Strike Hard, Strike Sure - Operation Musketeer : British Military Planning during the Suez Crisis, 1956

This study analyses British military planning and actions during the Suez Crisis in 1956. It seeks to find military reasons for the change of concepts during the planning and compares these reasons with the tactical doctrines of the time. The thesis takes extensive advantage of military documents preserved in the National Archives, London. In order to expand the understanding of the exchange of views during the planning process, the private papers of high ranking military officials have also been consulted. French military documents preserved in the Service Historique de la Defence, Paris, have provided an important point of comparison. The Suez Crisis caught the British armed forces in the middle of a transition phase. The main objective of the armed forces was to establish a credible deterrence against the Soviet Union. However, due to overseas commitments the Middle East playing a paramount role because of its economic importance the armed forces were compelled to also prepare for Limited War and the Cold War. The armed forces were not fully prepared to meet this demand. The Middle Eastern garrison was being re-organised after the withdrawal from the Canal Base and the concept for a strategic reserve was unimplemented. The tactical doctrines of the time were based on experiences from the Second World War. As a result, the British view of amphibious operations and the subsequent campaigns emphasised careful planning, mastery of the sea and the air, sufficient superiority in numbers and firepower, centralised command and extensive administrative preparations. The British military had realized that Nasser could nationalise the Suez Canal and prepared an outline plan to meet this contingency. Although the plan was nothing more than a concept, it was accepted as a basis for further planning when the Canal was nationalised at the end of July. This plan was short-lived. The nominated Task Force Commanders shifted the landing site from Port Said to Alexandria because it enabled faster expansion of the bridgehead. In addition, further operations towards Cairo the hub of Nasser s power would be easier to conduct. The operational concept can be described as being traditional and was in accordance with the amphibious warfare doctrine. This plan was completely changed at the beginning of September. Apparently, General Charles Keightley, the Commander-in-Chief, and the Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee developed the idea of prolonged aerial operations. The essence of the concept was to break the Egyptian will to resist by attacking the oil facilities, the transportation system and the armed forces. This victory through air concept would be supported by carefully planned psychological operations. This concept was in accordance with the Royal Air Force doctrine, which promoted a bomber offensive against selected target categories. General Keightley s plan was accepted despite suspicions at every planning level. The Joint Planning Staff and the Task Force Commanders opposed the concept from the beginning to the end because of its unpredictability. There was no information that suggested the bombing would persuade the Egyptians to submit. This problem was worsened by the fact that British intelligence was unable to provide reliable strategic information. The Task Force Commanders, who were responsible for the tactical plans, were not able to change Keightley s mind, but the concept was expanded to include a traditional amphibious assault on Port Said due to their resistance. The bombing campaign was never tested as the Royal Air Force was denied authorisation to destroy the transportation and oil targets. The Chiefs of Staff and General Keightley were too slow to realise that the execution of the plan depended on the determination of the Prime Minister. However, poor health, a lack of American and domestic support and the indecisiveness of the military had ruined Eden s resolve. In the end, a very traditional amphibious assault, which was bound to succeed at the tactical level but fail at the strategic level, was launched against Port Said.

Valta kotikasvatuksessa

The aim of this research was to explore how issues of power manifest themselves in bringing up children at home. The starting point for the study was a phenomenon centered, power focused, and theoretically orientated view which also included an empirical part as well. The most common aim of the research was to find out and theoretize of power which is suitable for bringing up children at home. Power was defined and researched on the basis of existing power theories, mostly those presented in anglo-american research on power. For closer investigation I chose the most common categorizations and theories of power, namely, the nature of power, the four dimensions of power, and forms of power. The empirical part of the research consisted of 22 thematic interviews with mothers, fathers and 14 – 16-year-old teenagers from 11 different families. The interviewees were found through snowball sampling. The questions for the interviews were based on power theories. The result of the research was that the most common categorizations and theories of power were useful but not satisfactory in the study of power in bringing up children at home. The nature of authority in bringing up children at home appears to have same characteristics as the categorization of authority put forward by Weber but in addition it included extra categories called moral authority and ontological-existential authority. Theoretically the most challenging problem concerns the conflict between modern and postmodern views of power. None of them alone is able to describe power in bringing up children at home. The best solution appeared to be to add an assumption about the inner relation to the modern power view and an assumption about the Popperian three worlds to the postmodern view of power. The relationship between the parent and the child is necessary the inner power relation where the relation itself modifies the parties’ identities. In that case positive and productive elements are also included in the power relationship. Parents use many forms of power in bringing up children at home. Manipulative and violent forms of power are not justifiable but other forms of power and their open exercise is sometimes necessary. The important criteria to use in order to determine the most suitable forms of power and the most appropriate ways of exercising that power is to see how they improve the development of the identity and internalization of values of the child. An ethically justified exercise of power in bringing up children at home is based on a dialogical, pedagogical relationship between the parent and the child, focuses on the relationship between the parent and the child, orientates itself further than present, aspires to promote the good of the child, and comes true in a caring atmosphere.

