0.85Y0.15O3-δ cermet anode with no porogen, shows promising results in fuel cell testing conditions at intermediate temperatures with good durability and an overall performance that exceeds current literature data.

Electromechanical properties of engineered lead free potassium sodium niobate based materials

K0.5Na0.5NbO3 (KNN), is the most promising lead free material for substituting lead zirconate titanate (PZT) which is still the market leader used for sensors and actuators. To make KNN a real competitor, it is necessary to understand and to improve its properties. This goal is pursued in the present work via different approaches aiming to study KNN intrinsic properties and then to identify appropriate strategies like doping and texturing for designing better KNN materials for an intended application. Hence, polycrystalline KNN ceramics (undoped, non-stoichiometric; NST and doped), high-quality KNN single crystals and textured KNN based ceramics were successfully synthesized and characterized in this work. Polycrystalline undoped, non-stoichiometric (NST) and Mn doped KNN ceramics were prepared by conventional ceramic processing. Structure, microstructure and electrical properties were measured. It was observed that the window for mono-phasic compositions was very narrow for both NST ceramics and Mn doped ceramics. For NST ceramics the variation of A/B ratio influenced the polarization (P-E) hysteresis loop and better piezoelectric and dielectric responses could be found for small stoichiometry deviations (A/B = 0.97). Regarding Mn doping, as compared to undoped KNN which showed leaky polarization (P-E) hysteresis loops, B-site Mn doped ceramics showed a well saturated, less-leaky hysteresis loop and a significant properties improvement. Impedance spectroscopy was used to assess the role of Mn and a relation between charge transport – defects and ferroelectric response in K0.5Na0.5NbO3 (KNN) and Mn doped KNN ceramics could be established. At room temperature the conduction in KNN which is associated with holes transport is suppressed by Mn doping. Hence Mn addition increases the resistivity of the ceramic, which proved to be very helpful for improving the saturation of the P-E loop. At high temperatures the conduction is dominated by the motion of ionized oxygen vacancies whose concentration increases with Mn doping. Single crystals of potassium sodium niobate (KNN) were grown by a modified high temperature flux method. A boron-modified flux was used to obtain the crystals at a relatively low temperature. XRD, EDS and ICP analysis proved the chemical and crystallographic quality of the crystals. The grown KNN crystals exhibit higher dielectric permittivity (29,100) at the tetragonal-to-cubic phase transition temperature, higher remnant polarization (19.4 μC/cm2) and piezoelectric coefficient (160 pC/N) when compared with the standard KNN ceramics. KNN single crystals domain structure was characterized for the first time by piezoforce response microscopy. It could be observed that <001> - oriented potassium sodium niobate (KNN) single crystals reveal a long range ordered domain pattern of parallel 180° domains with zig-zag 90° domains. From the comparison of KNN Single crystals to ceramics, It is argued that the presence in KNN single crystal (and absence in KNN ceramics) of such a long range order specific domain pattern that is its fingerprint accounts for the improved properties of single crystals. These results have broad implications for the expanded use of KNN materials, by establishing a relation between the domain patterns and the dielectric and ferroelectric response of single crystals and ceramics and by indicating ways of achieving maximised properties in KNN materials. Polarized Raman analysis of ferroelectric potassium sodium niobate (K0.5Na0.5)NbO3 (KNN) single crystals was performed. For the first time, an evidence is provided that supports the assignment of KNN single crystals structure to the monoclinic symmetry at room temperature. Intensities of A′, A″ and mixed A′+A″ phonons have been theoretically calculated and compared with the experimental data in dependence of crystal rotation, which allowed the precise determination of the Raman tensor coefficients for (non-leaking) modes in monoclinic KNN. In relation to the previous literature, this study clarifies that assigning monoclinic phase is more suitable than the orthorhombic one. In addition, this study is the basis for non-destructive assessments of domain distribution by Raman spectroscopy in KNN-based lead-free ferroelectrics with complex structures. Searching a deeper understanding of the electrical behaviour of both KNN single crystal and polycrystalline materials for the sake of designing optimized KNN materials, a comparative study at the level of charge transport and point defects was carried out by impedance spectroscopy. KNN single crystals showed lower conductivity than polycrystals from room temperature up to 200 ºC, but above this temperature polycrystalline KNN displays lower conductivity. The low temperature (T < 200 ºC) behaviour reflects the different processing conditions of both ceramics and single crystals, which account for less defects prone to charge transport in the case of single crystals. As temperature increases (T > 200 ºC) single crystals become more conductive than polycrystalline samples, in which grain boundaries act as barriers to charge transport. For even higher temperatures the conductivity difference between both is increased due to the contribution of ionic conduction in single crystals. Indeed the values of activation energy calculated to the high temperature range (T > 300 ºC) were 1.60 and 0.97 eV, confirming the charge transport due to ionic conduction and ionized oxygen vacancies in single crystals and polycrystalline KNN, respectively. It is suggested that single crystals with low defects content and improved electromechanical properties could be a better choice for room temperature applications, though at high temperatures less conductive ceramics may be the choice, depending on the targeted use. Aiming at engineering the properties of KNN polycrystals towards the performance of single crystals, the preparation and properties study of (001) – oriented (K0.5Na0.5)0.98Li0.02NbO3 (KNNL) ceramics obtained by templated grain growth (TGG) using KNN single crystals as templates was undertaken. The choice of KNN single crystals templates is related with their better properties and to their unique domain structure which were envisaged as a tool for templating better properties in KNN ceramics too. X-ray diffraction analysis revealed for the templated ceramics a monoclinic structure at room temperature and a Lotgering factor (f) of 40% which confirmed texture development. These textured ceramics exhibit a long range ordered domain pattern consisting of 90º and 180º domains, similar to the one observed in the single crystals. Enhanced dielectric (13017 at TC), ferroelectric (2Pr = 42.8 μC/cm2) and piezoelectric (d33 = 280 pC/N) properties are observed for textured KNNL ceramics as compared to the randomly oriented ones. This behaviour is suggested to be due to the long range ordered domain patterns observed in the textured ceramics. The obtained results as compared with the data previously reported on texture KNN based ceramics confirm that superior properties were found due to ordered repeated domain pattern. This study provides an useful approach towards properties improvement of KNN-based piezoelectric ceramics. Overall, the present results bring a significant contribution to the pool of knowledge on the properties of sodium potassium niobate materials: a relation between the domain patterns and di-, ferro-, and piezo-electric response of single crystals and ceramics was demonstrated and ways of engineering maximised properties in KNN materials, for example by texturing were established. This contribution is envisaged to have broad implications for the expanded use of KNN over the alternative lead-based materials.

