Käsityöläisyyden kuva kultasepän ammatissa : Käsityöläisyys Suomen Kultaseppien Liiton lehdessä 1990-luvun lopussa

The aim of this study is to survey the meaning of craftmanship in goldsmith occupation. The image of craftmanship is built theoretically as well as researcher's own practical experience. The study describes a dialogue between self-employed goldsmith s everyday work and trade union's opinion. Suomen Kultaseppien Liitto (The Goldsmith Assosiation of Finland) was chosen forthe trade union, because it is the biggest, the oldest and the most influential on the occupational area. The research data are volumes 1995 - 1998 of occupational membership journal of Suomen Kultaseppien Liitto. The data analyzed with Adapted Content Analysis and Grounded Theory. The professional occupation of goldsmiths, the role of craftmanship and the future of the occupation are discussed. Additionally, the relationship between the Suomen Kultaseppien Liitto and occupational culture and profession of goldsmiths was studied. Craft and craftmanship is most often discussed in articles related to tradition and education.Craftmanship is understood very idealistically, with little meaning in practical life. St. Eligius and the skill and art of goldsmiths in St Petersburg are raised to symbols of craftmanship. The occupational image is broken and a clear conflict between education and occupation is visible. Education produces artist-craftsmen, while handicraft workers are required in industry, and retailers or specially trained store assistant in business. Computer-aided design and manufacture render handicraft workmanship unnecessary. In a pessimistic view, the future possibilities of the goldsmith occupational profession are dim, because the artist-craftsmen are bound to lose to fast-paced machines. On the other hand, people involved in goldsmith education see the future light, designer-goldsmiths developing the occupational to new dimensions. Suomen Kultaseppien Liitto represents goldsmiths in public. The union, however is governed by non-artisan goldsmiths. The union stresses business attitudes and enterpreneurship, and has succeeded in protecting the privileges of retailers and industry. Goldsmiths profession is seen in the research data as a combination of precious-metal industry, jewellery and watch stores, anda goldsmith shop is considered a specialized giftstore. The goldsmiths occupation is not a profession, and the Suomen Kultaseppien Liitto is not a trade union for artist and craftmen. Accordingly, part of the representative authority of the union could be transferred from the Association to Taidekäsityöläiset Taiko ry, a member of organization of Ornamo. Results of this study show the importance of defining the images of the goldsmith occupational profession and the trade union. The results could be applied to goldsmith education to examine what would be the optimal education and training for present employment opportunities. The important background theories has been the theories of Habermas and Lévi-Strauss.

Impact of Tobacco Control Policy on Smoking and Exposure to Environmental Tobacco Smoke

The aim of the study was to evaluate the impact of the Finnish tobacco control measures for reduction of smoking. First, the trends and patterns in ever smoking among adult Finns in 1978 2001 as well as the associations of trends with the Tobacco Control Act in 1976 were examined. Secondly, the impact of the 1976 TCA on the proportion of ever daily smokers in different socioeconomic groups was studied. Thirdly, the impact of the 1995 TCAA on recent trends in the prevalence of daily smoking was evaluated by gender and employment status. Fourthly, the trends of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) at workplaces and homes were investigated. The study is based on data of the Health Behaviour among the Finnish Adult Population surveys. Among Finnish men smoking initiation declined from earlier to later cohorts, whereas among women it increased in successive birth cohorts born before 1956. The lasting differences between birth cohorts as regards ever daily smoking reflected well the impact of measures to reduce smoking in Finland in 1976. Smoking initiation in the birth cohorts (born in 1961 or later) which were in critical age as regards the risk of smoking initiation when the TCA came into force was less common than could be expected according to the trends seen in the earlier birth cohorts. Marked socioeconomic differences were found in smoking in the different birth cohorts. Smoking was more prevalent in the lower socioeconomic groups than in the higher ones, and the differences were larger in the later birth cohorts compared to the earlier ones. The differences between the birth cohorts in ever daily smoking were compatible with the hypothetical impact of the TCA in almost all socioeconomic groups, except farmers. Among men the 1976 TCA appears to have had the greatest impact on white-collar employees. Among women the effect of the act was highly significant in all socioeconomic groups. However, female smoking prevalence continues to show wide socioeconomic disparities. Daily smoking decreased among employees after the 1995 TCAA, supporting the hypothesis of the lowering impact of the amendment on daily smoking due to increased smoking cessation. No parallel change in daily smoking was found in the population without direct expose to ETS legislation (farmers, students, housewives, pensioners or unemployed). Exposure to ETS decreased markedly among non-smokers at work after the 1995 TCAA. The 1976 TCA and the 1995 TCAA were useful in controlling smoking initiation and cessation, but their impact was not equal across the population groups. The results of this study strongly suggested that tobacco control policies markedly contribute to the decrease in smoking and in exposure to environmental tobacco smoke.