Aika hyvä rehtoriksi : Selviääkö koulun johtamisesta hengissä?

The aim of this study was to describe school leadership on a practical level. By observing the daily behaviour of a principal minute by minute, the study tried to answer the following questions: how did the principals use their time, did they have time to develop their school after participating in the daily life of the school, and how did the previously studied challenges of modern leadership show in their practical work? Five principals in different areas of Helsinki were observed – two women and three men. The principals were chosen at random from three educational conferences. The main hypothesis of this research was that the work of the principal consists of solving daily problems and routines concerning the pupils, teachers and other interest groups and writing all kinds of bureaucratic reports. This means that the school and its principal do not have enough resources to give to a visionary development of teaching and learning – in other words pedagogical leading – even though every principal has the best knowledge about his or her own school’s status quo and the needs for development revealed by this status quo. The research material was gathered by applying the Peer-Assisted Leadership method. The researcher shadowed each principal for four days for three hours at a time. After each shadowing period, any unclear situations were clarified with a short interview. After all the shadowing periods, the principals participated in a semi-structured interview that covered the themes emerging from the shadowing material. In addition to this, the principals evaluated their own leading with a self-assessment questionnaire. The results gathered from the shadowing material showed that the actions of the principals were focused on bureaucratic work. The principals spent most of their time in the office (more than 50%). In the office they were sitting mainly by the computer. They also spent a significant mount of time in the office meeting teachers and occasional visitors. The time spent building networks was relatively short, although the principals considered it as an important domain of leadership according to their interviews. After the classification of the shadowing material, the activities of the principals were divided according to certain factors affecting them. The underlying factors were quality management, daily life management, strategic thinking and emotional intelligence. Through these factors the research showed that coping with the daily life of the school took about 40% of the principals’ time. Activities connected with emotional intelligence could be observed over 30% and activities which required strategic thinking were observed over 20% of the time. The activities which according to the criteria of the research consisted of quality management took only 8% of the principals’ time. This result was congruent with previous studies showing that the work of school leaders is focused on something other than developing the quality of teaching and learning. Keywords: distributed leadership, building community, network building, interaction, emotional intelligence, strategy, quality management

Testaus Scrum-prosessimallissa

Testaus ketterissä menetelmissä (agile) on kirjallisuudessa heikosti määritelty, ja yritykset toteuttavat laatu- ja testauskäytäntöjä vaihtelevasti. Tämän tutkielman tavoitteena oli löytää malli testauksen järjestämiseen ketterissä menetelmissä. Tavoitetta lähestyttiin keräämällä kirjallisista lähteistä kokemuksia, vaihtoehtoja ja malleja. Löydettyjä tietoja verrattiin ohjelmistoyritysten käytännön ratkaisuihin ja näkemyksiin, joita saatiin suorittamalla kyselytutkimus kahdessa Scrum-prosessimallia käyttävässä ohjelmistoyrityksessä. Kirjallisuuskatsauksessa selvisi, että laatusuunnitelman ja testausstrategian avulla voidaan tunnistaa kussakin kontekstissa tarvittavat testausmenetelmät. Menetelmiä kannattaa tarkastella ja suunnitella iteratiivisten prosessien aikajänteiden (sydämenlyönti, iteraatio, julkaisu ja strateginen) avulla. Tutkimuksen suurin löytö oli, että yrityksiltä puuttui laajempi ja suunnitelmallinen näkemys testauksen ja laadun kehittämiseen. Uusien laatu- ja testaustoimenpiteiden tarvetta ei analysoitu järjestelmällisesti, olemassa olevien käyttöä ei kehitetty pitkäjänteisesti, eikä yrityksillä ollut kokonaiskuvaa tarvittavien toimenpiteiden keskinäisistä suhteista. Lisäksi tutkimuksessa selvisi, etteivät tiimit kyenneet ottamaan vastuuta laadusta, koska laatuun liittyviä toimenpiteitä tehdään iteraatioissa liian vähän. Myös Scrum-prosessimallin noudattamisessa oli korjaamisen varaa. Yritykset kuitenkin osoittivat halua ja kykyä kehittää toimintaansa ongelmien tunnistamisen jälkeen. ACM Computing Classification System (CCS 1998): D.2.5 Testing and Debugging, D.2.9 Management, K.6.1 Project and People Management, K.6.3 Software Management