Structural characterization and biological activity of polysaccharides from infusions used in the popular tradition

The use of plants with medicinal purposes is an ancient practice still very common in developing regions, and is rapidly spreading in industrialized countries. This fact is evidenced by the large number of ethnobotanical studies found in the literature referring that these plants are often used as decoctions and infusions. In most studies the reported biological activities are attributed to the presence of phenolic compounds, due to their antioxidant properties, and to polysaccharides, with its anti-tumoral properties. In “Trás-os-Montes” region, some of the most popular infusions used by the popular medicine are prepared with the dried leaves of Fraxinus angustifolia, the dried shoots of Mentha suaveolens, and the dried inflorescences of Pterospartum tridentatum. However, there are no studies about the polysaccharides present in these infusions. Thus, through the structural characterization of the polysaccharides present in the infusions of F. angustifolia, M. suaveolens, and P. tridentatum, the present PhD thesis intends to evaluate the possible relation between polysaccharides and the immunostimulatory activity that these infusions might present. In a preliminary phase, infusions of F. angustifolia were prepared according to the popular tradition, and it was observed that the obtained water soluble material contained approximately 85% of material non-retained in C18 cartridges, with hydrophilic characteristics, with the remaining 15% comprising retained-material with hydrophobic characteristics. It was also shown that the infusions only contained between 2 and 4% of high molecular weight material (HMWM), which comprised approximately 30% of carbohydrate material. Sugar and methylation analysis of the HMWM suggested the presence of pectic polysaccharides, together with type II arabinogalactans, mannans, and xyloglucans. However, the amount of material obtained is to low for the fractionation, and structural analysis of the polysaccharides present. The 4 h decoction, divided in two periods of 2 h, with water renewal, allowed to increase the HMWM yield, relatively to the infusions traditional infusions. It was also observed that the decoction also allowed to increase the HMWM proportion of carbohydrate material, due to an increase in the proportion of uronic acid present, although the neutral sugar residues seemed to be detected in similar proportions. Therefore, in all the experiments subsequently performed, the HMWM used was obtained through the decoction of F. angustifolia dried leaves, M. suaveolens dried shoots, and P. tridentatum dried inflorescences. x After the fractionation, through ethanol precipitation, and anion exchange chromatography, of the polysaccharides from the HMWM obtained by the decoction of the vegetable material of the distinct studied plants, it was observed the presence of high proportions of pectic polysaccharides, containing type I arabinogalactans, together with minor proportions of type II arabinogalactans, mannans, and xyloglucans. The presence of pectic polysaccharides in the extracts from F. angustifolia was also evidenced through endo-polygalacturonase treatment, and ESI-MS and ESI-MS/MS experiments. The detection of linked pentose and uronic acid residues, also seemed to suggest the presence of xylogalacturonan domains in the pectic polysaccharides from F. angustifolia. The extracts from F. angustifolia dried leaves also contained type II arabinogalactans that exhibited a higher structural diversity than those detected in the M. suaveolens, and P. tridentatum extracts, particularly in the substitution degree of the galactan backbone, and in the extension of the (1→5)-Araf side chains. Moreover, for all the plants studied, it was also observed that the type II arabinogalactans, extracted during the 2nd 2h of the extraction process, exhibited a substitution degree of the galactan backbone higher than those extracted during the 1st 2h. The extracts from P. tridentatum dried inflorescences contained higher proportions of mannans, and also of xyloglucans, both presenting a substitution degree higher than those, which were detected in lower proportion in the extracts of F. angustifolia and M. suaveolens. Through ESI-MS and ESI-MS/MS it was possible to evidence that the mannans present in the extracts of P. tridentatum presented acetyl groups on the O-2 of the mannosyl residues. It was also evidenced that the P. tridentatum mannans were more extensively acetylated than the mannans detected in the coffee infusion, LBG, and other non-conventional mannan sources. Moreover, it was detected the presence of oligosaccharides comprising hexose residues linked to non acetylated pentose residues, suggesting the possible presence of arabinose residues in the mannans from P. tridentatum extracts. The immunostimulatory activity of three fractions isolated from the extracts of F. angustifolia, M. suaveolens, and P. tridentatum, was tested and an increase in the NO production by macrophages, without compromising their cellular viability, was observed. The type I, and type II arabinogalactans detected in the extracts from F. angustifolia, and M. suaveolens seem to have contributed for the observed immunostimulatory activity. For the fraction from P. tridentatum, the mannans acetylation, and the presence of type I, and type II arabinogalactans seemed to contribute for the macrophage immunostimulatory activity observed. The possible presence of storage xyloglucans from the inflorescences seeds, also seems to have contributed for the immunostimulatory activity registered when the macrophages were stimulated with higher extract concentrations. The results obtained allow to conclude that the extracts of F. angustifolia dried leaves, M. suaveolens dried shoots, and P. tridentatum dried inflorescences contained high proportions of pectic polysaccharides, exhibiting type I arabinogalactans, together with other polysaccharides, such as type II arabinogalactans, mannans, and xyloglucans. This polysaccharide mixture seems to have contributed to the immunostimulatory activity of fractions isolated from the extracts of the studied plants. Therefore, as the same type of polysaccharides seem to be present in the decoctions and in the infusions, it seems possible that the polysaccharides might contribute for the therapeutic properties frequently associated by the popular tradition to the infusions of these plants.