Multiple socioeconomic circumstances and health : associations and explanations among Finnish and British public sector employees

Socioeconomic health inequalities have been widely documented, with a lower social position being associated with poorer physical and general health and higher mortality. For mental health the results have been more varied. However, the mechanisms by which the various dimensions of socioeconomic circumstances are associated with different domains of health are not yet fully understood. This is related to a lack of studies tackling the interrelations and pathways between multiple dimensions of socioeconomic circumstances and domains of health. In particular, evidence from comparative studies of populations from different national contexts that consider the complexity of the causes of socioeconomic health inequalities is needed. The aim of this study was to examine the associations of multiple socioeconomic circumstances with physical and mental health, more specifically physical functioning and common mental disorders. This was done in a comparative setting of two cohorts of white-collar public sector employees, one from Finland and one from Britain. The study also sought to find explanations for the observed associations between economic difficulties and health by analysing the contribution of health behaviours, living arrangements and work-family conflicts. The survey data were derived from the Finnish Helsinki Health Study baseline surveys in 2000-2002 among the City of Helsinki employees aged 40-60 years, and from the fifth phase of the London-based Whitehall II study (1997-9) which is a prospective study of civil servants aged 35-55 years at the time of recruitment. The data collection in the two countries was harmonised to safeguard maximal comparability. Physical functioning was measured with the Short Form (SF-36) physical component summary and common mental disorders with the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12). Socioeconomic circumstances were parental education, childhood economic difficulties, own education, occupational class, household income, housing tenure, and current economic difficulties. Further explanatory factors were health behaviours, living arrangements and work-family conflicts. The main statistical method used was logistic regression analysis. Analyses were conducted separately for the two sexes and two cohorts. Childhood and current economic difficulties were associated with poorer physical functioning and common mental disorders generally in both cohorts and sexes. Conventional dimensions of socioeconomic circumstances i.e. education, occupational class and income were associated with physical functioning and mediated each other’s effects, but in different ways in the two cohorts: education was more important in Helsinki and occupational class in London. The associations of economic difficulties with health were partly explained by work-family conflicts and other socioeconomic circumstances in both cohorts and sexes. In conclusion, this study on two country-specific cohorts confirms that different dimensions of socioeconomic circumstances are related but not interchangeable. They are also somewhat differently associated with physical and mental domains of health. In addition to conventionally measured dimensions of past and present socioeconomic circumstances, economic difficulties should be taken into account in studies and attempts to reduce health inequalities. Further explanatory factors, particularly conflicts between work and family, should also be considered when aiming to reduce inequalities and maintain the health of employees.

Composition operators on vector-valued BMOA and related function spaces

A composition operator is a linear operator between spaces of analytic or harmonic functions on the unit disk, which precomposes a function with a fixed self-map of the disk. A fundamental problem is to relate properties of a composition operator to the function-theoretic properties of the self-map. During the recent decades these operators have been very actively studied in connection with various function spaces. The study of composition operators lies in the intersection of two central fields of mathematical analysis; function theory and operator theory. This thesis consists of four research articles and an overview. In the first three articles the weak compactness of composition operators is studied on certain vector-valued function spaces. A vector-valued function takes its values in some complex Banach space. In the first and third article sufficient conditions are given for a composition operator to be weakly compact on different versions of vector-valued BMOA spaces. In the second article characterizations are given for the weak compactness of a composition operator on harmonic Hardy spaces and spaces of Cauchy transforms, provided the functions take values in a reflexive Banach space. Composition operators are also considered on certain weak versions of the above function spaces. In addition, the relationship of different vector-valued function spaces is analyzed. In the fourth article weighted composition operators are studied on the scalar-valued BMOA space and its subspace VMOA. A weighted composition operator is obtained by first applying a composition operator and then a pointwise multiplier. A complete characterization is given for the boundedness and compactness of a weighted composition operator on BMOA and VMOA. Moreover, the essential norm of a weighted composition operator on VMOA is estimated. These results generalize many previously known results about composition operators and pointwise multipliers on these spaces.

Computational Methods for Detecting Large-Scale Chromosome Rearrangements in SNP Data

Large-scale chromosome rearrangements such as copy number variants (CNVs) and inversions encompass a considerable proportion of the genetic variation between human individuals. In a number of cases, they have been closely linked with various inheritable diseases. Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are another large part of the genetic variance between individuals. They are also typically abundant and their measuring is straightforward and cheap. This thesis presents computational means of using SNPs to detect the presence of inversions and deletions, a particular variety of CNVs. Technically, the inversion-detection algorithm detects the suppressed recombination rate between inverted and non-inverted haplotype populations whereas the deletion-detection algorithm uses the EM-algorithm to estimate the haplotype frequencies of a window with and without a deletion haplotype. As a contribution to population biology, a coalescent simulator for simulating inversion polymorphisms has been developed. Coalescent simulation is a backward-in-time method of modelling population ancestry. Technically, the simulator also models multiple crossovers by using the Counting model as the chiasma interference model. Finally, this thesis includes an experimental section. The aforementioned methods were tested on synthetic data to evaluate their power and specificity. They were also applied to the HapMap Phase II and Phase III data sets, yielding a number of candidates for previously unknown inversions, deletions and also correctly detecting known such rearrangements.

Modeling Efficient Classification as a Process of Confidence Assessment and Delegation

In visual object detection and recognition, classifiers have two interesting characteristics: accuracy and speed. Accuracy depends on the complexity of the image features and classifier decision surfaces. Speed depends on the hardware and the computational effort required to use the features and decision surfaces. When attempts to increase accuracy lead to increases in complexity and effort, it is necessary to ask how much are we willing to pay for increased accuracy. For example, if increased computational effort implies quickly diminishing returns in accuracy, then those designing inexpensive surveillance applications cannot aim for maximum accuracy at any cost. It becomes necessary to find trade-offs between accuracy and effort. We study efficient classification of images depicting real-world objects and scenes. Classification is efficient when a classifier can be controlled so that the desired trade-off between accuracy and effort (speed) is achieved and unnecessary computations are avoided on a per input basis. A framework is proposed for understanding and modeling efficient classification of images. Classification is modeled as a tree-like process. In designing the framework, it is important to recognize what is essential and to avoid structures that are narrow in applicability. Earlier frameworks are lacking in this regard. The overall contribution is two-fold. First, the framework is presented, subjected to experiments, and shown to be satisfactory. Second, certain unconventional approaches are experimented with. This allows the separation of the essential from the conventional. To determine if the framework is satisfactory, three categories of questions are identified: trade-off optimization, classifier tree organization, and rules for delegation and confidence modeling. Questions and problems related to each category are addressed and empirical results are presented. For example, related to trade-off optimization, we address the problem of computational bottlenecks that limit the range of trade-offs. We also ask if accuracy versus effort trade-offs can be controlled after training. For another example, regarding classifier tree organization, we first consider the task of organizing a tree in a problem-specific manner. We then ask if problem-specific organization is necessary.