Do Measurement Errors in GDP Announcements Cause Output Fluctuations?

This thesis studies empirically whether measurement errors in aggregate production statistics affect sentiment and future output. Initial announcements of aggregate production are subject to measurement error, because many of the data required to compile the statistics are produced with a lag. This measurement error can be gauged as the difference between the latest revised statistic and its initial announcement. Assuming aggregate production statistics help forecast future aggregate production, these measurement errors are expected to affect macroeconomic forecasts. Assuming agents’ macroeconomic forecasts affect their production choices, these measurement errors should affect future output through sentiment. This thesis is primarily empirical, so the theoretical basis, strategic complementarity, is discussed quite briefly. However, it is a model in which higher aggregate production increases each agent’s incentive to produce. In this circumstance a statistical announcement which suggests aggregate production is high would increase each agent’s incentive to produce, thus resulting in higher aggregate production. In this way the existence of strategic complementarity provides the theoretical basis for output fluctuations caused by measurement mistakes in aggregate production statistics. Previous empirical studies suggest that measurement errors in gross national product affect future aggregate production in the United States. Additionally it has been demonstrated that measurement errors in the Index of Leading Indicators affect forecasts by professional economists as well as future industrial production in the United States. This thesis aims to verify the applicability of these findings to other countries, as well as study the link between measurement errors in gross domestic product and sentiment. This thesis explores the relationship between measurement errors in gross domestic production and sentiment and future output. Professional forecasts and consumer sentiment in the United States and Finland, as well as producer sentiment in Finland, are used as the measures of sentiment. Using statistical techniques it is found that measurement errors in gross domestic product affect forecasts and producer sentiment. The effect on consumer sentiment is ambiguous. The relationship between measurement errors and future output is explored using data from Finland, United States, United Kingdom, New Zealand and Sweden. It is found that measurement errors have affected aggregate production or investment in Finland, United States, United Kingdom and Sweden. Specifically, it was found that overly optimistic statistics announcements are associated with higher output and vice versa.

Ministers as strategic political leaders? : Strategic political steering after NPM reforms in Finland