Estudos de síntese e transformação de cromonas e 4-quinolonas

Esta dissertação está dividida em duas partes. Na primeira parte reportam-se métodos de síntese de (E)-3-estirilflavonas e (E)/(Z)-2-aril- 4-cloro-3-estiril-2H-cromenos e estudos de ciclização das (E)-3- estirilflavonas em 5-arilbenzo[c]xantonas. Na segunda parte desenvolveram-se novas rotas de síntese de (E)-2-aril-3-estiril-4- quinolonas e posterior transformação em 5-fenil-12- metilbenzo[c]acridonas e 2,4-diarilfuro[3,2-c]quinolinas. Nesta parte estudou-se também a transformação de 2-aril-4-cloro-1,2-dihidroquinolina- 1,3-dicarbaldeídos em (E)/(Z)-2-aril-4-cloro-3-estiril-1,2- di-hidroquinolina-1-carbaldeídos. A síntese de novos derivados de (E)-3-estirilflavonas, abordada na primeira parte desta dissertação, envolveu estudos de otimização da reação de bromação seguida de ciclização de 3-aril-1-(2- hidroxiaril)propano-1,3-dionas/3-aril-3-hidroxi-1-(2-hidroxiaril)prop-2- en-1-onas em 3-bromoflavonas e o desenvolvimento de uma nova rota de síntese de 3-metilflavonas. As 3-metilflavonas foram sujeitas a bromação e seguidamente transformadas em sais de fosfónio antes de serem utilizadas na síntese de (E)-3-estirilflavonas via reação de Wittig. As 3-bromoflavonas foram também usadas na síntese de (E)-3- estirilflavonas via reação de Heck. A síntese de novos derivados de (E)/(Z)-2-aril-4-cloro-3-estiril-2H-cromenos, via reação de Wittig, envolveu a síntese e formilação de flavanonas. A última transformação reportada na primeira parte desta dissertação é a síntese de 5-arilbenzo[c]xantonas por reação de eletrociclização seguida de oxidação de (E)-3-estirilflavonas. Na segunda parte desta dissertação são estudadas duas vias de síntese de 2-aril-1-metil-4-quinolonas. A primeira via de síntese envolve a síntese de N-(2-acetilfenil)benzamidas, sua ciclização em 4-quinolonas seguida de metilação destas. A segunda via envolve a metilação e ciclização de N-(2-acetilfenil)benzamidas obtendo-se, num só passo, as 2-aril-1-metil-4-quinolonas. Posterior iodação das 2-aril-1-metil-4- quinolonas e subsequente reação de Heck das 2-aril-3-iodo-1-metil-4- quinolonas com estirenos comerciais possibilitaram a síntese de (E)-2- aril-3-estiril-1-metil-4-quinolonas. Estudos de eletrociclização seguidos de oxidação das (E)-2-aril-3-estiril-1-metil-4-quinolonas utilizando uma lâmpada de UV de mercúrio de alta pressão possibilitou a síntese de 5- fenil-12-metilbenzo[c]acridonas, enquanto que o aquecimento em refluxo de 1,2,4-triclorobenzeno deu origem a 2,4-diarilfuro[3,2- c]quinolinas. Nesta segunda parte aborda-se também a síntese de 2-aril-4-cloro-1,2- di-hidroquinolina-1,3-dicarbaldeídos, a partir da formilação de 2-aril- 2,3-di-hidro-4-quinolonas e a sua transformação em (E)/(Z)-2-aril-4- cloro-3-estiril-1,2-di-hidroquinolina-1-carbaldeídos por reação de Wittig. Todos os compostos sintetizados foram caracterizados por espectroscopia de ressonância magnética nuclear de protão e carbono 13C, espectros bidimensionais de correlação heteronuclear (HMBC e HSQC) e, nalguns casos espectros de efeito nuclear Overhauser (NOESY). Os novos produtos foram igualmente caracterizados por espectrometria de massa e sempre que possível análise elementar ou espectrometria de massa de alta resolução.