Martta vai Maria? : Aktiivisen ja kontemplatiivisen välinen suhde Mestari Eckhartin mystiikanteologiassa.

Tämän tutkimuksen tarkoitus on selvittää millainen suhde käsitteiden ”aktiivinen” ja ”kontemplatiivinen” välillä vallitsee 1200- ja 1300-lukujen taitteessa eläneen saksalaisen teologin Mestari Eckhartin mystiikanteologiassa. Lisäksi on tarkoitus selvittää mitä tuon suhteen kautta on mahdollista paljastaa Eckhartin mystiikanteologiasta laajemmin. Tutkimuksen metodi on systemaattinen analyysi ja päälähteinä käytetään Eckhartin saksankielisiä saarnoja. Erityisesti analysoidaan Eckhartin Martta-Maria -perikooppia (Lk.10:38–42) käsitteleviä saarnoja Pr.86 ja Pr.2. Lisäksi lähteinä käytetään muita Eckhartin saksankielisiä saarnoja ja muuta tuotantoa siinä määrin kuin niiden mukaan ottaminen auttaa paremmin ymmärtämään saarnojen intentioita. Jo ensimmäisistä kristillisistä vuosisadoista lähtien Luukkaan evankeliumin kertomus Martasta ja Mariasta on ollut aktiivisen ja kontemplatiivisen elämän locus classicus. Siksi tutkimuskysymykseen vastaamiseksi on valittu juuri Eckhartin sitä käsittelevät saarnat. Itse tutkimuskysymyksen valintaan on vaikuttanut puolestaan se, että Eckhart tulkitsee perikooppia häntä edeltävästä tulkintatraditiosta selvästi poikkeavalla tavalla ja nostaa Martan sisaruksista edistyneemmäksi. Tutkimus etenee seuraavalla tavalla. Luvussa 2 avataan käsitteiden ”aktiivinen” ja ”kontemplatiivinen” sisältöä sekä käsitellään kysymystä siitä miten niiden välistä suhdetta on kirkon historiassa tulkittu. Se tapahtuu esittelemällä kolme keskeistä tulkintalinjaa: normaalikirkollinen, monastinen ja mendikanttisääntökuntien tulkinta. Luvussa 3 käydään läpi Eckhartin elämää, tuotantoa ja harhaoppisuustuomiota sekä hänen teologiansa keskeisiä jäsentäviä periaatteita. Koska Eckhart on suomalaiselle yleisölle verrattain tuntematon teologi, aihetta käsitellään hieman laajemmin kuin pro gradu -tukielmassa on yleensä tapana. Luvussa 4 perehdytään Martta-Maria -perikooppiin ja sen pitkään tulkintahistoriaan. Luvussa 5 analysoidaan Eckhartin saarna Pr.86, luvussa 6 Pr.2. Luvussa 7 tutkimuksen tulokset kootaan yhteen. Eckhartin saarnoja analysoimalla paljastuu, että hän tulkitsee aktiivisen ja kontemplatiivisen elämän suhteen häntä edeltävästä traditiosta poikkeavalla tavalla. Eckhartia edeltävänä aikana kontemplatiivisia pyrkimyksiä ja Mariaa oli pidetty kristillisessä kirkossa aktiivista elämää ihailtavampana ja ansiollisempana jo tuhat vuotta. Siihen oli vaikuttanut erityisesti se, että 400-luvulta lähtien aina 1200-luvulle asti luostarit olivat Länsi-Euroopan sivistyksen ja teologian keskuksia. Sen vuoksi juuri monastisia ihanteita – erityisesti kontemplatiivisia pyrkimyksiä Jumalan välittömään katselemiseen – pidettiin pitkään kristillisen elämän ihanteina. Eckhart on kuitenkin osa uutta tulkintatraditiota jossa perinteisen klausuurin rajat pyrittiin laajentamaan luostarin muureista koskemaan koko maailmaa. Tämä uusi tulkintatraditio oli ominaista erityisesti mendikanttisääntökunnille (fransiskaanit ja dominikaanit) sekä begiiniyhteisöille, joissa kontemplatiivinen ja aktiivinen elämä pyrittiin yhdistämään yhdeksi kristilliseksi elämäksi. Tutkimuksessa käy ilmi, että suhteessa laajempiin tulkintatradition linjoihin, Eckhart voidaan liittää luontevasti osaksi näiden sääntökuntien uusia orastavia tulkintoja. Niiden mukaan kristillistä täydellisyyttä ei tavoiteta kääntymällä pois päin maailmasta vaan sitä kohti. Sen on kuitenkin tarkoitus tapahtua niin, että aktiivisuus maailmassa nousee kontemplatiivisesta elämänmuodosta käsin. Toisaalta tutkimuksessa paljastuu myös, että Eckhart menee vielä edellä mainittuja uusia tulkintojakin pidemmälle. Mendikanttisääntökunnissa kontemplatiivisuus säilytti yleensä vielä jonkinlaisen ensisijaisuuden aktiivisuuteen nähden, siihen valmistavana ja sen mahdollistavana vaiheena. Eckhart saarnaa kuitenkin niiden täydellisen ykseyden ja samanaikaisuuden puolesta. Hänelle täydellisyyttä edustaa Betanian sisaruksista Martta joka on ”neitsyt-vaimo”, koskematon ja puhdas, mutta joka kuitenkin samalla synnyttää. Neitsyyden ja vaimouden täydellisen samanaikaisuuden korostaminen nousee puolestaan Eckhartin voimakkaasta sitoutumisesta uusplatoniseen metafysiikkaan. Eckhartin ontologia on ”dynaamista ontologiaa”, jossa kaikki ymmärretään Jumalan yliajalliseksi emanaatioksi. Tulkitsemalla mm. Proklosta, Eckhart esittää, että kaikki luotu on olemassa ensisijaisesti ja täydellisenä ikuisuudessa syntyvässä Pojassa ja vain formaalisesti ja vajavaisella tavalla havaittavassa todellisuudessa. Kristillinen täydellisyys on Eckhartille paluuta tuohon varsinaiseen olemiseen ikuisuudessa syntyvässä Pojassa. Paluu tapahtuu irrottautumalla (abegescheiden) kuvista (bilde) eli hyväksymällä, että Jumala ei ole missään käsitteissä, eikä häntä tavoiteta samoin kuin olemassa olevat asiat tavoitetaan. Sikäli kun ihminen riisutaan riippuvuudestaan kuvista, sikäli hän murtautuu (durchbrechen) takaisin siihen perustaan (grunt) jossa Poika ikuisesti syntyy. Perustasta käsin ihmisen on puolestaan mahdollista synnyttää sellaista aktiivisuutta ja toimintaa, joka ei ole itsekkyyden ja egon tahraamaa suorittamista ja kaupankäyntiä. Tutkimuksessa käy ilmi myös se, kuinka keskeinen rooli ymmärryksen (intellectus) kategorialla on kuvista luopumisen prosessissa ja Jumalan kaltaisuuden realisoitumisessa ihmisessä. Juuri ymmärtämisaktin (intelligere) puolesta ihminen on Eckhartin mukaan eniten Jumalan kaltainen ja osa Jumalan ikuisuudessa tapahtuvaa emanaatiota.