This study explores strategic political steering after the New Public Management (NPM) reforms, with emphasis on the new role assigned to Government ministers in Finland. In the NPM model, politicians concentrate on broad, principal issues, while agencies have discretion within the limits set by politicians. In Finland, strategic steering was introduced with Management by Results (MBR), but the actual tools for strategic political steering have been the Government Programme, the Government Strategy Portfolio (GSP) and Frame Budgeting. This study addresses these tools as means of strategic steering conducted by the Cabinet and individual ministers within their respective ministries. The time frame of the study includes the two Lipponen Cabinets between 1995 and 2003. Interviews with fourteen ministers as well as with fourteen top officials were conducted. In addition, administrative reform documents and documents related to strategic steering tools were analysed. The empirical conclusions of the study can be summarised as follows: There were few signs of strategic political steering in the Lipponen Cabinets. Although the Government Programmes of both Cabinets introduced strategic thinking, the strategic guidelines set forth at the beginning of the Programme were not linked to the GSP or to Frame Budgeting. The GSP could be characterised as the collected strategic agendas of each ministry, while there was neither the will nor the courage among Cabinet members to prioritise the projects and to make selections. The Cabinet used Frame Budgeting mainly in the sense of spending limits, not in making strategic allocation decisions. As for the GSP at the departmental level, projects were suggested by top officials, and ministers only approved the suggested list. Frame Budgeting at the departmental level proved to be the most interesting strategic steering tool from ministers viewpoint: they actively participated in defining which issues would need extra financing. Because the chances for extra financing were minimal, ministers had an effect only on a marginal share of the budget. At the departmental level, the study shows that strategic plans were considered the domain of officials. As for strategies concerning specific substances, there was variation in the interest shown by the ministers. A few ministers emphasised the importance of strategic work and led strategy processes. In most cases, however, officials led the process while ministers offered comments on the drafts of strategy documents. The results of this study together with experiences reported in other countries and local politics show that political decision-makers have difficulty operating at the strategic level. The conclusion is that politicians do not have sufficient incentive to perform the strategic role implied by the NPM type of reforms. Overall, the empirical results of the study indicate the power of politics over management reforms.

Tibetan Market Participation in China

Since the Chinese government began implementing economic reforms in the late 1970s, China has experienced profound economic change and growth. Like other parts of China, Tibetan areas of China have also experienced wide-ranging economic change with growth even higher than the China-wide average in certain years. Though China s strategic policy of developing the West provided many opportunities for economic and business activities, Tibetans have proven poorly equipped to respond to and take advantage of these opportunities. This study is about people, about market participation and specifically about why Tibetans do not effectively participate in the market in the context of China s economic development process. Many political, social, cultural and environmental factors explain the difficulties met by Tibetan communities. However, this study focuses on three factors: the social and culture context, government policy and education. The Buddhistic nature of Tibetan communities, particularly the political and economic system in traditional Tibetan society, explains this, especially after implementation of new national economic policies. An inclusive economic development policy that promotes local people s participation in the market demands serious consideration of local conditions. Unfortunately, such considerations often ignore local Tibetan realities. The economic development policy in Tibetan areas in China is nearly always an attempt to replicate the inland model and open up markets, even though economic and sociopolitical conditions in Tibet are markedly unlike much of China. A consequence of these policies is increasing numbers of non-Tibetan migrants flowing into Tibetan areas with the ensuing marginalization of Tibetans in the marketplace. Poor quality education is another factor contributing to Tibetan inability to effectively participate in the market. Vocational and business education targeting Tibetans is of very low quality and reflective of government failing to consider local circumstances when implementing education policy. The relatively few Tibetans who do receive education are nearly always unable to compete with non-Tibetan migrants in commercial activity. Encouraging and promoting Tibetan participation in business development and access to quality education are crucial for a sustainable and prosperous society in the long term. Particularly, a localized development policy that considers local environmental conditions and production as well as local culture is crucial. Tibet s economic development should be based on local environmental and production conditions, while utilizing Tibetan culture for the benefit of creating a sustainable economy. Such a localized approach best promotes Tibetan market participation. Keywords: Tibet cultural policy education market participation

Nuorten osallisuus ja osallistuminen maaseudun kehitysstrategioissa : osuuskunnat ja Feria Francat Koillis-Argentiinassa