Surface reactivity enhancement of silica-based glass-ceramic scaffolds

A paradigm shift is taking place from using transplanting tissue and synthetic implants to a tissue engineering approach that aims to regenerate damaged tissues by combining cells from the body with highly porous scaffold biomaterials, which act as templates, guiding the growth of new tissue. The central focus of this thesis was to produce porous glass and glass-ceramic scaffolds that exhibits a bioactive and biocompatible behaviour with specific surface reactivity in synthetic physiological fluids and cell-scaffold interactions, enhanced by composition and thermal treatments applied. Understanding the sintering behaviour and the interaction between the densification and crystallization processes of glass powders was essential for assessing the ideal sintering conditions for obtaining a glass scaffolds for tissue engineering applications. Our main goal was to carry out a comprehensive study of the bioactive glass sintering, identifying the powder size and sintering variables effect, for future design of sintered glass scaffolds with competent microstructures. The developed scaffolds prepared by the salt sintering method using a 3CaO.P2O5 - SiO2 - MgO glass system, with additions of Na2O with a salt, NaCl, exhibit high porosity, interconnectivity, pore size distribution and mechanical strength suitable for bone repair applications. The replacement of 6 % MgO by Na2O in the glass network allowed to tailor the dissolution rate and bioactivity of the glass scaffolds. Regarding the biological assessment, the incorporation of sodium to the composition resulted in an inibition cell response for small periods. Nevertheless it was demonstrated that for 21 days the cells response recovered and are similar for both glass compositions. The in vitro behaviour of the glass scaffolds was tested by introducing scaffolds to simulated body fluid for 21 days. Energy-dispersive Xray spectroscopy and SEM analyses proved the existence of CaP crystals for both compositions. Crystallization forming whitlockite was observed to affect the dissolution behaviour in simulated body fluid. By performing different heat treatments, it was possible to control the bioactivity and biocompatability of the glass scaffolds by means of a controlled crystallization. To recover and tune the bioactivity of the glass-ceramic with 82 % crystalline phase, different methods have been applied including functionalization using 3- aminopropyl-triethoxysilane (APTES). The glass ceramic modified surface exhibited an accelerated crystalline hydroxyapatite layer formation upon immersion in SBF after 21 days while the as prepared glass-ceramic had no detected formation of calcium phosphate up to 5 months. A sufficient mechanical support for bone tissue regeneration that biodegrade later at a tailorable rate was achievable with the glass–ceramic scaffold. Considering the biological assessment, scaffolds demonstrated an inductive effect on the proliferation of cells. The cells showed a normal morphology and high growth rate when compared to standard culture plates. This study opens up new possibilities for using 3CaO.P2O5–SiO2–MgO glass to manufacture various structures, while tailoring their bioactivity by controlling the content of the crystalline phase. Additionally, the in vitro behaviour of these structures suggests the high potential of these materials to be used in the field of tissue regeneration.