Towards a Critique of the Concept of the Right to Self-Determination in Africa : A Conceptual Examination and the Cases of Western Sahara, Southern Sudan and Eritrea

This thesis examines the right to self-determination which is a norm used for numerous purposes by multiple actors in the field of international relations, with relatively little clarity or agreement on the actual and potential meaning of the right. In international practice, however, the main focus in applying the right has been in the context of decolonization as set by the United Nations in its early decades. Thus, in Africa the right to self-determination has traditionally implied that the colonial territories, and particularly the populations within these territories, were to constitute the people who were entitled to the right. That is, self-determination by decolonization provided a framework for the construction of independent nation-states in Africa whilst other dimensions of the right remained largely or totally neglected. With the objective of assessing the scope, content, developments and interpretations of the right to self-determination in Africa, particularly with regard to the relevance of the right today, the thesis proceeds on two fundamental hypotheses. The first is that Mervyn Frost s theory of settled norms, among which he lists the right to self-determination, assumes too much. Even if the right to self-determination is a human right belonging to all peoples stipulated, inter alia, in the first Article of the 1966 International Human Rights Covenants, it is a highly politicized and context-bound right instead of being settled and observed in a way that its denial would need special justification. Still, the suggested inconsistency or non-compliance with the norm of self-determination is not intended to prove the uselessness or inappropriateness of the norm, but, on the contrary, to invite and encourage debate on the potential use and coverage of the right to self-determination. The second hypothesis is that within the concept of self-determination there are two normative dimensions. One is to do with the idea and practice of statehood, the nation and collectivity that may decide to conduct itself as an independent state. The other one is to do with self-determination as a human right, as a normative condition, to be enjoyed by people and peoples within states that supersedes state authority. These external and internal dimensions need to be seen as complementary and co-terminous, not as mutually exclusive alternatives. The thesis proceeds on the assumption that the internal dimension of the right, with human rights and democracy at its core, has not been considered as important as the external. In turn, this unbalanced and selective interpretation has managed to put the true normative purpose of the right making the world better and bringing more just polity models into a somewhat peculiar light. The right to self-determination in the African context is assessed through case studies of Western Sahara, Southern Sudan and Eritrea. The study asks what these cases say about the right to self-determination in Africa and what their lessons learnt could contribute to the understanding and relevance of the right in today s Africa. The study demonstrates that even in the context of decolonization, the application of the right to self-determination has been far from the consistent approach supposedly followed by the international community: in many respects similar colonial histories have easily led to rather different destinies. While Eritrea secured internationally recognized right to self-determination in the form of retroactive independence in 1993, international recognition of distinct Western Sahara and Southern Sudan entities is contingent on complex and problematic conditions being satisfied. Overall, it is a considerable challenge for international legality to meet empirical political reality in a meaningful way, so that the universal values attached to the norm of self-determination are not overlooked or compromised but rather reinforced in the process of implementing the right. Consequently, this thesis seeks a more comprehensive understanding of the right to self-determination with particular reference to post-colonial Africa and with an emphasis on the internal, human rights and democracy dimensions of the norm. It is considered that the right to self-determination cannot be perceived only as an inter-state issue as it is also very much an intra-state issue, including the possibility of different sub-state arrangements exercised under the right, for example, in the form of autonomy. At the same time, the option of independent statehood achieved through secession remains a mode of exercising and part of the right to self-determination. But in whatever form or way applied, the right to self-determination, as a normative instrument, should constitute and work as a norm that comprehensively brings more added value in terms of the objectives of human rights and democracy. From a normative perspective, a peoples right should not be allowed to transform and convert itself into a right of states. Finally, in light of the case studies of Western Sahara, Southern Sudan and Eritrea, the thesis suggests that our understanding of the right to self-determination should now reach beyond the post-colonial context in Africa. It appears that both the questions and answers to the most pertinent issues of self-determination in the cases studied must be increasingly sought within the postcolonial African state rather than solely in colonial history. In this vein, the right to self-determination can be seen not only as a tool for creating states but also as a way to transform the state itself from within. Any such genuinely post-colonial approach may imply a judicious reconsideration, adaptation or up-dating of the right and our understanding of it in order to render it meaningful in Africa today.