Tutkin Pro Gradu -työssäni nuorten osallisuutta ja osallistumista suhteessa maaseutukehitykseen Argentiinan maaseudulla. Vaikka nuorison tärkeä strateginen asema maaseudun kehityksen kannalta mainitaan usein sekä akateemisessa että poliittisessa diskurssissa, on nuoriso jäänyt vähälle huomiolle tutkijoiden, yhteiskunnallisten päättäjien, ja muiden toimijoiden silmissä Latinalaisessa Amerikassa. Maaseudun nuorten ”näkymättömyys” on johtanut siihen, että heidän asemansa erillisenä sosiaalisena toimijana on jäänyt heikoksi. Oman tutkimukseni ensisijaisena tavoitteena on siis saada paljon kaivattua lisätietoa argentiinalaisista maaseudun nuorista. Lähestyn maaseudun kehitysproblematiikkaa osallisuuden ja osallistumisen käsitteiden kautta tutkimalla nuorten osallisuutta ja osallistumista maaseutuympäristössä yleisesti sekä muutamissa maaseudun yhteisötaloudellisissa instituutioissa erityisesti. Tutkimiani instituutioita ovat maatalousosuuskunnat ja pientuottajien verovapaat torit eli Feria Francat. Kutsun kyseisiä instituutioita kehitysstrategioiksi. Suhteutan aineistoani territoriaaliseen maaseudun kehitysnäkemykseen (desarrollo territorial rural) ja erityisesti argentiinalaisen Mabel Manzanalin paikallisväestön järjestäytyneen osallistumisen roolia korostavaan versioon siitä. Tutkimukseni perustuu pääasiassa vuoden 2009 syksyllä Koillis-Argentiinassa toteutetun kenttätyön antiin. Tutkimusotteeni oli melko etnografinen ja aineisto sisältää osallistuvan havainnoinnin kautta hankittua informaatiota, haastatteluja, keskusteluja sekä kirjallista materiaalia. Tutkimukseni tärkeimpänä tuloksena voidaan todeta, että Koillis-Argentiinan maaseudulla nuorilla ei juurikaan ole tilaa osallistua ja heidän asemansa erillisenä sosiaalisen toimijana on erittäin heikko. Vaikka tilanne näyttää huolestuttavalta, onneksi jotkut osuuskunnat ja erityisesti Feria Francat ovat pystyneet tarjoamaan uudenlaisia mahdollisuuksia maaseudun nuorille ja niillä on muutenkin potentiaalia toimia järjestäytyneen osallistumisen areenoina sekä kokonaisvaltaisen territoriaalisen maaseutukehityksen edistäjinä. Maaseudun kehityksen kannalta olisi erittäin tärkeää, että nuorten sosiaalista pääomaa vahvistettaisiin, he tuntisivat itsensä osallisiksi ja pääsisivät oikeasti osallistumaan ja vaikuttamaan. Nuoret nimittäin usein omaavat sellaista tietotaitoa ja ideoita, joita vanhemmilta sukupuolilta ei välttämättä löydy. Mutta jos nuoret kokevat, että heitä ei arvosteta eikä heille tarjota mahdollisuuksia, he lähtevät etsimään onneaan yhä suuremmiksi paisuvista kaupungeista ja samalla maaseudun tulevaisuus vaarantuu kun se menettää kehityksensä kannalta tärkeitä voimavaroja ja sosiaalista pääomaa.

Strategia mahdollisuutena ja rajoitteena kuntaorganisatiossa. Kielestä, kommunikaatiosta ja vallasta

Strategisen johtamisen oppi on tunkeutunut nykyään lähes kaikenlaisiin organisaatioihin suuryrityksistä julkisorganisaatioihin ja kolmannelle sektorille. Siitä on muodostunut suosittu johtamiskäytäntö, jota pidetään yleisesti jopa välttämättömyytenä ja itsestään selvänä tapana johtaa ja tehdä päätöksiä. Tässä kirjassa tuodaan esille, miten strategiapuhe ei kuitenkaan ole mikään viaton tai neutraali tapa tuottaa todellisuuttamme; se pitää sisällään erilaisia valtarakennelmia ja vaihtoehdottomuutta. Tutkimus antaa myös mielenkiintoisen näkökulman erityisesti isossa kaupunkiorganisaatiossa tehtävään strategiatyöhön. Kirja tarjoaa näköaloja ja tutkimuksellisia avauksia erityisesti strategian retoriikkaan, keskustelukäytäntöihin, strategian kääntämisen ilmiöön, osallistumisen problematiikkaan sekä strategian ja maineenhallinnan yhteyteen.