Diamond microelectrodes for corrosion studies

Este trabalho teve como objetivos a produção, caracterização e aplicação de microelétrodos (MEs) de diamante como sensores amperométricos e potenciométricos em sistemas de corrosão nos quais a agressividade do meio e a presença de produtos de corrosão, constituem obstáculos que podem diminuir o desempenho, ou inviabilizar a utilização, de outros tipos de sensores. Os microeléctrodos são baseados em filmes finos de diamante dopado com boro (BDD – Boron Doped Diamond) depositados sobre fios de tungsténio afiados, através do método de deposição química a partir da fase vapor, assistida por filamento quente (HFCVD – Hot Filament Chemical Vapor Deposition). A otimização das diversas etapas de fabricação dos MEs deu origem ao desenvolvimento de um novo sistema de afiamento eletroquímico para obtenção destes fios e a várias opções para a obtenção dos filmes de diamante condutor e seu isolamento com resinas para exposição apenas da ponta cilíndrica. A qualidade cristalina dos filmes de diamante foi avaliada por espectroscopia de Raman. Esta informação foi complementada com uma caracterização microestrutural dos filmes de diamante por microscopia eletrónica de varrimento (SEM), em que se fez a identificação da tipologia dos cristais como pertencendo às gamas de diamante nanocristalino ou microcristalino. Os filmes de BDD foram utilizados na sua forma não modificada, com terminações em hidrogénio e também com modificação da superfície através de tratamentos de plasma RF de CF4 e O2 indutores de terminações C-F no primeiro caso e de grupos C=O, C-O-C e C-OH no segundo, tal como determinado por XPS. A caracterização eletroquímica dos MEs não modificados revelou uma resposta voltamétrica com elevada razão sinal/ruído e baixa corrente capacitiva, numa gama de polarização quasi-ideal com extensão de 3 V a 4 V, dependente dos parâmetros de crescimento e pós-tratamentos de superfície. Estudou-se a reversibilidade de algumas reações heterogéneas com os pares redox Fe(CN)6 3-/4- e FcOH0/+ e verificou-se que a constante cinética, k0, é mais elevada em elétrodos com terminações em hidrogénio, nos quais não se procedeu a qualquer modificação da superfície. Estes MEs não modificados foram também testados na deteção de Zn2+ onde se observou, por voltametria cíclica, que a detecção da redução deste ião é linear numa escala log-log na gama de 10-5-10-2 M em 5 mM NaCl. Realizaram-se também estudos em sistemas de corrosão modelares, em que os microeléctrodos foram usados como sensores amperométricos para mapear a distribuição de oxigénio e Zn2+ sobre um par galvânico Zn-Fe, com recurso a um sistema SVET (Scanning Vibrating Electrode Technique). Foi possível detetar, com resolução lateral de 100 μm, um decréscimo da concentração de O2 junto a ambos os metais e produção de catiões de zinco no ânodo. Contudo verificou-se uma significativa deposição de zinco metálico na superfície dos ME utilizados. Os MEs com superfície modificada por plasma de CF4 foram testados como sensores de oxigénio dissolvido. A calibração dos microeléctrodos foi efetuada simultaneamente por voltametria cíclica e medição óptica através de um sensor de oxigénio comercial. Determinou-se uma sensibilidade de ~0.1422 nA/μM, com um limite de deteção de 0.63 μM. Os MEs modificados com CF4 foram também testados como sensores amperométricos com os quais se observou sensibilidade ao oxigénio dissolvido em solução, tendo sido igualmente utilizados durante a corrosão galvânica de pares Zn-Fe. Em alguns casos foi conseguida sensibilidade ao ião Zn2+ sem que o efeito da contaminação superficial com zinco metálico se fizesse sentir. Os microeléctrodos tratados em plasma de CF4 permitem uma boa deteção da distribuição de oxigénio, exibindo uma resposta mais rápida que os não tratados além de maior estabilidade de medição e durabilidade. Nos MEs em que a superfície foi modificada com plasma de O2 foi possível detetar, por cronopotenciometria a corrente nula, uma sensibilidade ao pH de ~51 mV/pH numa gama de pH 2 a pH 12. Este comportamento foi associado à contribuição determinante de grupos C-O e C=O, observados por XPS com uma razão O/C de 0,16. Estes MEs foram igualmente testados durante a corrosão galvânica do par Zn-Fe onde foi possível mapear a distribuição de pH associada ao desenvolvimento de regiões alcalinas causadas pela redução do oxigénio, acima da região catódica, e de regiões ácidas decorrentes da dissolução anódica do ânodo de zinco. Com o par galvânico imerso em 50 mM NaCl registou-se uma variação de pH aproximadamente entre 4,8 acima do ânodo de zinco a 9,3 sobre o cátodo de ferro. A utilização pioneira destes MEs como sensores de pH é uma alternativa promissora aos elétrodos baseados em membranas seletivas.

Oxidation and glycoxidation of phosphatidylserine and their effect in immune response : a lipidomic approach

Phosphatidylserine (PS) is a member of the class of phospholipids, and is distributed among all cells of mammalians, playing important roles in diverse biological processes, including blood clotting and apoptosis. When externalized, PS is a ligand that is recognized on apoptotic cells. It has been considered that before externalization PS is oxidized and oxPS enhance the recognition by macrophages receptors, however the knowledge about oxidation of PS is still limited. PS, like others phospholipids, has two fatty acyl chains and one polar head group, in this case is the amino acid serine. The modifications in PS structure can occur by oxidation of the unsaturated fatty acyl chains and by glycation of the polar head group, due to free amine group, thus increasing the susceptibility to oxidative events. The main goal of this work was to characterize and identify oxidized and glycoxidized PS, contributing to the knowledge of the biological role of oxidation products of PS, as well as of glycated PS, in immune and inflammatory processes. To achieve this goal, PS standards (1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho- L-serine (POPS), 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-L-serine (DPPS), 1- palmitoyl-2-linoleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-L-serine (PLPS) and 1-palmitoyl-2- arachidonoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-L-serine (PAPS)) and glycated PS (PAPS and POPS) were induced to oxidize in model systems, using different oxidant reagents: HO• and 2,2'-azobis-2-methyl-propanimidamide dihydrochloride (AAPH) . The detailed structural characterization of the oxidative products was performed by ESI-MS and MS/MS coupled to separation techniques such as off line TLC-MS and on line LC-MS, in order to obtained better characterization of the larger number of PS and glycated PS oxidation products. The results obtained in this work allowed to identify several oxidation products of PS and glycated PS with modifications in unsaturated fatty acyl chain. Also, oxidation products formed due to structural changes in the serine polar head with formation of terminal acetamide, terminal hydroperoxyacetaldehyde.and terminal acetic acid (glycerophosphacetic acid, GPAA) were identified. The mass spectrometric specific fragmentation pathway of each type of oxidation product was determined using different mass spectrometry approaches. Based on the identified fragmentation pathways, targeted lipidomic analysis was performed to detect oxidation products modified in serine polar head in HaCaT cell line treated with AAPH. The GPAA was detected in HaCaT cells treated with AAPH to induce oxidative stress, thus confirming that modifications in PS polar head is possible to occur in biological systems. Furthermore, it was found that glycated PS species are more prone to oxidative modifications when compared with non glycated PS. During oxidation of glycated PS, besides the oxidation in acyl chains, new oxidation products due to oxidation of the glucose moiety were identified, including PS advanced glycation end products (PSAGES). To investigate if UVA oxidative stress exerted changes in the lipidome of melanoma cell lines, particularly in PS profile, a lipidomic analysis was performed. The lipid profile was obtained using HILIC-LC-MS and GC-MS analysis of the total lipid extracts obtained from human melanoma cell line (SKMEL- 28) after UVA irradiation at 0, 2 and 24 hours. The results did not showed significant differences in PS content. At molecular level, only PS (18:0:18:1) decreased at the moment of irradiation. The most significant changes in phospholipids content occurred in phosphatidylcholines (PC) and phosphatidylinositol (PI) classes, with an increase of mono-unsaturated fatty acid (MUFA), similarly as observed for the fatty acid analysis. Overall, these data indicate that the observed membrane lipid changes associated with lipogenesis after UVA exposure may be correlated with malignant transformations associated with cancer development and progression. Despite of UVA radiation is associated with oxidative damage, in this work was not possible observe oxidation phospholipids. The anti/pro-inflammatory properties of the oxidized PLPS (oxPLPS) versus non-oxidized PLPS were tested on LPS stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. The modulation of intracellular signaling pathways such as NF-kB and MAPK cascades by oxPLPS and PS was also examined in this study. The results obtained from evaluation of anti/pro-inflammatory properties showed that neither PLPS or oxPLPS species activated the macrophages. Moreover only oxidized PLS were found to significantly inhibit NO production and iNOS and il1β gene transcription induced by LPS. The analysis at molecular level showed that this was the result of the attenuation of LPS-induced c-Jun-N-terminal kinase (JNK) and p65 NF-kB nuclear translocation. Overall these data suggest that oxPLPS, but not native PLPS, mitigates pro-inflammatory signaling in macrophages, contributing to containment of inflammation during apoptotic cell engulfment. The results obtained in this work provides new information on the modifications of PS, facilitating the identification of oxidized species in complex samples, namely under physiopathologic conditions and also contributes to a better understanding of the role of oxPS and PS in the inflammatory response, in the apoptotic process and other biological functions.