Phylogeography and Population Genetics of the Moor frog (Rana arvalis Nilsson) in Northern Europe

The ongoing climate change along with increasing levels of pollutants, diseases, habitat loss and fragmentation constitute global threats to the persistence of many populations, species and ecosystems. However, for the long-term persistence of local populations, one of the biggest threats is the intrinsic loss of genetic variation. In order to adapt to changes in the environment, organisms must have a sufficient supply of heritable variation in traits important for their fitness. With a loss of genetic variation, the risk of extinction will increase. For conservational practices, one should therefore understand the processes that shape the genetic population structure and also the broader (historical) phylogenetic patterning of the species in focus. In this thesis, microsatellite markers were applied to study genetic diversity and population differentiation of the protected moor frog (Rana arvalis) in Fennoscandia from both historical (evolutionary) and applied (conservation) perspectives. The results demonstrate that R. arvalis populations are highly structured over rather short geographic distances. Moreover, the results suggest that R. arvalis recolonized Fennoscandia from two directions after the last ice age. This has had implications for the genetic structuring and population differentiation, especially in the northernmost parts where the two lineages have met. Compared to more southern populations, the genetic variation decreases and the interpopulation differentiation increases dramatically towards north. This could be an outcome of serial population bottlenecking along the recolonization route. Also, current isolation and small population sizes increase the effect of drift, thus reinforcing the observed pattern. The same pattern can also be seen in island populations. However, though R. arvalis on the island of Gotland has lost most of its neutral genetic variability, our results indicate that the levels of additive genetic variation have remained high. This conforms to the conjecture that though neutral markers are widely used in conservation purposes, they may be quite uninformative about the levels of genetic variation in ecologically important traits. Finally, the evolutionary impact of the typical amphibian mating behaviour on genetic diversity was investigated. Given the short time available for larval development, it is important that mating takes place as early as possible. The genetic data and earlier capture-recapture data suggest that R. arvalis gather at mating grounds they are familiar with. However, by forming leks in random to relatedness, and having multiple paternities in single clutches, the risk of inbreeding may be minimized in this otherwise highly philopatric species.

Polypore assemblages in boreal old-growth forests, and associated Coleoptera

This thesis examines assemblages of wood-decaying fungi in Finnish old-growth forests, and patterns of species interactions between fruit bodies of wood-rotting Basidiomycetes and associated Coleoptera. The present work is a summary of four original publications and a manuscript, which are based on empirical observations and deal with the prevalence of polypores in old-growth forests, and fungicolous Coleoptera. The study area consists of eleven old-growth, mostly spruce- and pine-dominated, protected forests rich in dead wood in northern and southeastern Finland. Supplementary data on fungus beetle interactions were collected in southern Finland and the Åland Islands. 11251 observations of fruit bodies from 153 polypore species were made in 789 forest compartments. Almost a half of the polypore species demonstrated a distinct northern or southeastern trend of prevalence. Polypores with a northern prevalence profile were in extreme cases totally absent from the Southeast, although almost uniformly present in the North. These were Onnia leporina, Climacocystis borealis, Antrodiella pallasii, Skeletocutis chrysella, Oligoporus parvus, Skeletocutis lilacina, and Junghuhnia collabens. Species with higher prevalence in the southeastern sites were Bjerkandera adusta, Inonotus radiatus, Trichaptum pargamenum, Antrodia macra, and Phellinus punctatus. 198 (86%) species of Finnish polypores were examined for associated Coleoptera. Adult beetles were collected from polypore basidiocarps in the wild, while their larvae were reared to adulthood in the lab. Spatial and temporal parallels between the properties of polypore fruit body and the species composition of Coleoptera in fungus beetle interactions were discussed. New data on the biology of individual species of fungivorous Coleoptera were collected. 116 species (50% of Finnish polypore mycota) were found to host adults and/or larvae of 179 species from 20 Coleoptera families. Many new fungus beetle interactions were found among the 614 species pairs; these included 491 polypore fruit body adult Coleoptera species co-occurrences, and 122 fruit body larva interrelations. 82 (41%) polypore species were neither visited nor colonized by Coleoptera. The total number of polyporicolous beetles in Finland is expected to reach 300 species.

Anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction with special reference to magnetic resonance imaging of the postoperative outcome

Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) tear is a common sports injury of the knee. Arthroscopic reconstruction using autogenous graft material is widely used for patients with ACL instability. The grafts most commonly used are the patellar and the hamstring tendons, by various fixation techniques. Although clinical evaluation and conventional radiography are routinely used in follow-up after ACL surgery, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) plays an important role in the diagnosis of complications after ACL surgery. The aim of this thesis was to study the clinical outcome of patellar and hamstring tendon ACL reconstruction techniques. In addition, the postoperative appearance of the ACL graft was evaluated using several MRI sequences. Of the 175 patients who underwent an arthroscopically assisted ACL reconstruction, 99 patients were randomized into patellar tendon (n=51) or hamstring tendon (n=48) groups. In addition, 62 patients with hamstring graft ACL reconstruction were randomized into either cross-pin (n=31) or interference screw (n=31) fixation groups. Follow-up evaluation determined knee laxity, isokinetic muscle performance and several knee scores. Lateral and anteroposterior view radiographs were obtained. Several MRI sequences were obtained with a 1.5-T imager. The appearance and enhancement pattern of the graft and periligamentous tissue, and the location of bone tunnels were evaluated. After MRI, arthroscopy was performed on 14 symptomatic knees. The results revealed no significant differences in the 2-year outcome between the groups. In the hamstring tendon group, the average femoral and tibial bone tunnel diameter increased during 2 years follow-up by 33% and 23%, respectively. In the asymptomatic knees, the graft showed homogeneous and low signal intensity with periligamentous streaks of intermediate signal intensity on T2-weighted MR images. In the symptomatic knees, arthroscopy revealed 12 abnormal grafts and two meniscal tears, each with an intact graft. Among 3 lax grafts visible on arthroscopy, MRI showed an intact graft and improper bone tunnel placement. For diagnosing graft failure, all MRI findings combined gave a specificity of 90% and a sensitivity of 81%. In conclusion, all techniques appeared to improve patients' performance, and were therefore considered as good choices for ACL reconstruction. In follow-up, MRI permits direct evaluation of the ACL graft, the bone tunnels, and additional disorders of the knee. Bone tunnel enlargement and periligamentous tissue showing contrast enhancement were non-specific MRI findings that did not signify ACL deficiency. With an intact graft and optimal femoral bone tunnel placement, graft deficiency is unlikely, and the MRI examination should be carefully scrutinized for possible other causes for the patients symptoms.

Macroseismology as a Component of Seismicity Assessments in an Intraplate Region: Studies of Northern Europe with Emphasis on Finland

This work focuses on the role of macroseismology in the assessment of seismicity and probabilistic seismic hazard in Northern Europe. The main type of data under consideration is a set of macroseismic observations available for a given earthquake. The macroseismic questionnaires used to collect earthquake observations from local residents since the late 1800s constitute a special part of the seismological heritage in the region. Information of the earthquakes felt on the coasts of the Gulf of Bothnia between 31 March and 2 April 1883 and on 28 July 1888 was retrieved from the contemporary Finnish and Swedish newspapers, while the earthquake of 4 November 1898 GMT is an example of an early systematic macroseismic survey in the region. A data set of more than 1200 macroseismic questionnaires is available for the earthquake in Central Finland on 16 November 1931. Basic macroseismic investigations including preparation of new intensity data point (IDP) maps were conducted for these earthquakes. Previously disregarded usable observations were found in the press. The improved collection of IDPs of the 1888 earthquake shows that this event was a rare occurrence in the area. In contrast to earlier notions it was felt on both sides of the Gulf of Bothnia. The data on the earthquake of 4 November 1898 GMT were augmented with historical background information discovered in various archives and libraries. This earthquake was of some concern to the authorities, because extra fire inspections were conducted in three towns at least, i.e. Tornio, Haparanda and Piteå, located in the centre of the area of perceptibility. This event posed the indirect hazard of fire, although its magnitude around 4.6 was minor on the global scale. The distribution of slightly damaging intensities was larger than previously outlined. This may have resulted from the amplification of the ground shaking in the soft soil of the coast and river valleys where most of the population was found. The large data set of the 1931 earthquake provided an opportunity to apply statistical methods and assess methodologies that can be used when dealing with macroseismic intensity. It was evaluated using correspondence analysis. Different approaches such as gridding were tested to estimate the macroseismic field from the intensity values distributed irregularly in space. In general, the characteristics of intensity warrant careful consideration. A more pervasive perception of intensity as an ordinal quantity affected by uncertainties is advocated. A parametric earthquake catalogue comprising entries from both the macroseismic and instrumental era was used for probabilistic seismic hazard assessment. The parametric-historic methodology was applied to estimate seismic hazard at a given site in Finland and to prepare a seismic hazard map for Northern Europe. The interpretation of these results is an important issue, because the recurrence times of damaging earthquakes may well exceed thousands of years in an intraplate setting such as Northern Europe. This application may therefore be seen as an example of short-term hazard assessment.

Pengarna eller livet? : En kvalitativ och longitudinell studie om långtidsarbetslösa unga i ett aktörsperspektiv