Korkeakoulupolitiikan dynamiikat Suomessa

The study scrutinizes the dynamics of the Finnish higher education political system. Dynamics is understood as the regularity of interaction between actors. By actors is meant the central institutions in the system. The theoretical framework of the study draws on earlier research in political science and higher education political studies. The theoretical model for analysis is built on agenda-setting theories. The theoretical model separates two dimensions of dynamics, namely the political situation and political possibilities. A political situation can be either favourable or contradictory to change. If the institutional framework within the higher education system is not compatible with the external factors of the system, the political situation is contradictory to change. To change the situation into a favourable one, one needs either to change the institutional structure or wait for external factors to change. Then again, the political possibilities can be either settled or politicized. Politicization means that new possibilities for action are found. Settled possibilities refer to routine actions performed according to old practices. The research tasks based on the theoretical model are: 1. To empirically analyse the political situation and the possibilities from the actors point of view. 2. To theoretically construct and empirically test a model for analysis of dynamics in the Finnish higher education politics. The research material consists of 25 thematic interviews with key persons in the higher education political system in 2008. In addition, there are also documents from different actors since the 1980s and statistical data. The material is analysed in four phases. In the first phase the emphasis is on trying to understand the interviewees and actors points of view. In the second phase the different types of research material are related to each other. In the third phase the findings are related to the theoretical model, which is constructed over the course of the analysis. In the fourth phase the interpretation is tested. The research distinguishes three historical periods in the Finnish higher education system and focuses on the last one. This is the era of the complex system beginning in the 1980s 1990s. Based on the interviews, four policy threads are identified and analysed in their historical context. Each of the policy threads represents one of the four possible dynamics identified in the theoretical model. The research policy thread functions according to reform dynamics. A coalition of innovation politics is able to use the politicized possibilities due to the political situation created by the conception of the national innovation system. The regional policy thread is in a gridlock dynamics. The combination of a political system based on provincial representation, a regional higher education institutional framework and outside pressure to streamline the higher education structure created a contradictory political situation. Because of this situation, the politicized possibilities in the so-called "regional development plan" do not have much effect. In the international policy thread, a consensual change dynamics is found. Through changes in the institutional framework, the higher education political system is moulded into a favourable situation. However, the possibilities are settled: a pragmatic national gaze prevailed. A dynamics of friction is found in the governance policy thread. A political situation where political-strategic and budgetary decision-making are separated is not favourable for change. In addition, as governance policy functions according to settled possibilities, the situation seems unchangeable. There are five central findings. First, the dynamics are different depending on the policy thread under scrutiny. Second, the settled possibilities in a policy thread seemed to influence other threads the most. Third, dynamics are much related to changes external to the higher education political system, the changing positions of the actors in different policy threads and the unexpected nature of the dynamics. Fourth, it is fruitful to analyse the dynamics with the theoretical model. Fifth, but only hypothetically and thus left for further research, it seems that the Finnish higher education politics is reactive and weak at politicization.

Kaupunkilaisia kehittämässä. Tutkimus suomalaisten kaupunkien rakentamista ihmisten julkisista rooleista.

Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan suomalaisille kaupunkilaisille mahdollisia julkisen osallistumisen tapoja. Tutkimuskysymyksenä on, millaisia julkisen osallistumisen tapoja suomalaiset kaupungit ihmisille rakentavat. Tutkimuskysymys jaetaan kahteen osaan. Ensiksi, missä yhteydessä ja miten kaupungit ihmisistä ja heidän julkisesta osallistumisestaan puhuvat? Toiseksi, millaisia ihmisten julkisia rooleja, julkisen osallistumisen tapoja, kaupunkien puheessa rakennetaan? Ihmisten julkisen osallistumisen ongelmaa lähestytään päämies-agentti-teorian näkökulmasta sekä osana julkishallinnon historiallista kehitystä. Tutkimus kytkeytyy kriittisen hallinnon tutkimuksen traditioon. Samalla omaksutaan vaikutteita kehystämisen tutkimuksesta: muodollisten osallistumismahdollisuuksien sijaan tavoitteena on tunnistaa ihmisille käytännössä mahdollisia osallistumisen tapoja. Osallistumisen muotoja tarkastellaan roolin käsitteen avulla: roolit saavat tutkimuksessa ihmisille mahdollisia osallistumisen tapoja kokoavien käsitteiden aseman. Roolien rakentuminen ymmärretään dialektisena prosessina. Rooleihin tiivistyvät yhteiskunnassa vallitsevat käsitykset; samalla roolit nähdään normaalia ja sallittua osallistumista tuottavina tulkintatapoina. Tutkimuksen aineisto koostuu kahdeksan suomalaisen kaupungin strategioista. Niitä tarkastellaan sekä kaupungin hallintoa ohjaavina asiakirjoina että kaupunkien puheena: strategiat kuvaavat kaupungin käsityksiä ihmisten julkisesta osallistumisesta. Strategioihin sisältyviä tulkintatapoja tutkitaan kriittisen diskurssianalyysin avulla. Tutkimuksen analyysiosassa kaupunkien puheesta syntyy yhtenäinen kuva. Kaupunkien ja ihmisten suhde rakentuu pitkälti päämies-agentti-teorian lähtökohtien mukaisesti: ihmiset nauttivat hyvinvoinnista, jota kaupungin hallinto heille tuottaa. Strategiat noudattavat kausaalisten tarinoiden kaavaa: kaupungin toiminta seuraa johdonmukaisesti sen omaksumista tavoitteista. Kaupunkien toimintaa kuvataan välttämättöminä vastauksina yhteiskunnallisiin muutosilmiöihin: tilaa kaupunkien tavoitteita ja toimenpiteitä koskevalle julkiselle keskustelulle ei synnytetä. Kaupunkilaisille osallistumisen mahdollisuuksia tarjotaan siellä, missä ne kaupungin hallinnon tavoitteenasettelua tukevat. Ihmisille rakennettavat osallistumisen mahdollisuudet liittyvät ennen kaikkea kaupunkien tuottamien palvelujen kehittämiseen: palvelujen käyttäjän rooli korostuu kaupunkien puheessa. Kaupungit tavoittelevat asiakaslähtöisyyttä ja yhteisöllisyyttä, jotka esitetään yksiselitteisinä, poliittisesti latautumattomina tavoitteina. Osallistumisesta tehdään kaupunkien puheessa epäpoliittista: mahdolliset intressikonfliktit pyritään sulkemaan kaupungin ja ihmisten suhteen ulkopuolelle. Ihmisten mahdollisuudet vaihtoehtoiseen, kyseenalaistavaan vaikuttamiseen puuttuvat. Kaupungit pyrkivät puheessaan tukemaan vain osaa ihmisten mahdollisista julkisen osallistumisen tavoista. Rajatutkin osallistumisen mahdollisuudet saattavat silti kohentaa ihmisten luottamusta kaupunkien kaltaisten julkisten instituutioiden toimintaan.

Nuorten osallisuus ja osallistuminen maaseudun kehitysstrategioissa: Osuuskunnat ja Feria Francat Koillis-Argentiinassa