Transformações organocatalíticas e mediadas por metais de transição na síntese de novos heterociclos nitrogenados e ciclo-hexanos

Nas últimas décadas a quiralidade tornou-se essencial na conceção, descoberta, desenvolvimento e comercialização de novos medicamentos. A importância da quiralidade na eficácia e segurança dos fármacos tem sido globalmente reconhecida tanto pelas indústrias farmacêuticas como pelas agências reguladoras de todo o mundo. De forma a produzir eficazmente medicamentos seguros e dar resposta à demanda da indústria de compostos enantiomericamente puros, a pesquisa de novos métodos de síntese assimétrica, assim como o desenvolvimento estratégico dos métodos já disponíveis tem sido um dos principais objetos de estudo de diversos grupos de investigação tanto na academia como na indústria farmacêutica No primeiro capítulo desta dissertação são introduzidos alguns dos conceitos fundamentais associados à síntese de moléculas quirais e descritas algumas das estratégias que podem ser utilizadas na sua síntese. Apresenta-se ainda uma breve revisão bibliográfica acerca dos antecedentes do grupo de investigação e sobre a ocorrência natural, atividade biológica e métodos de síntese e transformações de compostos do tipo (E,E)-cinamilidenoacetofenona. O segundo capítulo centra-se na adição de Michael enantiosseletiva de diversos nucleófilos a derivados de (E,E)-cinamilidenoacetofenona. Inicialmente descreve-se a síntese de derivados de (E,E)-cinamilidenoacetofenona através de uma condensação aldólica de acetofenonas e cinamaldeídos apropriadamente substituídos. Estes derivados são posteriormente utilizados como substratos na adição de Michael enantiosseletiva de três diferentes nucleófilos: nitrometano, malononitrilo e 2-[(difenilmetileno)amino]acetato de metilo. Nestas reações são utilizados diferentes organocatalisadores de forma a induzir enantiosseletividade nos aductos de Michael para serem utilizados na síntese de compostos com potencial interesse terapêutico. É descrita ainda uma nova metodologia de síntese de Δ1-pirrolinas através de um procedimento one-pot de redução/ciclização/desidratação mediada por ferro na presença de ácido acético de (R,E)-1,5-diaril-3-(nitrometil)pent-4-en-1-onas com bons rendimentos e excelentes excessos enantioméricos. O terceiro capítulo centra-se no estabelecimento de novas rotas de síntese e transformação de derivados do ciclo-hexano. Após uma breve revisão bibliográfica, são descritas três metodologias enantiosseletivas distintas, sendo que a primeira envolve a utilização de organocatalisadores e catalisadores de transferência de fase derivados de alcaloides cinchona. Os derivados do ciclo-hexano foram obtidos a partir da reação entre as (E,E)-cinamilidenoacetofenonas e o malononitrilo com bons rendimentos, mas baixas enantiosseletividades independentemente do catalisador utilizado. De forma a contornar este problema e uma vez que a formação do derivado do ciclo-hexano envolve inicialmente a formação in-situ do aducto de Michael, a segunda e terceira metodologias de síntese envolvem a utilização dos aductos de Michael enantiomericamente puros preparados no segundo capítulo. Assim, a reação do (S,E)-2-(1,5-diaril-1-oxopent-4-en-3-il)malononitrilo com os derivados de (E,E)-cinamilidenoacetofenona organocatalisada pela hidroquinina permitiu obter os compostos pretendidos com excelentes excessos enantioméricos. A utilização de um catalisador de transferência de fase não foi tão eficiente em termos de enantiosseletividades obtidas na reação entre as (R,E)-1,5-diaril-3-(nitrometil)pent-4-en-1-onas e os derivados de (E,E)-cinamilidenoacetofenona, apesar de estes terem sido obtidos em bons rendimentos. A preparação destes derivados levou ainda à idealização de uma nova metodologia de síntese de análogos do ácido γ-aminobutírico (GABA) devido à presença de um grupo nitro em posição gama relativamente a um grupo carboxílico. No entanto, apesar de terem sido testadas várias metodologias, não foi possível obter os compostos pretendidos. No quarto capítulo apresenta-se uma breve revisão bibliográfica acerca da ocorrência natural, atividade biológica e métodos de síntese de derivados de di-hidro- e tetra-hidropiridinas, assim como um enquadramento teórico acerca das reações pericíclicas utilizadas na síntese dos compostos pretendidos. Inicialmente é descrita a preparação de N-sulfonilazatrienos substituídos através da condensação direta de derivados de (E,E)-cinamilidenoacetofenona e sulfonamidas. Estes compostos são posteriormente utilizados na síntese de derivados de 1,2-di-hidropiridinas através de uma aza-eletrociclização-6π por duas metodologias distintas: utilização de organocatalisadores quirais e utilização de complexos metálicos de bisoxazolinas. Na síntese das tetra-hidropiridinas os N-sulfonilazatrienos são utilizados como dienos e o étoxi-eteno como dienófilo numa reação hetero-Diels-Alder inversa utilizando também os complexos metálicos de bisoxazolinas como catalisadores. Todos os novos compostos sintetizados foram caracterizados estruturalmente recorrendo a estudos de espetroscopia de ressonância magnética nuclear (RMN), incluindo espetros de 1H e 13C e estudos bidimensionais de correlação espetroscópica homonuclear e heteronuclear e de efeito nuclear de Overhauser (NOESY). Foram também efetuados, sempre que possível, espetros de massa (EM) e análises elementares ou espetros de massa de alta resolução (EMAR) para todos os novos compostos sintetizados.