Your money or your life? A qualitative follow-up study of the young unemployed from an actor perspective is a qualitative and longitudinal study following 36 unemployed young people in Helsinki over a span of ten years. The purpose of the study is to shed light on how a few young people view employment/unemployment and their lives and future, how they as unemployed perceive their encounters with society, and how society supports them. Four so-called key informants were followed at a finer level of empirical detail. They were chosen for the thematic interviews because of their different personalities, starting points and preferences. Although some differences were expected, what the results show is quite striking. The individual stories raise a number of questions about differences between young people, about society s view of the young unemployed, and about the principles behind the so-called activation policy and how society s support is distributed. The key informants descriptions underline that the group young unemployed does not consist of individuals who are alike but that life is complex, that paid work and unemployment can be perceived very differently, and that background and unofficial support can have consequences for self-perception and for ways of looking at the future, vocational choices, paid work and activation policy. Margaret S. Archer s theory of Morphogenesis and Barbara Cruikshank s theory of constructing democracies compose the study s theoretical framework. The key informants stories give a picture of a formal support system that, even though it puts part of the responsibility for unemployment on the individuals themselves, in the name of fairness and equality, treats them in an impersonal way, not giving their personal situation and wishes much weight. As a consequence, those who share the dominant values of society do well, while others who do not are faced with difficulties. The bigger the gap between society s and the individual s values, the bigger the risk to be met by little understanding and by penalties. And vice versa: Those who initially have the right values and know how to deal with authorities get heard and their opinions get accepted. The informants ask for a more personal encounter, which could improve both the atmosphere and the clients experiences of being heard. Still the risk of having a more individualistic system should be addressed, as a new system might generate new winners, but just as well give new losers. Finally, we have to ask if the so-called activation policy is looking for answers primarily to a macro-level problem on the micro-level. If it does not produce more jobs, its support for the unemployed will be insignificant. It is not enough to think about what to do at the grassroots level to make the system more functional and support job-seeking. If the current rate of unemployment endures, the quality of life of the unemployed should be addressed. A first step could be taken by placing less guilt on the unemployed. Instead of talking about activating the unemployed, discussion should be targeted at removing structural impediments to employment. If we want to have less polarisation between the those with paid work and those without, who often struggle with low incomes, we need to include the macro-level in the discussion. What does high unemployment mean in a work-based society, where the individual s self-perception and important social forms of support are linked to labour income? And what can be done at the macro-level to change this undesirable condition at the micro-level? Keywords: Unemployment, Youth, Public interventions, Activation policy, Individual actors, Qualitative, Longitudinal, Holistic, Helsinki, Finland

Pelon ja toivon välissä : Pätkätyöläisen urakerronta

This study analyzes the forming of the occupational identity of the well-educated fixed-term employees. Fixed-term employment contracts amongst the well-educated labour force are exceptionally common in Finland as compared to other European countries. Two groups of modern fixed-term employees are distinguished. The first comprises well-educated women employed in the public sector whose fixed-term employment often consists of successive periods as temporary substitutes. The other group comprises well-educated, upper white-collar men aged over 40, whose fixed-term employment careers often consist of jobs of project nature or posts that are filled for a fixed period only. Method of the study For the empirical data I interviewed 35 persons (26 women and 9 men) in 33 interviews, one of which was conducted by e-mail and one was a group interview. All the interviews were electronically recorded and coded. All the interviewees have two things in common: fixed-term employment and formal high education. Thirteen (13) of them are researchers, four nurses, four midwives, four journalists, and ten project experts. I used the snowball method to get in touch the interviewees. The first interviewees were those who were recommended by the trade unions and by my personal acquaintances. These interviewees, in turn, recommended other potential interviewees. In addition, announcements on the internet pages of the trade unions were used to reach other interviewees. In analysing process I read the research material several times to find the turning points in the narrative the interviewees told. I also searched for the most meaningful stories told and the meaning the interviewees gave to these stories and to the whole narrative. In addition to that I paid attention to co-production of the narrative with the interviewees and analyzed the narrative as performance to be able to search for the preferred identities the interviewees perform. (Riesman 2001, 698-701). I do not pay much attention to the question of truth of a narrative in the sense of its correspondence with facts; rather I think a working life narrative has two tasks: On the one hand one has to tell the facts and on the other hand, he/she has to describe the meaning of these facts to herself/himself. To emphasize the double nature of the narrative about one’s working life I analyzed the empirical data both by categorizing it according to the cultural models of storytelling (heroic story, comedy, irony and tragedy) and by studying the themes most of the interviewees talked about. Ethics of the study I chose to use narrative within qualitative interviews on the grounds that in my opinion is more ethical and more empowering than the more traditional structured interview methods. During the research process I carefully followed the ethical rules of a qualitative research. The purpose of the interviews and the research was told to the interviewees by giving them a written description of the study. Oral permission to use the interview in this research was obtained from the interviewees. The names and places, which are mentioned in the study, are changed to conceal the actual identity of the interviewees. I shared the analysis with the interviewees by sending each of them the first analysis of their personal interview. This way I asked them to make sure that the identity was hidden well enough and hoped to give interviewees a chance to look at their narratives, to instigate new actions and sustain the present one (Smith 2001, 721). Also I hoped to enjoy a new possibility of joint authorship. Main results As a result of the study I introduce six models of telling a story. The four typical western cultural models that guide the telling are: heroic story, comedy, tragedy and satirical story (Hänninen 1999). In addition to these models I found two ways of telling a career filled with fixed-term employments that differ significantly from traditional career story telling. However, the story models in which the interviewees pour their experience locates the fixed term employers work career in an imagined life trajectory and reveals the meaning they give to it. I analyze the many sided heroic story that Liisa tells as an example of the strength of the fear of failing or losing the job the fixed term employee feels. By this structure it is also possible to show that success is felt to be entirely a matter of chance. Tragedy, the failure in one’s trial to get something, is a model I introduce with the help of Vilppu’s story. This narrative gets its meaning both from the sorrow of the failure in the past and the rise of something new the teller has found. Aino tells her story as a comedy. By introducing her narrative, I suggest that the purpose of the comedy, a stronger social consensus, gets deeper and darker shade by fixed-term employment: one who works as a fixed term employee has to take his/her place in his/her work community by him/herself without the support the community gives to those in permanent position. By studying the satiric model Rauno uses, I argue that using irony both turns the power structures to a carnival and builds free space to the teller of the story and to the listener. Irony also helps in building a consensus, mutual understanding, between the teller and the listener and it shows the distance the teller tells to exist between him and others. Irony, however, demands some kind of success in one’s occupational career but also at least a minor disappointment in the progress of it. Helmi tells her story merely as a detective story. By introducing Helmi’s narrative, I argue that this story model strengthens the trust in fairness of the society the teller and the listener share. The analysis also emphasizes the central position of identity work, which is caused by fixed-term employment. Most of the interviewees talked about getting along in working life. I introduced Sari’s narrative as an example of this. In both of these latter narratives one’s personal character and habits are lifted as permanent parts of the actual professional expertise, which in turn varies according to different situations. By introducing these models, I reveal that the fixed-term employees have different strategies to cope with their job situations and these strategies vary according to their personal motives and situations and the actual purpose of the interview. However, I argue that they feel the space between their hopes and fears narrow and unsecure. In the research report I also introduce pieces of the stories – themes – that the interviewees use to build these survival strategies. They use their personal curriculum vitae or portfolio, their position in work community and their work morals to build their professional identity. Professional identity is flexible and varies in time and place, but even then it offers a tool to fix one’s identity work into something. It offers a viewpoint to society and a tool to measure one’s position in surrounding social nets. As one result of the study I analyze the position the fixed-term employees share on the edge of their job communities. I summarize the hopes and fears the interviewees have concerning employers, trade unions, educational institutions and the whole society. In their opinion, the solidarity between people has been weakened by the short-sighted power of the economy. The impact the fixed-term employment has on one’s professional identity and social capital is a many-sided and versatile process. Fixed-term employment both strengthens and weakens the professional identity, social capital and the building of trust. Fixed-term employment also affects one’s day-to-day life by excluding her/him from the norm and by one’s difficulty in making long-term plans (Jokinen 2005). Regardless of the nature of the job contract, the workers themselves are experts in making the best of their sometimes less than satisfying work life and they also build their professional identity by using creatively their education, work experiences and interpersonal relations. However, a long career of short fixed-term employments may seriously change the perception of employee about his/her role. He/she may start concentrating only in coping in his/her unsatisfactory situation and leaves the active improvement of the lousy working conditions to other people. Keywords: narrative, fixed-tem employment, occupational identity, work, story model, social capital, career  