Tutkin Pro Gradu -työssäni nuorten osallisuutta ja osallistumista suhteessa maaseutukehitykseen Argentiinan maaseudulla. Vaikka nuorison tärkeä strateginen asema maaseudun kehityksen kannalta mainitaan usein sekä akateemisessa että poliittisessa diskurssissa, on nuoriso jäänyt vähälle huomiolle tutkijoiden, yhteiskunnallisten päättäjien, ja muiden toimijoiden silmissä Latinalaisessa Amerikassa. Maaseudun nuorten ”näkymättömyys” on johtanut siihen, että heidän asemansa erillisenä sosiaalisena toimijana on jäänyt heikoksi. Oman tutkimukseni ensisijaisena tavoitteena on siis saada paljon kaivattua lisätietoa argentiinalaisista maaseudun nuorista. Lähestyn maaseudun kehitysproblematiikkaa osallisuuden ja osallistumisen käsitteiden kautta tutkimalla nuorten osallisuutta ja osallistumista maaseutuympäristössä yleisesti sekä muutamissa maaseudun yhteisötaloudellisissa instituutioissa erityisesti. Tutkimiani instituutioita ovat maatalousosuuskunnat ja pientuottajien verovapaat torit eli Feria Francat. Kutsun kyseisiä instituutioita kehitysstrategioiksi. Suhteutan aineistoani territoriaaliseen maaseudun kehitysnäkemykseen (desarrollo territorial rural) ja erityisesti argentiinalaisen Mabel Manzanalin paikallisväestön järjestäytyneen osallistumisen roolia korostavaan versioon siitä. Tutkimukseni perustuu pääasiassa vuoden 2009 syksyllä Koillis-Argentiinassa toteutetun kenttätyön antiin. Tutkimusotteeni oli melko etnografinen ja aineisto sisältää osallistuvan havainnoinnin kautta hankittua informaatiota, haastatteluja, keskusteluja sekä kirjallista materiaalia. Tutkimukseni tärkeimpänä tuloksena voidaan todeta, että Koillis-Argentiinan maaseudulla nuorilla ei juurikaan ole tilaa osallistua ja heidän asemansa erillisenä sosiaalisen toimijana on erittäin heikko. Vaikka tilanne näyttää huolestuttavalta, onneksi jotkut osuuskunnat ja erityisesti Feria Francat ovat pystyneet tarjoamaan uudenlaisia mahdollisuuksia maaseudun nuorille ja niillä on muutenkin potentiaalia toimia järjestäytyneen osallistumisen areenoina sekä kokonaisvaltaisen territoriaalisen maaseutukehityksen edistäjinä. Maaseudun kehityksen kannalta olisi erittäin tärkeää, että nuorten sosiaalista pääomaa vahvistettaisiin, he tuntisivat itsensä osallisiksi ja pääsisivät oikeasti osallistumaan ja vaikuttamaan. Nuoret nimittäin usein omaavat sellaista tietotaitoa ja ideoita, joita vanhemmilta sukupuolilta ei välttämättä löydy. Mutta jos nuoret kokevat, että heitä ei arvosteta eikä heille tarjota mahdollisuuksia, he lähtevät etsimään onneaan yhä suuremmiksi paisuvista kaupungeista ja samalla maaseudun tulevaisuus vaarantuu kun se menettää kehityksensä kannalta tärkeitä voimavaroja ja sosiaalista pääomaa.

Information Technology Development Needs in Community Pharmacies : A Strategic Approach

In the context of health care, information technology (IT) has an important role in the operational infrastructure, ranging from business management to patient care. An essential part of the system is medication management in inpatient and outpatient care. Community pharmacists strategy has been to extend practice responsibilities beyond dispensing towards patient care services. Few studies have evaluated the strategic development of IT systems to support this vision. The objectives of this study were to assess and compare independent Finnish community pharmacy owners and staff pharmacists priorities concerning the content and structure of the next generation of community pharmacy IT systems, to explore international experts visions and strategic views on IT development needs in relation to services provided in community pharmacies, to identify IT innovations facilitating patient care services and to evaluate their development and implementation processes, and to assess community pharmacists readiness to adopt innovations. This study applied both qualitative and quantitative methods. A qualitative personal interview of 14 experts in community pharmacy services and related IT from eight countries and a national survey of Finnish community pharmacy owners (mail survey, response rate 53%, n=308), and of a representative sample of staff pharmacists (online survey, response rate 22%, n=373) were conducted. Finnish independent community pharmacy owners gave priority to logistical functions but also to those related to medication information and patient care. The managers and staff pharmacists have different views of the importance of IT features, reflecting their different professional duties in the community pharmacy. This indicates the need for involving different occupation groups in planning the new IT systems for community pharmacies. A majority of the international experts shared the vision of community pharmacy adopting a patient care orientation; supported by IT-based documentation, new technological solutions, access to information, and shared patient data. Community pharmacy IT innovations were rare, which is paradoxical because owners and staff pharmacists perception of their innovativeness was seen as being high. Community pharmacy IT systems development processes usually had not undergone systematic needs assessment research beforehand or evaluation after the implementation and were most often coordinated by national governments without subsequent commercialization. Specifically, community pharmacy IT developments lack research, organization, leadership and user involvement in the process. Those responsible for IT development in the community pharmacy sector should create long-term IT development strategies that are in line with community pharmacy service development strategies. This could provide systematic guidance for future projects to ensure that potential innovations are based on a sufficient understanding of pharmacy practice problems that they are intended to solve, and to encourage strong leadership in research, development of innovations so that community pharmacists potential innovativeness is used, and that professional needs and strategic priorities will be considered even if the development process is led by those outside the profession.