Effects of environmental factors on the toxicity of pesticides to zebrafish embryos

During the last century mean global temperatures have been increasing. According to the predictions, the temperature change is expected to exceed 1.5ºC in this century and the warming is likely to continue. Freshwater ecosystems are among the most sensitive mainly due to changes in the hydrologic cycle and consequently changes in several physico-chemical parameters (e.g. pH, dissolved oxygen). Alterations in environmental parameters of freshwater systems are likely to affect distribution, morphology, physiology and richness of a wide range of species leading to important changes in ecosystem biodiversity and function. Moreover, they can also work as co-stressors in environments where organisms have already to cope with chemical contamination (such as pesticides), increasing the environmental risk due to potential interactions. Therefore, the objective of this work was to evaluate the effects of climate change related environmental parameters on the toxicity of pesticides to zebrafish embryos. The following environmental factors were studied: pH (3.0-12.0), dissolved oxygen level (0-8 mg/L) and UV radiation (0-500 mW/m2). The pesticides studied were the carbamate insecticide carbaryl and the benzimidazole fungicide carbendazim. Stressors were firstly tested separately in order to derive concentration- or intensity-response curves to further study the effects of binary combinations (environmental factors x pesticides) by applying mixture models. Characterization of zebrafish embryos response to environmental stress revealed that pH effects were fully established after 24 h of exposure and survival was only affected at pH values below 5 and above 10. Low oxygen levels also affected embryos development at concentrations below 4 mg/L (delay, heart rate decrease and edema), and at concentrations below 0.5 mg/L the survival was drastically reduced. Continuous exposure to UV radiation showed a strong time-dependent impact on embryos survival leading to 100% of mortality after 72 hours of exposure. The toxicity of pesticides carbaryl and carbendazim was characterized at several levels of biological organization including developmental, biochemical and behavioural allowing a mechanistic understanding of the effects and highlighting the usefulness of behavioural responses (locomotion) as a sensitive endpoint in ecotoxicology. Once the individual concentration response relationship of each stressor was established, a combined toxicity study was conducted to evaluate the effects of pH on the toxicity of carbaryl. We have shown that pH can modify the toxicity of the pesticide carbaryl. The conceptual model concentration addition allowed a precise prediction of the toxicity of the jointeffects of acid pH and carbaryl. Nevertheless, for alkaline condition both concepts failed in predicting the effects. Deviations to the model were however easy to explain as high pH values favour the hydrolysis of carbaryl with the consequent formation of the more toxic degradation product 1- naphtol. Although in the present study such explanatory process was easy to establish, for many other combinations the “interactive” nature is not so evident. In the context of the climate change few scenarios predict such increase in the pH of aquatic systems, however this was a first approach focused in the lethal effects only. In a second tier assessment effects at sublethal level would be sought and it is expectable that more subtle pH changes (more realistic in terms of climate changes scenarios) may have an effect at physiological and biochemical levels with possible long term consequences for the population fitness.