Basic Human Values in the Workplace

Työntekijöiden henkilökohtaisia arvoja ja niiden yhteyksiä asenteisiin ei ole juuri tutkittu. Tämän tutkimuksen tavoitteena oli selvittää, onko suomalaisessa metalliteollisuuden yrityksen henkilöstön (N=1314) arvojen rakenne S. H. Schwartzin arvoteorian mukainen. Lisäksi tutkittiin arvojen yhteyksiä organisaatiomuutosta koskeviin asenteisiin ja tiedon jakamiseen työyhteisössä. Arvomittarina käytettiin uutta 40-osioista Portrait Value Questionnairea (PVQ). Mittarin validiteetti osoitettiin ver-taamalla nyt kerätyn aineiston arvorakennetta aikaisemmalla mittarilla kerättyihin arvoteorian mukaisiin yliopisto-opiskelijoiden vastauksiin. Organisaatiomuutosta koskevien asenteiden ja tiedonjakamisen mittarit luotiin laadullisissa esitutkimuksissa. Tilastolliset analyysit osoittivat, että toimihenkilöiden ja työntekijöiden arvojen rakenteet noudattivat pääosin Schwartzin teoriaa, mutta turvallisuusarvot sijaitsivat molemmissa ryhmissä universalismin ja hyväntahtoisuuden joukossa. Universalismi ja hyväntahtoisuus ennustivat myönteistä asennetta organisaatiomuutoksia kohtaan, mutta perinteiden ja mielihyvän arvostaminen liittyivät kielteisiin muutosasenteisiin. Sosiaalisia normeja kunnioittavien eli yhdenmukaisuutta arvostavien henkilöiden muut arvot vaikuttivat muutosasenteisiin vähemmän kuin niillä, joille yhdenmukaisuus ei ollut tärkeää. Lisäksi suoriutumisarvon yhteys muutosasenteisiin oli yhdenmukaisuutta arvostavilla henkilöillä positiivinen, mutta niillä, jotka eivät arvostaneet yhdenmukaisuutta, yhteys oli negatiivinen. Itseohjautuvuutta arvostavat henkilöt pitivät työyhteisönsä tiedon jakamista heikompana, kun taas hyväntahtoisuutta ja yhdenmukaisuutta arvostavat pitivät sitä muihin nähden parempana. Suoriutumisarvo oli yhteydessä tiedonjakamiseen vain silloin, kun yhdenmukaisuus oli tärkeää. Työpaikkojen (N=19) keskiarvoja vertailtaessa havaittiin, että ne työpaikat, joissa arvostettiin paljon universalismia, hyväntahtoisuutta ja yhdenmukaisuutta sekä vähän valtaa ja suoriutumista saivat henkilöstöltään parhaat arvioinnit tiedon jakamisesta. Tutkimukseen osallistuneet henkilöt jaettiin työtehtäviensä perusteella kolmeen ammatilliseen ympäristöön: konven-tionaaliseen (mm. taloushallinto), realistiseen (mm. tuotanto) ja yrittäjämäiseen (mm. myynti). Yrittäjämäisessä ammatillisessa ympäristössä toimivat arvostivat enemmän kuin konventionaalisessa ympäristössä toimivat valtaa, itseohjautuvuutta ja suoriutumista. Realistisessa ympäristössä arvostettiin enemmän perinteitä ja mielihyvää kuin yrittäjämäisessä ympäristössä. Ryhmien väliset erot arvoissa johtuivat koulutuksesta, iästä ja sukupuolijakaumasta.