Degradação do perfil bioquímico de um concentrado de Nannochloropsis sp. durante o seu período de validade

As algas do género Nannochloropsis são microalgas marinhas que apresentam um perfil bioquímico único, principalmente no que é respeitante a lípidos, e uma vasta gama de compostos bioativos que possibilitam a sua aplicabilidade comercial em várias áreas biotecnológicas, destacando-se a alimentação e nutrição humana, indústria cosmética e farmacêutica, produção de biocombustíveis e a sua utilização em aquacultura. Em aquacultura, são usadas maioritariamente microalgas vivas, cuja produção representa elevados custos. Tem havido assim uma pesquisa de dietas alternativas, entre as quais os concentrados de microalgas se apresentam promissores. Os desafios atuais das empresas produtoras de concentrados de microalgas prendem-se com a conservação e armazenamento destes concentrados. Assim, neste trabalho foi proposto o estudo da influência da refrigeração, congelação e adição de conservantes a PhytoBloom Green Formula®, concentrado de Nannochloropsis sp. comercializado pela empresa Necton S.A., com o objetivo de averiguar a variação de parâmetros bioquímicos e organoléticos com a exposição do concentrado aos diferentes métodos de conservação. Pretendia-se assim observar se estes processos podem ser usados para aumentar o tempo de prateleira do concentrado em estudo. Para tal, foram avaliadas amostras recolhidas em três pontos temporais e analisados os seguintes parâmetros: perfil de ácidos gordos, quantificação de hidroperóxidos lipídicos, quantificação espectrofotométrica de clorofila a e carotenóides, bem como parâmetros organoléticos. Inicialmente, foi efetuada uma avaliação de diferentes parâmetros organoléticos, não se observando variações relevantes entre amostras das diferentes condições. Assim, foi posteriormente realizada a avaliação bioquímica. Primeiramente, foi efetuada a quantificação de ácidos gordos por GC-FID das diferentes amostras, nas quais não se observou diferenças significativas entre as condições experimentais. Foi também efetuado um ensaio de FOX II, que permitiu avaliar o grau de peroxidação lipídica de cada amostra por quantificação de hidroperóxidos lipídicos formados. As amostras nas quais houve adição de conservantes apresentaram um teor menor de hidropéroxidos lipídicos, permitindo inferir que a ação dos conservantes com propriedades antioxidantes permitiu uma melhor conservação da amostra. Quando se determinou a concentração de clorofila a e de carotenóides verificou-se que, em ambos os casos, a congelação conduziu a uma estabilização da concentração destes pigmentos. No entanto, os melhores resultados foram obtidos usando a combinação de congelação com adição de conservantes. Estes resultados, embora promissores, carecem de uma confirmação por um novo estudo, completando com análises com maior rigor e sensibilidade associados, no sentido de se verificar qual o método mais vantajoso para a extensão do tempo de prateleira de PhytoBloom Green Formula®.

Degradação do perfil bioquímico de um concentrado de Nannochloropsis sp. durante o seu período de validade

As algas do género Nannochloropsis são microalgas marinhas que apresentam um perfil bioquímico único, principalmente no que é respeitante a lípidos, e uma vasta gama de compostos bioativos que possibilitam a sua aplicabilidade comercial em várias áreas biotecnológicas, destacando-se a alimentação e nutrição humana, indústria cosmética e farmacêutica, produção de biocombustíveis e a sua utilização em aquacultura. Em aquacultura, são usadas maioritariamente microalgas vivas, cuja produção representa elevados custos. Tem havido assim uma pesquisa de dietas alternativas, entre as quais os concentrados de microalgas se apresentam promissores. Os desafios atuais das empresas produtoras de concentrados de microalgas prendem-se com a conservação e armazenamento destes concentrados. Assim, neste trabalho foi proposto o estudo da influência da refrigeração, congelação e adição de conservantes a PhytoBloom Green Formula®, concentrado de Nannochloropsis sp. comercializado pela empresa Necton S.A., com o objetivo de averiguar a variação de parâmetros bioquímicos e organoléticos com a exposição do concentrado aos diferentes métodos de conservação. Pretendia-se assim observar se estes processos podem ser usados para aumentar o tempo de prateleira do concentrado em estudo. Para tal, foram avaliadas amostras recolhidas em três pontos temporais e analisados os seguintes parâmetros: perfil de ácidos gordos, quantificação de hidroperóxidos lipídicos, quantificação espectrofotométrica de clorofila a e carotenóides, bem como parâmetros organoléticos. Inicialmente, foi efetuada uma avaliação de diferentes parâmetros organoléticos, não se observando variações relevantes entre amostras das diferentes condições. Assim, foi posteriormente realizada a avaliação bioquímica. Primeiramente, foi efetuada a quantificação de ácidos gordos por GC-FID das diferentes amostras, nas quais não se observou diferenças significativas entre as condições experimentais. Foi também efetuado um ensaio de FOX II, que permitiu avaliar o grau de peroxidação lipídica de cada amostra por quantificação de hidroperóxidos lipídicos formados. As amostras nas quais houve adição de conservantes apresentaram um teor menor de hidropéroxidos lipídicos, permitindo inferir que a ação dos conservantes com propriedades antioxidantes permitiu uma melhor conservação da amostra. Quando se determinou a concentração de clorofila a e de carotenóides verificou-se que, em ambos os casos, a congelação conduziu a uma estabilização da concentração destes pigmentos. No entanto, os melhores resultados foram obtidos usando a combinação de congelação com adição de conservantes. Estes resultados, embora promissores, carecem de uma confirmação por um novo estudo, completando com análises com maior rigor e sensibilidade associados, no sentido de se verificar qual o método mais vantajoso para a extensão do tempo de prateleira de PhytoBloom Green Formula®.